The other virgil `pessimistic readings of the aeneid in early modern culture

CLASSICAL PRESENCES General Editors Lorna Hardwick James I Porter CLASSICAL PRESENCES The texts, ideas, images, and material culture of ancient Greece and Rome have always been crucial to attempts to appropriate the past in order to authenticate the present They underlie the mapping of change and the assertion and challenging of values and identities, old and new Classical Presences brings the latest scholarship to bear on the contexts, theory, and practice of such use, and abuse, of the classical past The Other Virgil ‘Pessimistic’ Readings of the Aeneid in Early Modern Culture C R A I G KA L L E N D O R F Great Clarendon Street, Oxford ox2 6dp Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With oYces in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York ß Craig Kallendorf 2007 The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First published 2007 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose the same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Data available Typeset by SPI Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India Printed in Great Britain on acid-free paper by Biddles Ltd., King’s Lynn, Norfolk ISBN 978–0–19–921236–1 10 Preface This book, like all other scholarly projects, is a participant in a larger conversation, and I think it would be helpful to place what I have written into the particular dialogue that generated it right away The focus of the book is Virgil’s Aeneid, the epic poem about the establishment of Rome that served as a foundation for Roman civilization and for the succession of cultures that deWned themselves in relation to their classical origins After the fall of Troy, Aeneas leads a group of survivors across the Mediterranean to Italy, where he founds the city that will eventually rule the world Along the way he overcomes a series of obstacles and in the process learns a good deal about what it means to be a leader As Aeneas lands in Italy and conquers its indigenous inhabitants, he articulates more and more successfully the values that would come to be associated with imperial Rome, until in the Wnal scene of the poem he slays Turnus, the enemy leader, and removes the last obstacle to Roman power and glory By this point he has overcome the forces of furor (‘rage’) and ira (‘anger’), both within himself and as represented by the people who oppose him, so that he successfully embodies pietas, that particularly Roman virtue that embraces one’s duties to God, country, and family This approach is fundamentally optimistic, with Aeneas serving as the ideal hero of ancient Rome, the Aeneid celebrating the achievements of Augustus and his age, and the poem enduring as a monument to the values of order and civilization This is the basic interpretation of the poem that predominated through the middle of the last century, as it was set forth by Heinze, nuanced by Poăschl, and disseminated in the English-speaking world by Eliot.1 But after the Second World War, a group of Anglophone R Heinze, Vergils epische Technik (Leipzig: B G Teubner, 1903), tr Virgil’s Epic Technique, tr Hazel and David Harvey and Fred Robertson (Berkeley-Los Angeles: Univ of California Press, 1993); T S Eliot, What Is a Classic? (London: Faber & Faber, 1945); V Poăschl, Die Dichtkunst Vergils: Bild und Symbol in der Aeneis (Innsbruck: Margareta Friedrich Rohrer, 1950); The Art of Vergil, tr G Seligson (Ann Arbor: Univ of Michigan Press, 1962); see also A Wlosok, ‘Vergil in der neueren Forschung’, Gymnasium, 80 (1973), 129–51; and S J Harrison, ‘Some Views of the Aeneid in the vi Preface scholars centred at Harvard and Oxford began listening more sympathetically to what have come to be called the ‘further voices’ in the Aeneid—not the voice of Aeneas as the prototype of Roman imperialism, but the voices of those who stand in opposition to him: Dido, the Carthaginian queen whose love is sacriWced to Aeneas’s higher