ALSO BY CHRISTOPHER HIBBERT MILITARY HISTORY Wolfe at Quebec The Destruction of Lord Raglan: A Tragedy of the Crimean War Corunna The Battle of Arnhem Agincourt Redcoats and Rebels: The War for America, 1770–1781 Cavaliers and Roundheads: The English at War, 1642–1649 HISTORY King Mob: Lord George Gordon and the Riots of 1780 The Roots of Evil: A Social History of Crime and Punishment The Court at Windsor: A Domestic History The Grand Tour London: The Biography of a City The Dragon Wakes: China and the West, 1793–1911 The Rise and Fall of the House of Medici The Great Mutiny: India, 1857 The French Revolution Rome: The Biography of a City The English: A Social History, 1066–1945 Venice: The Biography of a City Florence: The Biography of a City No Ordinary Place: Radley College and the Public School System, 1847–1997 BIOGRAPHIES Benito Mussolini: The Rise and Fall of Il Duce Garibaldi and His Enemies: The Clash of Arms and Personalities in the Making of Italy The Making of Charles Dickens Charles I The Personal History of Samuel Johnson George IV: Prince of Wales, 1762–1811 George IV: Regent and King, 1811–1830 Edward VII: A Portrait Queen Victoria in Her Letters and Journals The Virgin Queen: The Personal History of Elizabeth I Nelson: A Personal History Wellington: A Personal History George III: A Personal History The Marlboroughs: John and Sarah Churchill, 1650–1744 Queen Victoria: A Personal History Napoleon: His Wives and Women Disraeli: The Victorian Dandy Who Became Prime Minister Constable & Robinson Ltd The Lanchesters 162 Fulham Palace Road London W6 9ER www.constablerobinson.com First published in the USA by Harcourt, a division of Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company, 2008, as The Borgias and Their Enemies First published in the UK as The House of Borgia by Constable, an imprint of Constable & Robinson Ltd, 2009 This edition published by Constable, 2011 Copyright © Christopher Hibbert and Mary Hollingsworth, 2008 The right of Christopher Hibbert and Mary Hollingsworth to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, re-sold, hired out or otherwise circulated in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser A copy of the British Library Cataloguing in Publication data is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-1-84901-994-1 eISBN: 978-1-78033-005-1 Printed and bound in the UK 10 — CONTENTS — CHAPTER The Crumbling City CHAPTER Elections and Celebrations CHAPTER A Man of Endless Virility CHAPTER Servant of the Servant of God CHAPTER Marriages and Alliances CHAPTER The French in Rome CHAPTER The Conquest of Naples CHAPTER The Borgia Bull CHAPTER Father and Children CHAPTER 10 The Dominican Friar CHAPTER 11 Murder CHAPTER 12 Another Husband for Lucrezia CHAPTER 13 The Unwanted Cardinal’s Hat CHAPTER 14 Cesare’s French Bride CHAPTER 15 Conquests CHAPTER 16 Jubilee CHAPTER 17 Duke of the Romagna CHAPTER 18 The Naples Campaign CHAPTER 19 The Duke and the Borgia Girl CHAPTER 20 Frolics and Festivities CHAPTER 21 The New Bride CHAPTER 22 Castles and Condottieri CHAPTER 23 The Death of the Pope CHAPTER 24 Conclaves CHAPTER 25 Cesare at Bay CHAPTER 26 Duchess of Ferrara CHAPTER 27 The End of the Affair CHAPTER 28 The Death of the Duchess CHAPTER 29 Saints and Sinners Bibliography Index — CHAPTER — The Crumbling City ‘OH GOD, HOW PITIABLE IS ROME’ ‘YOU MUST HAVE heard of this city from others,’ wrote a visitor to Rome in the middle of the fifteenth century There are many splendid palaces, houses, tombs and temples here, and infinite numbers of other edifices, but they are all in ruins There is much porphyry and marble from ancient buildings but every day these marbles are destroyed in a scandalous fashion by being burned to make lime And what is modern is poor stuff The men of today, who call themselves Romans, are very different in bearing and conduct from the ancient inhabitants They all look like cowherds Other visitors wrote of moss-covered statues, of defaced and indecipherable inscriptions, of ‘parts within the walls that look like thick woods or caves where forest animals were wont to breed, of deer and hares being caught in the streets of the daily sight of heads and limbs of men who had been executed and quartered being nailed to doors, placed in cages or impaled on spears.’ This was the state of the city that had once been the capital of a mighty empire; now two-thirds of the area inside the walls, which had been built to protect a population of 800,000, was uninhabited, acres of open countryside used for orchards, pasture, and vineyards, and dotted with ancient ruins, which provided safe hiding places for thieves and bandits And this was the state of the true home of the pope, the leader of the church who could trace his predecessors back in an unbroken line to St Peter, the apostle entrusted by Christ himself with the care of his flock For most of the fourteenth century, even the papacy had abandoned Rome In 1305, distressed by the unrest and bloody disturbances in the city, the French Pope Clement V (1305–14) had set up his