The Renaissance in Italy This book offers a rich and exciting new way of thinking about the Italian Renaissance as both a historical period and a historical movement Guido Ruggiero’s work is based on archival research and the new insights of social and cultural history and literary criticism, with a special emphasis on everyday culture, gender, violence, and sexuality The book offers a vibrant and relevant critical study of a period too long burdened by anachronistic and outdated ways of thinking about the past Familiar yet alien, premodern but suggestively postmodern, attractive and troubling, this book returns the Italian Renaissance to center stage in our past and in our historical analysis GUIDO RUGGIERO is College of Arts and Sciences Cooper Fellow and Professor of History at the University of Miami As an author, editor, and translator, he has published more than two dozen books on the Renaissance and related topics, including, most recently, Machiavelli in Love: Sex, Self, and Society in Renaissance Italy (2007) and The Blackwell Companion to the Worlds of the Renaissance (2002) His articles have appeared in many journals, including The American Historical Review, The Journal of Social History, Viator, The Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Science, Xin shehui shi (New Social History), Studi storici, and Quaderni storici He has also published numerous essays and articles in edited volumes Ruggiero has won a number of fellowships, including a Guggenheim Fellowship; two National Endowment for the Humanities Fellowships; several Delmas Foundation, Orowitz, and Taft Fellowships; as well as an ACLS Fellowship He is an elected member of the Ateneo Veneto and has been a Fellow or visiting professor at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, Harvard’s Villa I Tatti in Florence, and the American Academy in Rome The Renaissance in Italy A Social and Cultural History of the Rinascimento Guido Ruggiero University of Miami 32 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10013-2473, USA Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521719384 © Guido Ruggiero 2015 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published 2015 Printed in the United States of America A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication data Ruggiero, Guido, 1944– The Renaissance in Italy : a social and cultural history of the Rinascimento / Guido Ruggiero, University of Miami pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-521-89520-0 (hardback) – ISBN 978-0-52171938-4 (pbk.) Renaissance – Italy Italy – Social conditions – 1268–1559 Italy – Civilization – 1268–1559 Italy – Intellectual life – 1268–1559 I Title DG533.R84 2015 945′.05–dc23 2014019659 ISBN 978-0-521-89520-0 Hardback ISBN 978-0-52171938-4 Paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate For Laura Contents List of Illustrations Acknowledgments Maps Introduction: The End of the World and Its Rebirth (Rinascita) as the Rinascimento Legitimacy: A Crisis and a Promise (c 1250–c 1340) Civiltà: Living and Thinking the City (c 1300–c 1375) Plague: Death, Disaster, and the Rinascita of Civiltà (c 1325–c 1425) Violence: Social Conflict and the Italian Hundred Years’ War (c 1350–1454) Imagination: The Shared Primary Culture of the Early Rinascimento (c 1350–c 1475) Courts: Princes, Aristocrats, and Quiet Glory (c 1425–c 1500) Self: The Individual as a Work of Art (c 1425–c 1525) Discovery: Finding the Old in the New (c 1450–c 1560) Re-Dreams: Virtù, Saving the Rinascimento, and the Satyr in the Garden (c 1500–c 1560) 10 Reform: Spiritual Enthusiasms, Discipline, and a Church Militant (c 1500–c 1575) 11 Retreat: The Great Social Divide and the End of the Rinascimento (c 1525–c 1575) Epilogue: The Diaspora of the Rinascimento Bibliography: A Short List of Works Used Index Illustrations 1.1 Nicholas III Kneeling with Saints Paul and Peter before Christ 1.2 Plaque Pax Tibi Marce 2.1 Ambrogio Lorenzetti, Allegory of Good Government 2.2 Ambrogio Lorenzetti, Effects of Good Government in the City and the Country 2.3 Ambrogio Lorenzetti, Bad Government and the Effects of Bad Government in the City 4.1 Paolo Uccello, Sir John Hawkwood 6.1 The Duomo in Florence (Santa Maria del Fiore) 6.2 Melozzo da Forlì, Sixtus IV Confirming Platina as Papal Librarian 6.3 Mantegna, Camera Picta (court scene) 6.4 Mantegna, Camera Picta 6.5 Fra Angelico, San Marco Altarpiece 6.6 Fra Angelico, Annunciation 6.7 Donatello, David 7.1 Giotto, Scrovegni Chapel 7.2 Giotto, Last Judgment (detail of Enrico Scrovegni) 7.3 Masaccio and Masolino, St Peter Healing with His Shadow 7.4 Donatello, Equestrian Statue of Gattamelata 7.5 Benozzo Gozzoli, detail of the right wall of the Medici Chapel, showing one of the Magi in arrival 7.6 Giovanni Bellini, Madonna Lochis 7.7 Giovanni Bellini, Votive Picture of Doge Agostino Barbarigo 7.8 Sandro Botticelli, Adoration of the Magi 7.9 Verrocchio (and Leonardo), John the Baptist Baptizing Christ 7.10 Leonardo da