mission; Turnus, the Italian prince who falls before Aeneas while trying to defend his country against the Trojan invaders; and so forth These scholars also pointed out that in the course of the poem, Aeneas himself sometimes speaks in one of these further voices That is, Aeneas himself is often inconsistent in the set of values he articulates, especially in the last scene of the poem, which was reinterpreted as a key failure in which Aeneas surrenders to the very voices of barbarism and fury within himself that he had struggled throughout the poem to suppress Within the narrative structure of the poem, these other voices also project worthy values, and this new school of criticism, which has challenged the robust optimism of the traditional approach, has helped us see what was sacriWced in pursuit of Rome and the civilization it engendered.2 Twentieth Century’, in Harrison (ed.), Oxford Readings in Vergil’s Aeneid (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), 1–20 20th-cent German scholarship that retains the key features of the traditional approach may be exempliWed by K Buăchner, Der Schicksalgedanke bei Vergil (Freiburg im Breisgau: Novalis-Verlag, 1946), P Vergilius Maro, der Dichter der Roămer (Stuttgart: A Druckenmuăller, 1955), and Humanitas Romana (Heidelberg: C Winter, 1957), 147–75; the essays of F Klingner collected in Roămische Geisteswelt (Munich: H Rinn, 1961), 239311, 60030, and his Virgil: Bucolica, Georgica, Aeneis (Zurich and Stuttgart: Artemis Verlag, 1967); and V Buchheit, Vergil uăber die Sendung Roms Untersuchungen zum Bellum Poenicum und zur Aeneis, Gymnasium Beiheft, (Heidelberg, 1963) InXuential English-language studies from a similar perspective include Brooks Otis, Virgil: A Study in Civilized Poetry (Norman, Okla.: Univ of Oklahoma Press, 1995; repr of Oxford, 1964 edn.); and P Hardie, Virgil’s Aeneid: Cosmos and Imperium (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986) The generally cited, seminal works are Robert A Brooks, ‘Discolor Aura: ReXections on the Golden Bough’, American Journal of Philology, 74 (1953), 260–80; Adam Parry, ‘The Two Voices of Virgil’s Aeneid’, Arion, (1963), 66–80, repr in The Language of Achilles and Other Papers (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), 78–96; Wendell Clausen, ‘An Interpretation of the Aeneid’, Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, 68 (1964), 139–47 (written in 1949); and Michael C J Putnam, The Poetry of the Aeneid: Four Studies in Imaginative Unity and Design (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ Press, 1965) This approach has been surveyed by F Serpa, Il punto su Virgilio (Bari: Laterza, 1987), 76–88, and given an elegant recasting by Steven Shankman, ‘The Ambivalence of the Aeneid and the Ecumenic Age’, in In Search of the Classic: Reconsidering the Greco-Roman Tradition, Homer to Vale´ry and Beyond (University Park, Penn.: Pennsylvania State Univ Press, 1994), 217–45 Preface vii In the last decades of the twentieth century, the adherents of the traditional approach came to be called ‘optimists’ and those of the second approach ‘pessimists’ or ‘members of the Harvard school’.3 As scholars like Karl Galinsky have been pointing out recently, there are dangers to easy dichotomies like this.4 For one thing, no responsible ‘optimist’ would deny that Aeneas makes mistakes in at least the early parts of the poem, and no responsible ‘pessimist’ would argue that what was lost in founding Rome exceeds what was gained That said, I would suggest that there is still a very real diVerence in emphasis, even if the diVerence is more a matter of shades of grey than black versus white I shall therefore retain the terms but place them within quotation marks to remind the reader that caution must be exercised in using them A more fundamental problem has arisen from the claim that the second approach, the ‘pessimistic’ one, is ahistorical It entered modern classical scholarship in its fully articulated