court in Avignon, in the rambling palace on the east bank of the Rhône, which is known as the Palais des Papes In Rome there had been constant calls for the papacy to return from its French exile Most recently these calls had come from an elderly woman, who could be seen almost every day in the crumbling city, sitting by the door of the convent of San Lorenzo, begging for alms for the poor She was Birgitta Gudmarsson, the daughter of a rich Swedish judge and widow of a Swedish nobleman, to whom she had been married at the age of thirteen and for whom she had borne eight children Founder of the Brigittines, she had left Sweden after experiencing a vision in which Christ had appeared before her, commanding her to leave immediately for Rome and to remain there until she had witnessed the pope’s return As she went about Rome, from church to crumbling church, house to ruinous house, she claimed to have had further visions; both Jesus and his mother Mary, she said, had spoken to her, and they had strengthened her faith in the restoration of the pope and in the eventual salvation of the city Around the house where she lived stretched the charred shells of burned-out buildings, piles of rotting refuse, deserted palaces, derelict churches, stagnant swamps, fortresses abandoned by their rich owners, who had gone to live on their estates in the Campagna, hovels occupied by families on the verge of starvation Pilgrims took home with them stories of a gloomy city, whose silence was broken only by the howling of dogs and wolves, and the shouts of rampaging mobs In Avignon the popes remained deaf to the calls for their return, heedless of the prayers that the saintly Birgitta Gudmarsson uttered so fervently and of the letters that the poet Francesco Petrarch wrote, describing the ‘rubbish heap of history’ that Rome had become This once-superb imperial capital was now a lawless ruin, a city torn by violence in which belligerent factions paraded through the streets with daggers and swords, where houses were invaded and looted by armed bands, pilgrims and travellers were robbed, nuns violated in their convents, and long lines of flagellants filed through the gates, barefoot, their heads covered in cowls, claiming board and lodging but offering no money, scourging their naked bloody backs, chanting frightening hymns outside churches, throwing themselves weeping, moaning, bleeding before the altars Goats nibbled at the weeds growing up between the stones littering the piazzas and flourishing in the overgrown, rat-infested ruins of the Campo Marzio; cattle grazed by the altars of roofless churches; robbers lurked in the narrow alleys; at night wolves fought with dogs beneath the walls of St Peter’s and dug up corpses in the nearby Campo Santo ‘Oh God, how pitiable is Rome,’ an English visitor lamented, ‘once she was filled with great nobles and palaces, now with huts, wolves and vermin; and the Romans themselves tear each other to pieces.’ In 1362, while Petrarch was urging the papacy to return to Rome, a sixth Frenchman was elected to the line of Avignon popes: the austere and unworldly Urban V Encouraged by Emperor Charles IV, who offered to accompany him, he recognized the necessity of return, not only for the sake of the neglected and decaying city but also for the papacy itself, now in danger at Avignon, both from the mercenary bands roaming throughout western Europe as well as from the English, who were fighting the French in wars that were to last intermittently for a hundred years Five years after his election, Urban V travelled across the Alps, knelt in prayer before the grave of St Peter, and took up residence in the stuffy, dismal rooms that had been prepared for him in the Vatican Palace His visit to Rome, however, was brief He found the city even more dilapidated and depressing than he had feared; and, feeling that he could undertake the role of mediator between England and France more effectively from Avignon than from Rome, he went back to France in 1370 Having ignored Birgitta Gudmarsson’s warning that he would die if he abandoned the city, he then fulfilled her Zerbinati, Giovanni Maria Croniche di Ferrara Ferrara: Deputazione Provinciale Ferrarese di Storia Patria, 1989 SECONDARY SOURCES Ady, Julia Mary Cartwright Isabella d’Este, Marchioness of Mantua 1474–1539 London: John Murray, 1904 Bentini, J., A Chiappini, G B Panatta, and A M Visser Travagli A Tavola il Principe Exhibition catalogue Ferrara: Gabriele Corbo Editore, 1988 Bradford, Sarah Cesare Borgia London: Phoenix Press, 1976 ——— Lucrezia Borgia London: Viking Books, 2004 Brown, C M ‘Lo insaciabile desiderio nostro de cose antique: New Documents on Isabella d’Este’s Collection of Antiquities.’ In Cultural Aspects of the Italian Renaissance: Essays in Honor of Paul Oskar Kristeller, edited by C H Clough, 324–53 Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1976 D’Amico, John F Renaissance Humanism in Papal Rome Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1983 Dean, Trevor, and K J P Lowe, eds Marriage in Italy 1300–1650 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998 Eiche, Sabine ‘Towards a Study of the ‘Famiglia’ of the Sforza Court in Pesaro.’ Renaissance and Reformation (1985): 79–103 Erlanger, Rachel Lucrezia Borgia London: Michael Joseph, 1979 Gardner, Edmund G Dukes and Poets in Ferrara London: Constable, 1904 Gregorovius, Ferdinand Lucretia Borgia According to Original Documents and Correspondence of Her Day Translated by J L Garner London: John Murray, 1904 Guerzoni, Guido Le Corti Estensi e la Devoluzione di Ferrara del 1598 Ferrara: Archivio Storico, 2000 Gundersheimer, Werner L Ferrara: The Style of a Renaissance Despotism Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1973 Hay, Denys The Church in Italy in the Fifteenth Century Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977 Hollingsworth, Mary Patronage in Renaissance Italy London: John Murray, 1994 Jardine, Lisa Worldly Goods London: Macmillan, 1996 Johnson, Marion The Borgias London: Macdonald Futura, 1981 Knecht, R J Renaissance Warrior and Patron: The Reign of Francis I Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994 Krautheimer, Richard Rome: Profile of a City, 312–1308 Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980 Lockwood, Lewis Music in Renaissance Ferrara 1400–1500 Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984 Lowe, K J P Church and Politics in Renaissance Italy Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993 Luzio, Alessandro ‘Isabella d’Este e i Borgia.’ Archivio storico lombardo 41–2 (1914–15) Magnuson, T Studies in Roman Quattrocento Architecture Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell, 1958 Mallett, Michael The Borgias London: Bodley Head, 1969 ——— Mercenaries and Their Masters London: Bodley Head, 1974 Martines, Lauro Fire in the City Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006 Mitchell, Bonner The Majesty of the State: Triumphal Progresses of Foreign Sovereigns in Renaissance Italy 1494–1600 Florence: Leo S Olschki Editore, 1986 Partner, Peter The Lands of St Peter: The Papal State in the Middle Ages and the Early Renaissance London: Eyre Methuen, 1972 ——— Renaissance Rome 1500–59 Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976 Pastor, Ludwig von The History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages Vols 5– St Louis, MO: B Herder Book Co., 1950 Schulz, J ‘Pinturicchio and the Revival of Antiquity.’ Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 25 (1962): 35–55 Shankland, Hugh The Prettiest Love Letters in the World London: Collins Harvill, 1987 Shaw, Christine Julius II Oxford: Blackwell, 1993 Sowards, J K The ‘Julius Exclusus’ of Erasmus Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1968 Stinger, Charles L The Renaissance in Rome Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985 Strong, Roy Feast London: Jonathan Cape, 2002 Thomson, John A F Popes and Princes 1417–1517 London: George Allen & Unwin, 1980 Tuohy, Thomas Herculean Ferrara Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996 Vancini, Gianna, ed Lucrezia Borgia nell’opera di cronisti, letterati e poeti suoi contemporanei alla corte di Ferrara Ferrara: Este Editori, 2002 — INDEX — Abruzzi family, ref accession, ref Agnadello, Battle of, ref Albanese, Tomaso, ref d’Albret, Amanieu, ref 1, ref d’Albret, Charlotte, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref d’Alègre, Yves, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref Alexander V, Pope, ref Alexander VI, Pope, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref 9, ref 10, ref 11, ref 12, ref 13 see also Borgia, Rodrigo; brings order to Rome, ref 1; children of, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7; conclave following death of, ref 1; consistories, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3; coronation of, ref 1; death of, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3; death of son, Juan, ref 1; described, ref 1; election of, ref 1, ref 2; Ferrara and, ref 1; final illness and death of, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4; France and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref 9, ref 10, ref 11, ref 12; friction with son Cesare Borgia, ref 1; Jubilee (1500) and, ref 1; lifestyle of, ref 1; Milan and, ref 1, ref 2; military campaigns of 1502–03 and, ref 1; moves papal court to Viterbo, ref 1; Naples and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7; Papal States and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5; reform of Curia, ref 1; Savonarola and, ref 1; Spain and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3; wealth of, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref Alfonso I of Naples, ref Alfonso II of Naples, ref 1, ref 2, ref Alfonso of Aragon, Duke of Bisceglie: Cesare Borgia and, ref 1; death of, ref 1, ref 2; described, ref 1; marriage to Lucrezia Borgia, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref Alfonso V of Aragon, ref d’Aliffe, Conte, ref alum deposits, ref d’Alviano, Bartolomeo, ref d’Amboise, Georges, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref Andrew, St, ref Angelini, Teodora, ref Anne of Brittany, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref Arezzo, ref 1, ref Ariosto, Ludovico, ref d’Aubigny, Lord (Robert Stuart), ref Augustus, ref d’Auton, Jean, ref Aversa, ref Avignon popes, ref 1, ref Baglioni, Gianpaolo, Lord of Perugia, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref Bagolo, Fioramonte, ref Barbo, Pietro, ref see also Paul II, Pope Baths of Diocletian, ref Behaim, Lorenz, ref Bellini, Giovanni, ref Bembo, Carlo, ref Bembo, Pietro, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref Beneimbene, Camillo, ref 1, ref 2, ref Bentivoglio, Ermes, ref Bentivoglio, Giovanni, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref Bessarion, John, ref 1, ref Betto di Biagio, Bernardino di (Pinturicchio), ref 1, ref 2, ref Bichio, Giovanni di, ref Bisceglie, Rodrigo, ref Boccaccio, Giovanni, ref Bologna, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref Boniface IX, Pope, ref Boniface XIII, Pope, ref Borgia, Angela, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref Borgia, Cesare, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref 9, ref 10, ref 11, ref 12; Alfonso of Aragon and, ref 1; birth of, ref 1; as cardinal, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8; Carlotta of Aragon and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4; children of, ref 1, ref 2; death of brother, Juan, ref 1; death of father, ref 1, ref 2; decline of, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4; described, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8; as Duke of Valence, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref 9; Forlì and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3; France and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8; friction with father, Alexander VI, ref 1; Golden Rose and, ref 1; as head of papal armies, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4; horse racing and, ref 1; illness of, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8; Imola and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3; Julius II versus, ref 1, ref 2; Louis XII of France and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7; Dorotea Malatesta and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4; marries Charlotte d’Albret, ref 1; Milan and, ref 1; military campaigns of 1502–03, ref 1; mother of, ref 1, ref 2; murder and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5; Naples and, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref 9, ref 10, ref 11, ref 12, ref 13, ref 14; Order of St Michael, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5; as papal legate, ref 1; Papal States and, ref 1; resignation as cardinal, ref 1; rivalry with Juan Borgia, ref 1; Romagna and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref 9, ref 10, ref 11, ref 12, ref 13; Sancia of Aragon and, ref 1, ref 2; Caterina Sforza-Riario and, ref 3; uprising of captains, ref 4, ref 5; as il Valentino, ref 1; wealth of, ref 1, ref Borgia, Francisco, ref 1, ref 2, ref Borgia, Gerolama, ref Borgia, Isabella, ref Borgia, Jofrè, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3; birth of, ref 1; children of, ref 1; death of, ref 1; described, ref 1; marriage to Sancia of Aragon, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8; mother of, ref 1; as Prince of Squillace, ref 1, ref 2; wealth of, ref Borgia, Juan: birth of, ref 1; children of, ref 1; described, ref 1; as Duke of Gandía, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5; as head of papal armies, ref 1, ref 2; marries Maria Enriquez, ref 1; mother of, ref 1; murder of, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3; as Prince of Tricarico, ref 1; rivalry with Cesare Borgia, ref 1; Sancia of Aragon and, ref 1; wealth of, ref Borgia, Juan, Cardinal, ref 1, ref Borgia, Lord Alfonso de, Bishop of Valencia, ref see also Calixtus III, Pope Borgia, Lucrezia: birth of, ref 1; Pedro Calderon and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3; children of, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref 9, ref 10, ref 11, ref 12, ref 13; cultural interests of, ref 1, ref 2; death of, ref 1; death of brother, Juan, ref 1; death of father, Alexander VI, ref 1, ref 2; death of husband, Alfonso of Aragon, ref 1, ref 2; described, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4; divorces Giovanni Sforza, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4; as Duchess of Ferrara, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3; education of, ref 1; Ercole I and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3; Isabella d’Este versus, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6; Ferrara and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4; Francesco Gonzaga and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4; as governor of Spoleto, ref 1, ref 2; illnesses of, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4; incest rumours and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5; marriage to