Chapter 1: Thinking About Ethics Summary Ethics and Critical Thinking Ethics requires that we be clear on the questions we seek answers to Understanding ethical questions requires being able to identify which premises are relevant to the conclusion Changing one's beliefs in light of better arguments or new information is a sign of clear and honest thinking Bad forms of reasoning include: Red Herring/Irrelevant reason, Ad Hominem, Principle of Charity, Strawman Fallacy, and Inconsistency Studying Ethics It is not the intention of this book to make you a better person, but to examine a number of conflicting moral positions and help you see where your views might fit What kinds of truths are ethical truths? Are they eternal, absolute and universal, known only by some special power; or are they more common ordinary facts that are part of our world that can be known by ordinary means? Philosophers have taken various stands with regard to moral truths Where Socrates saw morality as eternal unchangeable truths known through pure reason, Thomas Hobbes say morality as a collection of self-interested agreements that contributed to a more peaceful society The question of how we know or recognize ethical principles is an epistemic question Some might hold that moral insight requires some sort of divine revelation, special intuition or sublime reason Others view moral knowledge as stemming from our natural capacity for reason, sympathy or general social concern When we think of morality we can categorize it into two broad categories Those that hold morality somehow transcends the natural world God's Commands and Ethics One of the most common views of ethical principles is that they are tied to the commands of a divine being This view is referred to as theological volunteerism or the Divine Command theory of ethics Theological volunteerism holds that a law or principle is right if and only if it is willed (commanded) by God Something is good because God wills it to be so, not because God recognizes it to be good Theological volunteerism raises serious questions about the relationship between ethics and religion If ethics is based on God's commands, there are two questions we might ask about the nature of these command: 1) Is something moral/ethical/right because God commands it, or 2) does God command something because it is moral If a person believes the first to be true, then there is not much room for moral reflection or critical evaluation of moral principles On the other hand, if one takes the second claim to be true, then the implication is that there are moral standards that are in some sense independent of God The intersection of religion and ethics raises another fundamental distinction in ethics, namely, the difference between moral motivation and moral justification It is possible that the person of faith endorses theological volunteerism because of the possibility of divine punishment While this may provide one with a motive for obeying God's commands, it does not justify the commands themselves One may be motivated to act in accordance with certain rules, without reflecting on whether the rules are ones that ought to be followed Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc All rights reserved From https://testbankgo.eu/p/Test-Bank-for-Consider-Ethics-Theory-Readings-and-Contemporary-Issues-3rd-Edition-by-Waller Discussion Several films have explored explicitly or implicitly the problems with accepting theological volunteerism or divine command theory In The Name of the Rose the inquisitor Bernardo Gui justifies the torture and killing of supposed heretics on theological grounds How can we know which commands are genuinely from God? Show part or all of the film and examine the implications and problems with theological volunteerism How the same problems relate to what occurred during the Salem witch trials? Activities Logical fallacies are often found in the editorial pages, and letters to the editor pages of the local and national newspapers (not to mention blog posts and comments) Have the students find an article from a newspaper, magazine, blog etc that commits one of the logical fallacies discussed in the text Although many churches are Christian, not all Christian churches share the same moral outlook on individual moral issues Ask the students to create a chart comparing the moral positions of several different denominations on a topic such as abortion, capital punishment, homosexuality, marriage etc Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc All rights reserved From https://testbankgo.eu/p/Test-Bank-for-Consider-Ethics-Theory-Readings-and-Contemporary-Issues-3rd-Edition-by-Waller True/False Questions Theological volunteerism is also referred to as Divine Command theory Religious belief can play a role in one’s moral motivation Religious belief provides a justification for moral rules Meta-ethics is the study of moral rules, norms and principles that guide or govern human action An arguer that uses an irrelevant point to support his or her position commits a red herring Attacking the person presenting an argument rather than the argument itself is to commit the straw man fallacy Multiple Choice Questions *1 Misrepresenting or distorting the argument of one’s opponent in order to make it easier to attack is called a (an): a ad hominem fallacy *b strawman fallacy c red herring d fallacy of irrelevant reason *2 Religion is best described as a source of in ethics a moral justification b contention *c moral motivation d moral reasoning *3 “President Obama’s arguments for a public option to be included in the health care reform bill can’t possibly be good After all, he has all of his medical needs taken care of by a private doctor” This