form after the Second World War, and this has led Karl Galinsky, again, to argue that ancient criticism lacks the kind of hesitation about Aeneas and his actions that the ‘pessimists’ believe they see,5 with the assumption being that they are reading their own concerns back into Virgil’s text As S J Harrison puts it, ‘For an outside observer, it is diYcult to separate such an interpretation from the characteristic concerns of U.S (and other) intellectuals in these years: the doubt of the traditional view of the The ‘Harvard school’ label appears to have been coined by W R Johnson, Darkness Visible: A Study of Vergil’s Aeneid (Berkeley, Calif.: Univ of California Press, 1976), 11 n 10, who notes that pessimistic readings of the Aeneid ‘were written by critics who have been associated with classics at Harvard from the late forties to the present at some time or other’ Richard Thomas notes that the Harvard connection is tenuous at best, with the major works often having been produced when their authors were elsewhere: Parry was at Yale, Clausen at Amherst, and Putnam at Brown (‘Ideology, InXuence, and Future Studies in the Georgics’, Vergilius, 36 (1990), 64 n 1) Thomas suggests that the term implies a closer collaboration than there actually was, and Clausen makes the same point, noting that while he and Parry were colleagues at Amherst in the mid-1950s and talked often about the Aeneid, he did not meet Putnam until 1957 and met Brooks socially only once in 1959 or 1960 (‘Appendix’, in Nicholas Horsfall (ed.), A Companion to the Study of Virgil (Leiden: Brill, 1995), 313–14) I shall therefore use the label ‘pessimist’ in the discussion that follows Karl Galinsky, ‘Clothes for the Emperor’, Arion, 10 (2003), 143–69, an extended review of Richard Thomas’s Virgil and the Augustan Reception (Cambridge: CUP, 2001) Karl Galinsky, ‘The Anger of Aeneas’, American Journal of Philology, 109 (1988), 322 viii Preface Aeneid has at least some connection with the 1960s’ questioning of all institutions, political, religious, and intellectual, and in particular with attitudes towards America’s own imperialism.’6 This is a serious charge It is one thing to say that contemporary concerns have made contemporary readers more attuned to some things in Virgil’s text than others But if it indeed took readers almost two thousand years to get any idea that these concerns are in Virgil’s poem, one has to wonder how important they really are The discussion took a dramatic turn in 2001, when Richard Thomas published a groundbreaking book, Virgil and the Augustan Reception, that shows that the ancient Aeneiskritik does indeed contain a clearly ‘pessimistic’ strain.7 Thomas’s concern was primarily with ancient readers and with their successors in the twentieth century who have shaped the scholarly understanding of the poem in our day, but he did begin to say something about the centuries in between, with a focus on the inXuential translation of John Dryden My book is designed to bridge this gap, to show in some detail that there is a continuous tradition of ‘pessimistic’ readings that extends through the early modern period in Europe and the western hemisphere, in works written in English, French, Italian, Latin, and Spanish What is more, Thomas’s story focuses on suppression, on how the ‘optimists’ worked to occlude any ‘pessimistic’ reading of the poem that would threaten the traditional values on which such a reading rested My book stresses the liberating power of the ‘pessimistic’ readings I have focused more on poetic imitations of the Aeneid, although scholarship from the early modern period certainly receives its due, and tried to show how reading Virgil ‘against the grain’, so to speak, helped unleash artistic creativity in some totally unexpected ways The works treated in the pages that follow contain allusions to many classical authors, but in each case the connection to the ‘pessimistic’ Aeneid is unusually close Some of these works, like