Alfonso of Aragon, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4; marriage to Alfonso d’Este, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6; marriage to Giovanni Sforza, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3; pregnancies of, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref 9, ref 10; takes charge of Vatican and church, ref 1, ref 2; wealth of, ref 1, ref 2, ref Borgia, Ottaviano, ref Borgia, Pedro Luis, ref 1, ref 2, ref Borgia, Rodrigo see also Alexander VI, Pope: becomes Pope Alexander VI, ref 1; as cardinal, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5; children of, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7; meets Vannozza de’Catanei, ref 1; Pius II and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3; sexual appetites of, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3; as vice-chancellor of theHoly See, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6; wealth of, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref Borgia, Sancia, ref 1, ref 2; Cesare Borgia and, ref 1, ref 2; death of, ref 1; death of Juan Borgia and, ref 1, ref 2; described, ref 1; marriage to Jofrè, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8; rumours concerning, ref 1, ref 2, ref Borgia-Lanzol, Juan, ref 1, ref Borja see entries under Borgia Bramante, ref Branco, Paolo, ref Bresciano, Bartolomeo, ref Briỗonnet, Guillaume, ref Brigittines, ref Buonaccorsi, Biagio, ref Burchard, Johannes, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref 9, ref 10, ref 11, ref 12, ref 13, ref 14, ref 15, ref 16, ref 17, ref 18, ref 19, ref 20, ref 21, ref 22, ref 23, ref 24, ref 25, ref 26, ref 27, ref 28, ref 29, ref 30, ref 31, ref 32, ref 33, ref 34, ref 35 Calderon, Pedro, ref 1, ref 2, ref Caligula, ref Calixtus III, Pope: background of, ref 1; coronation of, ref 1; death of, ref 1; nephews of, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref Camerino, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref Campi, ref Campo, Niugno del, ref Campo dei Fiori, ref Canale, Carlo, ref Capello, Paolo, ref Capua, ref Caracciolo, Giambattista, ref 1, ref Carignola, Bishop of, ref Carlotta of Aragon, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref Carnival: in Ferrara, ref 1, ref 2; in Rome, ref 1, ref 2, ref Casanova, Cardinal, ref Castel Bolognese, ref Castel Capuano, ref Castellesi, Adriano, ref 1, ref Castello, Francesco, ref Castello Sforzesco, ref 1, ref Castel Nuovo, ref 1, ref 2, ref Castel Sant’Angelo (Rome), ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref 9, ref 10, ref 11, ref 12, ref 13, ref 14, ref 15, ref 15, ref 16, ref 17, ref 18 Castel Tedaldo, ref Castiglione, Baldassare, ref Castro, Giovanni di, ref Catanei, Vannozza de’: children of, ref 1; death of, ref 1; meets Rodrigo Borgia, ref 1; as mother of Borgia children, ref 1, ref 2, ref Catherine of Alexandria, St, ref Cattaneo, Gian Lucido, ref Cellini, Benvenuto, ref Centelles, Juan de, ref Cento, ref Cerignola, ref Cesena, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref Charles I, King, ref Charles IV of France, ref Charles VIII of France: Alexander VI and, ref 1, ref 2; death of, ref 1; invasion of Italy, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4; Naples and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref Christ, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref Cibò, Franceschetto, ref Cibò, Giovanni Battista, ref see also Innocent VIII, Pope Cibò, Lorenzo, ref Cicero, ref Civita Castellana, ref Clement V, Pope, ref Clement VII, Pope, ref Clement VIII, Pope, ref 1, ref Colonna, Prospero, ref 1, ref 2, ref Colonna family, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref Columbus, Christopher, ref Commynes, Philippe de, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref Constance, Church council at, ref 1, ref Constantatine, Emperor, ref Constantinople, ref Córdoba, Gonsalvo di, Duke of Terranova, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref Corella, Miguel de, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref Corio, Bernardino, ref Corpus Domini, Church of, ref 1, ref 2, ref corruption, ref Cossa, Baldassare, ref Costabili, Antonio, ref Costabili, Beltrando, ref 1, ref Denis, St, ref Dianti, Laura, ref Dolci, Giovannino de’, ref Dominicans, ref 1, ref Eleonora of Aragon, ref 1, ref Enriquez, Maria, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref Erasmus, ref Ercole I, Duke of Ferrara, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref 9, ref 10, ref 11, ref 12; Lucrezia Borgia and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3; death of, ref 1; France and, ref Ercole II, ref d’Este, Alberto, ref d’Este, Alfonso, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8; children of, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3; death of, ref 1; described, ref 1; as head of papal armies, ref 1; marriage to Lucrezia Borgia, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref d’Este, Ercole see Ercole I, Duke of Ferrara d’Este, Ferrante, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref d’Este, Giulio, ref d’Este, Ippolito, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5; as bishop of Ferrara, ref 1; as cardinal, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref 9; Giulio d’Este and, ref 1, ref d’Este, Isabella, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref 9, ref 10, ref 11, ref 12; Lucrezia Borgia versus, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref d’Este, Sigismondo, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref d’Estouteville, Guillaume, ref 1, ref Euffreducci, Oliverotto, Lord of Fermo, ref 1, ref 2, ref Eugenius IV, Pope, ref 1, ref 2, ref Faenza, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref Faenza, Lord of see Manfredi, Astorre, Lord of Faenza Fantaguzzi, Giuliano, ref Farnese, Alessandro, ref 1, ref Farnese, Giulia: as mistress of Rodrigo Borgia/Alexander VI, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref Faustina, Empress, ref Federigo of Aragon, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref Ferdinand of Aragon, ref 1, ref Ferdinand of Spain, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref Ferrante I of Naples, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3; Ludovico Sforza versus, ref Ferrante II of Naples, ref 1, ref Ferrara see also Ercole I, Duke of Ferrara: Alexander VI and, ref 1; Lucrezia Borgia and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4; Carnival in, ref 1, ref 2; Julius II and, ref Ferrari, Gianbattista, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref Florence, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7; Cesare Borgia and, ref 1, ref 2; Savonarola in, ref 1, ref Florès, Antonio, ref Flores, Bartolomeo, ref Fondaco dei Tedeschi, ref Forlì, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref 9, ref 10 Forlì, Tomasino da, ref Fornovo, Battle of, ref 1, ref Fra Angelico, ref 1, ref France see also names of specific rulers: Alexander VI and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref 9, ref 10, ref 11; Avignon popes, ref 12, ref 13; Cesare Borgia and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7; Ercole I, Duke of Ferrara and, ref 1; Order of St Michael, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref Franciscans, ref 1, ref 2, ref Francis I of France, ref Galli, Jacopo, ref Garigliano, Battle of, ref George, St, ref Giorgione, ref Giovanni, Lord of Pesaro see Sforza, Giovanni Giovio, Paolo, ref Giustinian, Antonio, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref Golden Gate of Jerusalem, ref Golden Rose, ref Gonzaga, Elisabetta, Duchess of Urbino, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref Gonzaga, Francesco, Marquis of Mantua, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref 9, ref 10; Lucrezia Borgia and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4; death of, ref Great Schism, ref 1, ref 2, ref Gregorovius, Ferdinand, ref 1, ref Gregory XI, Pope, ref Gregory XII, Pope, ref Gudmarsson, Birgitta, ref Guicciardini, Francesco, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref 9, ref 10, ref 11, ref 12, ref 13, ref 14 Guienne, Duke of, ref Hadrian, Emperor, ref Henry VII, King, ref heresy, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref Holy Door of St Peter’s, ref Holy Year (1450), ref Holy Year (1475), ref Hydra, seven-headed, ref Imola, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref indulgences, ref 1, ref Infessura, Stefano, ref 1, ref Innocent VII, Pope, ref Innocent VIII, Pope, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4; anarchy under, ref 1, ref 2; children of, ref 1; death of, ref 1, ref Isabella of Aragon, ref 1, ref Isabella of Spain, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref Isvalies, Pedro, ref Jesus Christ, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref Jews, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref John XXIII, Pope, ref Juan I of Gandía see Borgia, Juan Juan II of Gandía, ref Jubilee (1500), ref Julius Caesar, ref 1, ref Julius II, Pope, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref see also Rovere, Giuliano della; Cesare Borgia versus, ref 1, ref 2; death of, ref 1; described, ref 1; election of, ref 1, ref 2; Ferrara and, ref 1; as a soldier, ref 1, ref Lagraulas, Jean Bilhères de, ref Landucci, Luca, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref Last Supper, The (Leonardo), ref Laurence, St, ref Leonardo da Vinci, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref Leo X, Pope, ref 1, ref 2, ref Lodovico, Marquis, ref Lorqua, Ramiro de, ref 1, ref 2, ref Louis, Duke of Orléans, ref Louis XII of France, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref 9, ref 10, ref 11, ref 12, ref 13, ref 14, ref 15, ref 16; Alexander VI and, ref 1, ref 2; Cesare Borgia and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7; conquests in Italy, ref 1, ref 2; divorce of, ref 1; Milan and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4; Naples and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5; Ludovico Sforza and, ref