argument commits which of the following fallacies: a ad hominem fallacy b strawman fallacy c red herring *d fallacy of irrelevant reason *4 One implication of accepting the premise that what is moral is moral in virtue of God’s commanding it is that a there must be a moral standard independent of God b there must be one God *c what is moral is arbitrary d God is not a necessary for there to be morality Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc All rights reserved From https://testbankgo.eu/p/Test-Bank-for-Consider-Ethics-Theory-Readings-and-Contemporary-Issues-3rd-Edition-by-Waller Short Answer Questions What does it mean for an ethical view to be consistent? What is the principle of charity? What is the difference between moral motivation and moral justification? What two questions can we ask of someone who holds that “moral” = “what God commands”? Essay Questions Explain the difference between natural morality and transcendent morality What two questions are raised by theological volunteerism (Divine Command theory)? What are the implications of holding one or the other true? Why does Rachels hold that there is a conflict between one’s role as a worshipper and one’s role as an autonomous moral agent? Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc All rights reserved From https://testbankgo.eu/p/Test-Bank-for-Consider-Ethics-Theory-Readings-and-Contemporary-Issues-3rd-Edition-by-Waller Chapter 2: Egoism and Relativism Summary Egoism Psychological egoism is the view that as a matter of empirical psychological fact, all our behavior is selfish, or self-interested Although several convincing examples can be given in support of selfish or self-interested behavior, psychological egoism—as a scientific theory—fails the test of falsifiability If psychological egoism is a scientific account of human behavior, then one should able to state what would count as evidence against the position But, all acts that might count against the theory are immediately reinterpreted in terms of selfishness or self-interest Thus, psychological egoists tend to espouse a belief and not an empirically testable claim Additionally, the psychological egoist also appears to conflate the notions of selfishness, self-interest, and satisfaction Ethical egoism is the view that we ought to always act in a way that is self-interested Unlike psychological egoism, an ethical egoist need not subscribe to any particular psychological theory One could believe that human beings are not entirely self-interested, yet still hold that ethical egoism is approach to morality we ought to adopt Ethical egoism can be described from both an individual and universal perspective Individual egoist holds that everyone ought to what benefits me (i.e., the egoist) Individual egoism is in some respects a difficult position to refute since it is possible that there are simply those that have no concern for others Although such a life may seem unsatisfying to many, that in and of itself does not count against the theory On the other hand, the universal egoist is one of extreme rugged individualism in which everyone ought to aim exclusively at his or her own benefit, and should neither give, ask, nor receive help from others This view rests on two mistakes First, it assumes, all evidence to the contrary, that people are not by nature social creatures Secondly, it rests upon the faulty assumption that laissez-faire capitalism will is ultimately good for everyone Here again, the Universal egoist seems to ignore the historical as well as contemporary shortcomings of such approaches Relativism Ethical relativism is the thesis that what is right is relative to each culture Relativism is a meta-ethical position that denies any universal standard of right and wrong Relativism may take both a sociological and ethical form Sociological relativism is the well supported scientific view that differing cultures have differing customs, standards, and moral codes On the other hand, cultural relativism is the view that not only differing ethical codes exist, but ethical judgments can only be made relative to a given culture Ethical principles only have objective force within a particular culture Critics of cultural relativism list a number of problems with the theory First there is the problem of defining cultures and cultural belonging Second is the problem of ethical reform Thirdly, there is the problem of the trivializing of our ethical concerns On the other hand, even if one rejects cultural relativism, it does offer some important insights into our moral or ethical attitudes Cultural relativism helps to remove our ethical provincialism That fact that other cultures may not share our values does not always mean that those values are wrong Cultural relativism also forces us to seriously consider our motives for wanting to intervene or reform other cultures According to cultural relativism, “whatever is, is right” Cultures develop in a manner that they are the best they could be The culture and its ethical code is the optimum fit for its circumstances Ethical relativism denies universal, objective ethical truth This leads to the belief that there are no good grounds for ethical claims, and therefore no basis for criticizing any existing cultural practice Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc All rights reserved From https://testbankgo.eu/p/Test-Bank-for-Consider-Ethics-Theory-Readings-and-Contemporary-Issues-3rd-Edition-by-Waller Discussion Questions Cultural relativism has found one of its most famous expressions in the mythos of the Star Trek franchise in the form of the Prime Directive Although the Prime Directive has been variously described, one version states the following: “The Prime Directive forbids any involvement with a civilization without the expressed consent or invitation of the lawful leaders of that society, and absolutely forbids any involvement whatsoever in the internal politics of a civilization.”