Filelfo’s Sphortias and Le Plat’s Virgile en France, never achieved Harrison, ‘Some Views’, Clausen, however, clariWes the chronology: ‘The mildminded pessimism of the Harvard school—the so-called Harvard school—reXects the mood of the Wfties: it had little or nothing to with the dissent and anguish of the sixties ’ (‘Appendix’, 313) See n above Preface ix much popularity, as beWts the eVorts of writers whose allusive strategies rested on an interpretation that most of their contemporaries did not accept or really even understand Others, like Ercilla’s La Araucana, Barlow’s Columbiad, and Sor Juana’s lyrics, were widely read in their own day and are still known at least to scholars specializing in this period And others, like Shakespeare’s The Tempest and Milton’s Paradise Lost, have been familiar to educated readers everywhere for hundreds of years, although the interpretation I present is not Thus my discussion will introduce the reader to some new poems and, I think, suggest some very diVerent insights into some of the basic canonical works of the western literary tradition I have made a special eVort to link these insights to the broader concerns of literary theory and cultural studies at the beginning of the twentyWrst century, because I believe that the ‘pessimistic’ reading of the Aeneid allows Virgil’s poetry to speak to those concerns in some surprising ways The linkages, however, are not arbitrary: each of the theories applied here is logically associated with an approach to the Aeneid itself that today’s classicists are developing As I have been saying, books like this are not born in a scholarly vacuum, and it is a particular pleasure to thank those who have helped me articulate and develop my ideas The Tanner Humanities Center at the University of Utah (Gene Fitzgerald, Director) and the Faculty Development Leave Program at Texas A&M University (coordinated by Karan Watson, Dean of Faculties) provided sabbatical time for research and writing, and it is no exaggeration to say that, without their support, this book might never have been completed Parts of my argument were Wrst presented at meetings hosted by the American Philological Association, the Renaissance Society of America, the Classical Association of Great Britain, the Association of Literary Scholars and Critics, and the international congresses on humanistic studies that take place in Sassoferrato, Italy, and as invited lectures at the University of Warsaw, Brigham Young University, the University of Copenhagen, Cambridge University, the University of Warwick, Bristol University, the University of Texas, the University of Utah, the Istituto Orientale Universitario, Naples, the Universita` degli Studi, Naples, and the Universita` di Roma II ‘Tor Vergata’ The approach developed in these talks remains especially controversial in continental Europe—I have a distinct recollection of 238 Select Bibliography McWilliams, John P., Jr., The American Epic: Transforming a Genre 1770–1860 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) Mambelli, Giuliano, Gli annali delle edizioni virgiliane, Biblioteca di bibliografia italiana, 27 (Florence: Leo S Olschki, 1954) Martindale, Charles, Redeeming the Text: Latin Poetry and the Hermeneutics of Reception, Roman Literature and Its Contexts (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993) —— (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Virgil 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(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999) Nosworthy, J M., ‘The Narrative Sources of The Tempest’, Review of English Studies, 24 (1948), 281–94 Novara, A., ‘Un poema latino del quattrocento: La Sforziade di Francesco Filelfo’, Rivista ligura di scienze, lettere ed arti, 28 (1906), 3–27 O’Gorman, Edmundo, The Invention of America: An Enquiry into the Historical Nature of the New World and the Meaning of Its History (Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 1961) Pastor