Louis XI of France, ref Machiavelli, Niccolò, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref 9, ref 10, ref 11, ref 12, ref 13, ref 14 malaria, ref Malatesta, Dorotea, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref Malatesta, Pandolfo, ref 1, ref Malatesta, Sigismondo, ref Manfredi, Astorre, Lord of Faenza, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref Manfredi, Manfredo, ref Mantegna, Andrea, ref 1, ref Marck, Robert de la, Lord of Fleurange, ref Maria, Francesco, ref Martin V, Pope, ref 1, ref Mary Magdalene, ref Mary (mother of Jesus), ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref Matarazzo, Francesco, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref Maximilian, Emperor, ref Medici, Giovanni de’, ref see also Leo X, Pope Medici, Lorenzo il Magnifico, ref Medici, Piero de’, ref 1, ref Medici family, ref Michael, St, ref Michelangelo Buonarotti, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref Michelis, Fiammetta de’, ref Michiel, Giovanni, ref Mila, Adriana da, ref 1, ref 2, ref Milan: Alexander VI and, ref 1, ref 2; Louis XII and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4; reconquest of, ref Mirandola, ref Modena, ref Moncada, Ugo de, ref Monte, Antonio del, ref Montefeltro, Guidobaldo da, Duke of Urbino, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref 9, ref 10, ref 11, ref 12 Moses, ref murder, ref 1; of Juan Borgia, ref 1, ref 2; of Pedro Calderon, ref Naples, ref 1; Alexander VI and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7; Cesare Borgia and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref 9; Charles VIII of France and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7; Federigo of Aragon and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3; Louis XII of France and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref Narni, Lucia da, ref 1, ref Nepi, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref Nero, Emperor, ref 1, ref 2, ref Nicholas V, Pope, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref Nola, ref Orcia, Quirico d’, ref Order of St Michael, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref Orsini, Carlo, ref 1, ref Orsini, Francesco, Duke of Gravina, ref 1, ref 2, ref Orsini, Giangiordano, Lord of Bracciano, ref Orsini, Niccolò, ref Orsini, Orsino, ref Orsini, Paolo, Lord of Palombara, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref Orsini, Roberto, ref Orsini, Virginio, ref 1, ref Orsini family, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref 9, ref 10, ref 11, ref 12 Ostellato, ref 1, ref Ostia, ref 1, ref 2, ref Palais des Papes (Avignon), ref 1, ref Palazzo di Venezia (Rome), ref Palazzo Montegiordano, ref Palazzo San Marco (Rome), ref Palazzo Sforza-Cesarini, ref Pallavicini, Antoniotto, ref 1, ref Pantiselia, ref Papal States, ref 1, ref 2, ref see also Romagna; Alexander VI and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5; Julius II and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4; nature of, ref Parma, ref Patrimony of St Peter, ref 1, ref see also Papal States Paul, St, ref Paul II, Pope, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref Paul III, Pope, ref Pepi, Francesco, ref 1, ref Perauld, Bertrand, ref Perugia, ref 1, ref Pesaro, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref Peter, St, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref Petrarch, Francesco, ref Petrucci, Pandolfo, ref 1, ref 2, ref Philargos, Petros, ref Piacentini, Pio, ref Piacenza, ref Piazza Navona (Rome), ref Piccolomini, Enea Silvio, ref 1, ref see also Pius II, Pope Piccolomini, Francesco Todeschini, ref 1, ref Pieve, ref Pilate, Pontius, ref Pinturicchio of Perugia, ref 1, ref 2, ref Pio, Alessandro, ref Piombino, ref 1, ref Pisa, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref Pius II, Pope, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3; accession to papacy, ref 1; background of, ref 1; Rodrigo Borgia and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3; death of, ref Pius III, Pope, ref Pius V, Pope, ref plague, ref 1, ref Plautus, ref Podocatharo, Ludovico, ref Poggio, Cristoforo, ref poisoning, ref Ponte Sisto (Rome), ref Praxiteles, ref Preti, Donato de, ref Prignano, Bartolomeo, ref Procida, Gasparo di, Count of Aversa, ref 1, ref Prosperi, Bernardino di, ref 1, ref prostitution, ref Ramires, Diego, ref Raphael, ref Ravenna, Battle of, ref 1, ref Reggio Emilia, ref 1, ref Renaissance, ref Renée of France, ref Riario, Girolamo, ref 1, ref 2, ref Riario, Pietro, ref Riario, Raffaello, ref 1, ref 2, ref Rignano, Domenico da, ref Rimini, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref Romagna: Borgia control of, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref 9, ref 10, ref 11, ref 12, ref 13 Rome: Alexander VI brings order to, ref 1; Cesare Borgia returns to, ref 1; Carnival in, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3; Charles VIII of France invades, ref 1; Exposition of the Vernicle (1455), ref 1; in the fifteenth century, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3; in