(Wikipedia, Prime Directive) Several episodes of the various series’ have explored the moral implications of adopting this essentially relativist position Have the students watch all or part of one of the following episodes: Star Trek (The Original Series): “A Piece of the Action” or “Patterns of Force” Star Trek: The Next Generation: “Pen Pals” or “Redemption” Do these fictional accounts provide good reason for respecting the traditions/ethics/affairs of other cultures? Do students that endorse relativism still endorse it when faced with the sort of life or death situations illustrated in the episode? Proponents of egoism often note that what constrains egoism is not fellow-feeling but the fear of punishment Several films have explored egoism in a variety of forms In Wall Street, Michael Douglas’s character Gordon Gekko extols the virtues of greed In Crimes and Misdemeanors, Martin Landau’s character Judah notes how an immoral act that initially troubles him because of his fear of being caught, no longer does so when the possibility of being caught ceases Finally, and probably most famously Ayn Rand’s character John Gault makes an impassioned defense of egoism in the movie The Fountainhead, starring Gary Cooper Watch and discuss the egoistic themes found in one of these films? Does the film make egoism more or less appealing? Activities Cultural relativism is often found in the area of international relations Have students find examples of practices that are not tolerated in our own country, but that we ignore when dealing with “friendly” nations The instructor may want to have students prepare a chart with 1) the cultural practice, 2) our view of the practice, and 3) the other cultures view of the practice Are these cultural differences merely aesthetic? One of the areas where egoism has been embraced is in economic and business thinking To what extent has egoism become an overriding assumption in our economic system? Have the students find examples of egoistic thinking in the media, especially newspapers and websites dedicated to business news and information Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc All rights reserved From https://testbankgo.eu/p/Test-Bank-for-Consider-Ethics-Theory-Readings-and-Contemporary-Issues-3rd-Edition-by-Waller True/False Questions Psychological egoism is irrefutable Ethical egoism suffers from unacceptable arbitrariness Ethical egoism holds that we always what we most want to To be an ethical egoist, one must also be committed to psychological egoism The cultural relativist holds that that the moral code of one’s society is superior to all others Multiple Choice *1 The difference between psychological egoism and ethical egoism is: a ethical egoism says we are naturally egoistic, and psychological egoism says we should act egoistically b the two theories are essentially the same *c psychological egoism holds that we are egoistic by nature, while ethical egoism states that we ought to be egoistic d ethical egoism is a psychological theory that states that we are naturally ethical, while psychological egoism tells us that we ought to adjust our psychology and act egoistically *2 According to the cultural relativist, a group that practices cannibalism is a morally inferior to our own b morally superior to our own *c neither morally inferior nor morally superior d really hungry *3 The claim that psychological egoism is irrefutable as theory of human behavior makes the theory a stronger since no counter argument can be given *b weaker because it does not pass the fallibility test c empirically verifiable d a necessary basis for ethical egoism *4 Steve holds the view that everyone ought to assist him in satisfying his goals and desires Steve is best categorized as a (n) *a individual egoist b universal relativist c universal egoist d psychological egoist Short Answer Questions What is the difference between a moral judgment and an aesthetic judgment? What does it mean to say that psychological egoism is irrefutable? What is the difference between the individual egoist and the universal egoist? Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc All rights reserved From https://testbankgo.eu/p/Test-Bank-for-Consider-Ethics-Theory-Readings-and-Contemporary-Issues-3rd-Edition-by-Waller Define cultural relativism Essay Questions What is the relationship between psychological egoism and ethical egoism? Does commitment to one view, also commit one to the other? Explain Describe the problems with cultural relativism In light of its problems, are there any valuable insights the theory brings to moral theorizing? How does accepting cultural relativism affect the idea of moral progress? Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc All rights reserved From https://testbankgo.eu/p/Test-Bank-for-Consider-Ethics-Theory-Readings-and-Contemporary-Issues-3rd-Edition-by-Waller ... marriage etc Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc All rights reserved From https://testbankgo.eu/p /Test-Bank-for-Consider-Ethics-Theory-Readings-and-Contemporary-Issues-3rd-Edition-by-Waller True/False... morality Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc All rights reserved From https://testbankgo.eu/p /Test-Bank-for-Consider-Ethics-Theory-Readings-and-Contemporary-Issues-3rd-Edition-by-Waller Short... agent? Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc All rights reserved From https://testbankgo.eu/p /Test-Bank-for-Consider-Ethics-Theory-Readings-and-Contemporary-Issues-3rd-Edition-by-Waller Chapter