Bodmer, Beatriz, The Armature of Conquest: Spanish Accounts of the Discovery of America, 1492–1589, tr Lydia Longstreth Hunt (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1992) Patterson, Annabel, Censorship and Interpretation: The Conditions of Writing and Reading in Early Modern England, rev edn (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984) Select Bibliography 239 —— Pastoral and Ideology: Virgil to Vale´ry (Berkeley–Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1987) Paz, Octavio, Sor Juana Ine´s de la Cruz o 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York: J B Lippincott, 1958) Zabus, Chantal, Tempests after Shakespeare (New York and Houndmills: Palgrave, 2002) This page intentionally left blank Index Acheron, 44 Achilles, 71, 79, 160, 188 Actium, battle of, 90 Adams, John, 175 Adams, John Quincy, 183, 195 Addison, Joseph, 159, 161 Adorno, Rolena, 101 Aeneas, v–vii, 7, 11, 15, 45–9, 51–3, 55, 60–1, 74–6, 78, 88, 91, 100, 102, 108, 110, 117–20, 128–30, 135, 139, 141–2, 152–6, 158–61, 166–7, 174–84, 191, 198, 202–5, 207, 213–14, 220–1, 226 Aeolus, 88, 106 Ajax, 36, 75 Alegrı´a, Fernando, 84 Alfonso, King of Naples, 26 Allecto, 120 n 112, 154 n 32 allegory, 33, 35, 36 n 56, 125, 163, 196 allusion, 223–6 Alsop, Richard, 176 ‘Altar of Augustan Peace’, 166–7 Amata, 128 Ambrosian Republic (Milan), 26–7 Anchises, 39, 53, 91, 105 n 77, 142, 158, 177–8, 180, 184, 191 Ancien Re´gime, 10, 13, 15, 192, 203 Anna, 204 Antenor, 61 Apollo, 116 Apollodorus, n Ariosto, Lodovico, 44–6, 49, 53 n 84, 84–5, 214, 220–1 aristeia (heroic action), 58, 156, 170 Aristotle, 37, 38 n 61, 46, 48 Arrian, n ars excerpendi (art of making excerpts), n 23 Ascanius, 39 Athena, 51, 55 Augustine, 47 Augustus, v, x, 11–14, 31, 37–8, 40, 45, 64–6, 74 n 18, 76, 90, 131, 139, 144, 148, 159–60, 162, 165, 183–4, 204, 207, 212 Averlino, Antonio, called ‘Il Filarete’, 28 n 36 Avernus, 152 Badius Ascensius, Jodocus, 11, 139 n Barker, Arthur, 145–6 Barlow, Joel, ix, 15, 169–95, 208, 211–12, 216, 227 Beaumont, Francis, 154 Beccadelli, Antonio, called ‘Panormita’, 61 Bello, Andre´s, 85 Bennett, Joan, 162 Benthem, H L., 147 Bentley, Richard, 160 Bernstein, Michael Andre´, 172 Berryman, John, 172 Bessarion, Cardinal, 28 n 37 Bhabha, Homi, 126 Bible, n 4, 67–8, 211 Blessington, Francis, 145, 151 Blumauer, Alois, 198 Boston Latin School, 244 Index Botta, Bartolomeo, 47–9 Bottari, Guglielmo, 29 Bowra, C M., 145 Boys, John, 138–42, 159, 162 Broadbent, J B., 163 Brown, Brockden, 182, 195 Brutus, Lucius Junius, 142 Buchanan, George, 147 Bullough, GeoVrey, 103 Burrow, Colin, 214 Cacus, 75 Caesar, 3, 7, 190 Calandrini, Filippo, 28 n 37 Calliope, 186 Cambridge University, Camilla, 58, 75, 128 Camo˜es, Luis de, 78–80, 160 Carthage, 32, 74, 92, 108, 111, 112 n 98, 118–19, 129, 152, 159, 175, 177, 180 Cassandra, 36, 133–4 casuistry, 168 n 67 censorship, 168–9, 210 Cerberus, 90 Cerda y Arago´n, Don Toma´s Antonio de la, 130 Certeau, Michel de, 72, 77–8 Cesaire, Aime´, 125 Charles I, King of England, 142–3, 162 Charles II, King of England, 138–9, 141–3, 147, 165, 211 Charon, 90 Chevalier, Maxime, 84 Chimaera, 154, 200 Christianity, 38–40, 47–8, 53, 99–100, 103, 116, 151–9, 161, 180, 186, 204–5 Cicero, 1, 3, n 7, 6, 8, 217 Ciriaco d’Ancona, 35–6 Clement VII, Pope, 47 Cocytus, 90 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 146–7 Columbus, Christopher, 7, 69, 170, 173–4, 176–8 commentary, 4, 9, 36, 220–1 commonplace book, Comparetti, Domenico, 109 Conte, Gian Biagio, 74–6, 223 Cooke, Thomas, 213 Copley, John Singleton, 184 copyright law, 215 Cornwallis, Charles, 184 Corte´s, Herna´n, 71, 127, 179–81, 183–4 Cotton, Charles, 139 n 3, 196, 198 Crane, Hart, 172 Crashaw, Richard, 154 Creusa, 32, 51 Crivelli, Leodrisio, 23–4, 26 Cromwell, Oliver, 15, 138, 142–3, 147, 163, 165, 169, 211 Cupid, 118 Daniel, Roger, 141 n Dante Alighieri, 122, 198 Darnton, Robert, 196, 212 Dartmouth College, 176 Davies, Stevie, 164–5 Davis, Elizabeth, 84 de’ Bardi da