the fourteenth century, ref 1; invasion of 1413, ref 1; Jubilee (1500) and, ref 1; rebuilding under Sixtus IV, ref Rovere, Francesco della, ref see also Sixtus IV, Pope Rovere, Giovanna, ref Rovere, Giuliano della, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref 9, ref 10, ref 11, ref 12, ref 13 see also Julius II, Pope; Alexander VI versus, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3; as cardinal, ref 1, ref 2; France and, ref 1, ref Ruiner, ref St Peter’s (Rome), ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref Sancia of Aragon see Borgia, Sancia Sangallo, Antonio da, ref 1, ref San Giacomo degli Spagnuoli (Rome), ref San Giovanni in Laterano, Church of (Rome), ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref San Lorenzo convent (Rome), ref San Marco, ref San Paolo fuori le Mura, ref Sanseverino, Cardinal, ref Santacroce, Jacopo di, ref Santa Maria della Febbre, ref Santa Maria delle Grazie, ref Santa Maria del Popolo (Rome), ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref Santa Maria in Porticu (Rome), ref 1, ref Santa Maria Maggiore, ref 1, ref Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Church of (Rome), ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref Santi Apostoli, ref Santino (dwarf), ref 1, ref Santi Quattro Coronati, Church of, ref Sanudo, Marin, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref Savonarola, Girolamo, ref 1, ref Scalona, Gian Carlo, ref seduction, ref Senigalla, ref 1, ref Serra, Jaime, ref Sforza, Ascanio, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref 9, ref 10, ref 11, ref 12, ref 13; election of Alexander VI and, ref 1; as vice-chancellor of the Holy See, ref Sforza, Beatrice d’Este, ref 1, ref Sforza, Galeazzo Maria, ref 1, ref 2, ref Sforza, Gian Galeazzo, ref Sforza, Giovanni, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7; divorce from Lucrezia Borgia, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4; as Lord of Pesaro, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4; marriage to Lucrezia Borgia, ref 1, ref 2, ref Sforza, Lucrezia see Borgia, Lucrezia Sforza, Ludovico, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref 9, ref 10, ref 11; described, ref 1; Ferrante I versus, ref 1; as ruler of Milan, ref Sforza-Riario, Caterina, ref Siena, ref Sigismund, Emperor, ref simony, ref 1, ref Sistine Chapel (Rome), ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref Sixtus IV, Pope, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5; death of, ref 1; election of, ref 1; nephews of, ref 1; rebuilding of Rome, ref Soderini, Francesco, ref 1, ref Soriano, battle of, ref Spain: Alexander VI and, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3; rise of power, ref Spoleto, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref Stephen, St, ref Strozzi, Ercole, ref 1, ref 2, ref Strozzi, Filippo, ref Strozzi, Guido, ref Stuart, Robert, Lord d’Aubigny, ref Swiss Guards, ref syphilis, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref Titian, ref Torella, Gaspar, ref 1, ref 2, ref Torrigiano, Pietro, ref Trivulzio, Gian Jacopo, ref Troche, Francesco, ref Tura, Cosmè, ref Tuscan Dominicans, ref tyranny, ref University of Rome, ref Urban V, Pope, ref Urban VI, Pope, ref Urbino, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref Urbino, Duke of see Montefeltro, Guidobaldo da, Duke of Urbino Valence, Cardinal of see Borgia, Cesare Valence, Duke of see Borgia, Cesare Valentino, Duke see Borgia, Cesare Vannozza, Donna see Catanei, Vannozza de’ Varano, Giulio Cesare da, Lord of Camerino, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref Vasari, Giorgio, ref 1, ref Vatican (Rome), ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4; Borgia apartments in, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7; collapse of papal throne, ref Venice, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref 8, ref 9, ref 10 Venosa, Bishop of, ref Vera, Juan, ref Veronica, St, ref Vespasian, Emperor, ref 1, ref Vespucci, Agostino, ref Villeneuve, Louis de, Baron de Trans, ref 1, ref 2, ref Virgil, ref Visconti, Valentina, ref Vitelli, Paolo, ref Vitelli, Vitellozzo, Lord of Città di Castello, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7, ref Viterbo, ref Volterra, Jacopo Gherardi da, ref 1, ref 2, ref Zambotti, Bernardino, ref 1, ref 2, ref 3, ref 4, ref Zen, Gianbattista, ref Zerbinati, Giovanni Maria, ref 1, ref Zurita, Geronimo, ref ... to clear the vermin from the low-lying land by the Tiber, marched along the streets, followed by the bearers of sweet-smelling herbs Then came the officials of the government of Rome, the bishops... to the altar, where they placed their votes in the gilded ceremonial chalice The voting over, the cardinals resumed their seats and the names on each ballot paper were solemnly read out ‘There... Terrified by the Roman mob, which had invaded the Vatican during the course of the conclave, the cardinals chose the Neapolitan Bartolomeo Prignano, who took the title of Urban VI The French cardinals,