Vernio, Giovanni, 46 de Bry, Theodore, 69–70 Decembrio, Pier Candido, 42–3, 48–9 Deiphobus, 133–4 de Lima Leita˜o, Jose´, Denham, Sir John, 143, 202 n 120 De’ Rosmini, Carlo, 18 descensus ad inferos (descent to the underworld), 152, 198 Desmond, Marilyn, 73, 128 Index ‘deviant focalization’, 76, 80 devotio (sacriWcial atonement), 158 n 40 Dido, vi, 40, 46, 74–5, 89, 91–2, 96, 101, 108, 110, 118, 120, 128–32, 152, 155 n 33, 157–9, 161, 175, 180, 183, 200, 203–6, 216, 226 Dionysius, n 4, 166 Donatus, Tiberius Claudius, 31–2, 139 n 2, 162 Douglas, Gavin, 109 Drake, Sir Francis, 178 drama, 106, 126, 135 Dryden, John, viii, 143–4, 154, 214 Duport, James, 141 n Dwight, Timothy, 172 East India College, Eckmann, Sonja, 42 education, 1, 57, 127, 226–7 Eliot, T S., 172 Elizabeth I, Queen of England, 112–14 Elliott, Emory, 193 Elysian Fields, 69, 153, 191 encomiastic epic, see panegyrical epic Ennius, 33 Entellus, 91 epic, 74–6, 80, 86, 93, 101, 106, 135, 147, 174, 186–8, 191–2, 194 epic simile, 87, 91 Epicureanism, 182 Erasmus, Desiderius, n Ercilla, Alonso de, ix, 15, 77–102, 125, 182, 195, 216–17, 226 Erskine-Hill, Howard, 146–7, 168 Este, Borso d’, 26 Euryalus, 92, 156 245 Fabius Maximus Cunctator, Quintus, 188 Fama (rumor), 40, 59, 92, 188 Fanon, Frantz, 137 n 156 Fanshawe, Richard, 142–3 Farrell, Joseph, 225 Farron, Steven, 74 Federico di Urbino, 26 Felperin, Howard, 103 Filelfo, Francesco, viii, 14, 17–66, 108, 109 n 88, 201, 213–15, 219, 221, 228–32 Fish, Stanley, 154–5, 162 n 51 Fitz, Earl, 100 Fletcher, John, 154 Foscarini, Lodovico, 28 n 37 Foucault, Michel, 14, 17, 24, 27, 29, 63–6 Fowler, Don, 76 Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor, 26 Freneau, Philip, 192 Fulgentius, Fabius Planciades, 35, 36 n 56, 48 Fulton, Robert, 187 Furetie`re, Antoine, 198 Furies, 90 furor (rage), v, 36–8, 41, 54, 58, 61, 87, 89, 94–7, 106, 108, 110, 136, 180 Galinsky, Karl, vii, 38 n 61, 64–5, 165–6 Gallagher, Lowell, 114 Gama, Vasco da, 7, 78–80, 178 Garcilaso de la Vega, ‘El Inca’, 136 Garin, Eugenio, 20, 27 gender, construction of, 128–9 Geryon, 139 Giacomo, Cardinal of Pavia, 19, 26 Ginsberg, Allen, 172 246 Giustinian, Bernardo, 28 n 37 golden age, 69, 115 golden bough, 120 golden Xeece, 188, 190 Gonzaga, Carlo, 30 n 44 Gonzaga, Ludovico, 26, 28 Grafton, Anthony, 10 grammar, 1, 36 Greenblatt, Stephen, 138, 212, 215 Greene, Roland, 102, 129–30, 136 Gregoire, Abbe´ (Henri), 186 GriYths, Trevor, 103 Guarino, Battista, Guille´n, Claudio, 221 Haak, Thomas, 147 Hale, J K., 146 Hannibal, 34, 188 Harding, Davis, 145, 159–60 Hardwick, Lorna, 72 Hardy, Thomas, Harington, Sir John, 142 Hariot, Thomas, 69–70 harpy, 117 Harrison, S J., vii ‘Harvard school’, see ‘pessimistic’ interpretation of the Aeneid Harvard University, 175 Hayley, William, 182 Hector, 32, 71, 152 Helen, 133, 135 Herna´ndez de Velasco, G., 86 Hesiod, 69 Hexter, Ralph, 74 Hill, Christopher, 163 Hircanian tiger, 91 history, 1, 15, 22–4, 39, 67, 86, 101–2, 138, 162–4, 169, 172–4, 181, 211–12 history of the book, 218 Hollander, Robert, 122 Index Homer, n 4, 30, 69, 71, 79, 141 n 5, 147, 174, 188, 191–2, 225 Horace, 3, 69, 182 Howard, Jean, 164–5 humanism, 1–2, 20 n 13, 21, 24, 31, 39, 57, 186, 214 Hume, Patrick, 144, 146 inXuence studies, 221 intertextuality, see allusion ira (anger), v, 37, 41, 43–5, 49, 52, 54, 61, 87, 96, 98–9, 136 irony, 53 n 84, 75–6 Iser, Wolfgang, 225 Itzco´atl, 130 James I, King of Scotland, 104, 105 n 77 Jardine, Lisa, 10 Jason, 71 JeVerson, Thomas, 175 JeVrey, Francis, 171 Joa˜o VI, King of Portugal, Johnson, Samuel, 146 Jonson, Ben, 105 n 77, 106 n 79 Juana Ine´s de al Cruz, ix, 15, 127–37, 216, 227 Juno, 61, 76, 88, 118, 145, 160, 204 Jupiter, 50–2, 57, 80, 118, 121 Justin, n Juturna, 128 Juvenal, n 4, 182 Knight, G Wilson, 162 Kott, Jan, 105 Kristeva, Julia, 221 Lactantius, 38 n 61 Lalli, Giovanni Battista, 197 Lamming, George, 125 Index Landino, Cristoforo, 31–2, 109, 122, 135, 2201 Laocooăn, 91 Las Casas, Bartolome de, 15, 72 Latinus, 41 Lavinia, 41, 128, 131, 145, 160 Leal, Luis, 83 Leo X, Pope, 47 Leonardo da Vinci, 18 Lepanto, battle of, 80, 90 Le Plat du Temple, Victor Alexandre Chre´tien, viii, 196–212, 216–17, 227 Lerner, Isaı´as, 85 Livingston, Sir Richard, Livy, 141 n 4, 217 Lollio, Gregorio, 19 Louis XIV, King of France, 204 Louis XVI, King of France, 187, 201–2, 211 Lucan, 30, 71, 84–5, 144–5, 191–2 Lucian, 69 Lucina, 116 Lucretia, 130, 141 n Lyne, R O A M., 75 lyric, 129–30, 147 MacNeice, Louis, 10 Maecenas, 11 Magellan, Ferdinand, 7, 178 Malatesta, Sigismondo, 26 Mars, 57 Martial, n Martindale, Charles, 145, 223, 227 Marvell, Andrew, 139 n Marzio, Galeotto, 18, 23 n 25 Mather, Cotton, 175, 192 maxim, see sententia Mazarin, Cardinal Jules, 11 Medici, Cosimo de’, 22, 61 Medici, Piero de’, 26, 56, 61 247 Melczer, William, 84 Mene´ndez y Pelayo, Marcelino, 82 Mercury, 40, 156 Mezentius, 34, 43, 49, 75, 149 Michaelis, Antonius, 36 Michelet, Jules, 173 Mignolo, Walter, 71 Miller, James E., Jr., 172 Milner, Andrew, 148 Miltiades, 79 Milton, John, ix, 138–70, 208, 211, 216–17, 226 Minerva, 57 Mirandola, Octaviano de la, 127 Montaigne, Michel, 115 Montefeltro, Federigo, 26 Montezuma, 130, 179–81, 183 Moreau de Brasei, Jean Nicole, 198 Morgan, Junius S., 217 Mowat, Barbara, 105 Murrin, Michael, 96 Napoleon Bonaparte, 15, 201, 208–10, 212 Nautes, 158 Neoplatonism, 32 Neptune, 57–60, 130, 145, 152, 160 Neruda, Pablo, 83 ‘new historicism’, 15, 163–4, 172–4, 181 Newton, Thomas, 153 Nicolopulos, James, 89 noble savage, 72 Norbrook, David, 144 Nosworthy, J M., 105 Novara, A., 18, 20, 29–31 Nugent, S Georgia, 128 Octavian, see Augustus Ogilby, John, 142–3, 151 O’Gorman, Edmundo, 71 248 Index Olson, Charles, 172 ‘optimistic’ interpretation of the Aeneid, v, vii–viii, 65, 78, 80, 159–62, 183, 195, 205, 213 Orgel, Stephen, 108 ‘Other,’ the, 1, 63, 72–3, 77–8, 80, 92, 100–2, 106, 112, 122–3, 128–30, 136, 215 Ovid, 3, 69, 182 Oxenden, Sir George, 141 n Oxford University, Pallas, 37–8 panegyrical epic, 20–2, 29–32, 34, 36 n 56, 38, 42–3, 45, 48–9, 56–8, 63–4, 78–9, 91, 93, 139, 159, 182–3 Papantonio, Michael, 171 n 72 Paris, 133–5 parody, 196–212 Pastor Bodmer, Beatriz, 101 patronage, 22, 215 Paz, Octavio, 127, 131 Pearce, Roy Harvey, 171, 173 Pen˜a, Margarita, 83 Penn, William, 184 Perrin, Pierre, 11, 13 Persius, n ‘pessimistic’ interpretation of the Aeneid, vi–ix, 34 n 54, 36 n 56, 65, 73, 78, 161–2, 166–7, 176, 182–4, 195, 201, 205, 214, 221, 224 Petrarca, Francesco, 33–4, 38–41, 47, 49–50, 55, 79, 89, 108–9, 214, 221, 231–2 Philip II, King of Spain, 80–2, 91, 96 Phillips, Edward, 148 Phillips, John, 197–8 philosophes, 210–11 philosophy, 1, 35–7, 43 Phlegethon, 90 Piatti, Piattino, 18 Piccolomini, Giacomo Ammanati, 28 n 37 Piccolomini, Jacopo, 27 Pierce, Frank, 86 pietas, v, 34, 38–9, 41, 46–7, 52, 54–5, 58, 61, 142, 175, 180, 183, 191 Pisanello (Antonio Pisano), 28 n 35 Pius II, Pope, 22, 26, 28 Plato, 37, 71 Pliny, 69 Plutarch, 69 Pluto, 57, 60 poetry, 1, 23, 39, 40 n 63 Polixena, 133–4 Poliziano, Angelo, 38 n 61 Polydorus, 92, 157 Pontano, Giovanni, 43–4, 49 Pope, Alexander, 226 Portia, 131 Possevino, Antonio, 48–9, 213 postcolonialism, 73, 84, 103 Pound, Ezra, 172 Priam, 39, 132, 143, 202 prize binding, 4–5 Prometheus, 188 Pucci, Joseph, 223 Pyrrhus, 34 Quint, David, 78, 80, 85, 144 Quintilian, 169 n 68 Quiroga, Vasco de, 69 Raleigh, Sir Walter, 188 Raviola Molina, Victor, 101 reception studies, 223, 226–7 Reinhold, Meyer, 171–2 Retamar, Roberto Ferna´ndez, 123, 125, 137 Index rhetoric, 1, 19, 35–6, 39, 57, 59, 164 Richardson, J., father and son, 155 Robin, Diana, 28–9, 34, 51, 55, 213–14 Ross, Malcolm MacKenzie, 162 Rovarella, Bartolomeo, 28 n 37 Rudat, Wolfgang E H., 226 Rush, Benjamin, 192 Said, Edward, 67, 102, 136–7 St Paul’s School, London, St Quentin, battle of, 80, 96 Sallust, Salmoneus, 121 Salviati, Lionardo, 45–7, 49 Sa´nchez, Mary, 123 Scaliger, Julius Caesar, 41 Scarron, Paul, 197–8, 200 Scipio, 33–4, 40, 55 Seem, Lauren Scancarelli, 213 sententia (maxim), Sepulve´da, Juan Gine´s de, 72 Servius, 36 n 56, 231 Sforza, Bianca Maria, 28 n 35, 51, 57–8 Sforza, Francesco, 14, 17, 21–4, 27–9, 31, 34 n 54, 50–61, 108, 231 Sforza, Gian Galeazzo, 231 Shakespeare, William, ix, 15, 102–26, 170, 216, 227 Sherburne, Sir Edward, 139 n Shields, John C., 191–2 Sibyl, Cumaean, 152, 198 Sibylline oracles, 131 ‘Siena Sieve portrait of Queen Elizabeth I, 11214 Siguăenza y Gongora, Don Carlos de, 130 Simonetta, Giovanni, 23 n 25 Sims, James, 160–1 249 Sitterson, Joseph C., Jr, 45, 214, 221 Smith, Nigel, 147 Spartacus, 148 Statius, 30 Stella, Giulio Cesare, 174 n 82 Stevens, Wallace, 172 Stray, Christopher, 1, structuralism, 222 Styx, 90 Sulla, 165 n 62 Sychaeus, 114 Syme, Ronald, 64, 166 Symonds, John Addington, 18 Tarquin, 141 n Tartarus, 90 Taylor, Edward, 192 Terence, 3, 217 textual studies, 218–19 Themistocles, 79 Thisbe, 131 Thomas, Richard, viii, 75, 144, 214 ‘Three Graces,’ 69–70 Tocqueville, Alexis de, 173 Todorov, Tzvetan, 72 Tompson, Benjamin, 175 Tordi, Andrea, 220–2 Tranchedini, Nicodemo, 26 translatio imperii (transfer of political power), 7, 13 Trevisan, Lodovico, 28 n 37 triumph, 164–6 Tuccia, 114 Turnus, v–vi, 33, 35, 37–8, 41–3, 48–9, 75, 88–9, 92, 96, 101, 120 n 112, 145, 149, 153–6, 160, 174, 179–81, 183, 213, 216, 220–1 Ulysses, 71, 153 250 Index Valdivia, Pedro de, 92, 96 Valerius Maximus, Vegio, MaVeo, 31, 41–2, 48–9, 184–5 Venus, 54, 75, 108, 118, 158, 177, 205 Venuti, Lawrence, 143 Vida, Marco Girolamo, 47–8 Visconti, Filippo Maria, 17, 21, 50, 53 Voltaire (Franc¸ois Marie Arouet), 211 n 128 Vulcan, 75 Waswo, Richard, 7, 174 Webster, Noah, 186, 192 West, Benjamin, 184 White, Hayden, 163–4, 169, 172–3 White, John, 69 Williams, William Carlos, 172 Wilson, John, 182 Wiltenburg, Robert, 105 Woodress, James, 171, 173, 193 Xenophon, Xerxes, 188 Yale University, 176 Washington, George, 104, 188 Wasserman, Earl, 223 Zabughin, Vladimiro, 19 Index Locorum Aeneid 1: 91, 106–7, 110 1: 175 1–3: 190 5–7: 190 21: 76 28: 76 41: 36 52–3: 88 61–2: 88 81 V.: 87–8 92: 157 97–8: 176 124 V.: 152 151: 107 157: 35 157–79: 32 164: 153 198–207: 52, 111 203: 177 208–9: 119, 152 223 V.: 51 310–20: 32 314–417: 177 328: 108 364: 175 379: 32 405: 118 430 V.: 152 439 V.: 158 464: 119 588–93: 153 594–5: 32 710 V.: 152 712: 158 726–7: 152 2: 52, 86–7, 135, 143, 158 1: 152 201–31: 91 274–5: 152 354: 355–9: 76 367: 526 V.: 34 603–5: 158 604–20: 159 775 V.: 32 776–89: 51 3: 102, 117, 139, 141–2 29–30: 157 56–7: 92 97–8: 142 175: 157 226: 117 4: 55, 89, 110, 112, 114, 118 165–8: 156–8 172: 206 173–97: 188 238 V.: 156 246–58: 188 265–76: 156 271: 33 279–80: 157 366–7: 91 378: 156 393–6: 155 n 33 402–5: 91 412: 158 465 V.: 157 651: 75 252 Index Locorum 5: 91, 128 V.: 197 45–71: 60 304–14: 60 421–3: 91 616: 128 687–92: 52 710: 158 740: 91 6: 53, 90, 120, 139–42, 155, 177, 191 126: 152, 158 128–9: 153 226–7: 154 n 32 297: 117 439: 153 466: 153 552: 153 585–6: 121 653 V.: 152–3 724–7: 178 776: 158 791 V.: 159, 167 833: 48 847–53: 178–9 853: 105, 142, 180 893–9: 191 648: 34 785–6: 154 793: 156 370 V.: 75 59 V.: 52, 153 339 V.: 52 427: 156 485–6: 92 493–4: 156 740–1: 43–4 10 284: 10 809: 156 10 862–6: 43 11 432 V.: 58 12 435: 39 12 444–5: 92 12 450 V.: 75 12 728–9: 155 12 731 V.: 156 12 748: 220 12 919 V.: 99–100, 153–6 12 946: 52 12 950–2: 89, 181 12 952: 92, 154, 221 Eclogues 2: 182 4: 115–16 1: 195 6: 105 8: 182 ... Guarino explained in one of the earliest educational treatises of the period, with the student putting an indexing note next to the passage in the text, then copying out the relevant passages into... penetrated All of them, however, turned the model text of the colonizers against them, focusing on the other voices’ in the Aeneid in a series of protests that became more insistent as the Virgilian... This Virgil is well enough known, for by now several generations of researchers have uncovered the lines of inXuence linking his poetry to the high culture of the early modern period and the institutions