Vinci, Adoration of the Magi 7.11 Leonardo da Vinci, Virgin of the Rocks 7.12 Leonardo da Vinci, Last Supper 7.13 Chopines 9.1 Veronese, Mars and Venus United by Love 10.1 Veronese, Feast in the House of Levi 11.1 Michelangelo, Pietà 11.2 Michelangelo, David 11.3 Michelangelo, Sistine Chapel ceiling 11.4 Michelangelo, Creation of Adam 11.5 Michelangelo, Last Judgment 11.6 Michelangelo, Deposition Acknowledgments Ludovico Ariosto, in his classic sixteenth-century epic/romance/fantasy Orlando furioso, traced the origins of the Este family, who had patronized that masterpiece, back to a great female warrior of medieval romance, Bradamante, and a slightly less impressive warrior of even greater lineage descended from the heroes of ancient Troy, Ruggiero The origins of this book, by a considerably less noble Ruggiero, cannot be traced so far back, but to justice to the debts owed one would need acknowledgments and a tale of thanks that would approach the epic proportions of Ariosto’s tale Undoubtedly the greatest thanks are in order to the two generations of scholars who have virtually revolutionized the field of Renaissance scholarship since the Second World War Readers will find their work informing virtually every page that follows Moreover, the great debates that flourished in academia over that same period, especially those over the cultural turn in the humanities and women’s and gender studies more generally, along with historical controversies that swirled around the new social and cultural history and theoretical debates in anthropology and literary criticism, have left me deeply in the debt of those who carried forward those often heated discussions Readers will find echoes of all my books and articles throughout this book Thus I would like to thank all my publishers here, especially the most important: Rutgers, Johns Hopkins, Blackwell’s, and Oxford And I am particularly grateful to my Cambridge editors, Beatrice Rehl and Asya Graf, as well as to my copy editor, Russell Hahn, for all their help and support Thanking those who helped make me a scholar, often overcoming my stubborn resistance, would be a formidable task The serious work really began at the university, however, where a number of professors stepped forward in many ways to actually launch this project, as they tried to mold an overly self-confident student into a scholar, most notably Boyd Hill at the undergraduate level and Gerhardt Ladner, Richard Rouse, and Lauro Martines in graduate school and beyond Once again, readers will note their influence throughout this book Ladner’s vision of reform is one of its main themes, and Martines’s powerful vision of the social world of the time and his always creative approach to the subject have been a model not just for this book, but for my career Less formal teachers, both within academia and beyond, have also been many But to single out perhaps the most important: Gene Brucker, Felix Gilbert, David Herlihy, Christiane Klapisch-Zuber, and John Najemy have taught me more about the history of Florence than they may be happy to admit and served as models of the committed scholarly life The same is true of Gaetano Cozzi, Kenneth Setton, Martin Lowry, Joanne Ferraro, and Ed Muir for Venice Moving beyond the cities most studied for the Renaissance in Italy, Nick Terpstra, John Marino, and Tom and Elizabeth Cohen have been particularly important as well And although this is only a very limited list of all those who deserve thanks, when one moves beyond Italy the list grows exponentially Particularly important have been Jim Farr, Donald Spivey, Mary Lindemann, Karen Kupperman, Richard Brown, Londa Schiebinger, Robert Proctor, Sophie De Schaepdrijver, Ronnie Po-chai Hsia, Matthew Restall, and Natalie Z Davis, who in many ways unwittingly provided the most important model as well as some crucial support along the way Many beyond history also played a crucial role in this book Those in literature were especially important, and to name only the most significant and appreciated among what once again would be a long list: Deanna Schemek, Valeria Finucci, Denis Looney, Margaret Rosenthal, Linda Woodbridge, Mihoko Suzuki, Frank Palmieri, and especially Albert Ascoli stand out as informal teachers, models, and much-appreciated friends The same should be said for art historians like Deborah Howard, John Paoletti, and Karen Barzman Although it might seem strange to include them in this list, my larger famiglia in Treviso also deserve a special place among my informal teachers Over the years they have thoughtfully pushed me to remember that there is a larger world of exciting and interesting people who not frequent the halls of academia, libraries, or archives yet are still deeply engaged with ideas and the broader issues this book attempts to address Obviously students and colleagues at the several universities at which I have taught over the years have also contributed in more ways than I can mention Hopefully, as they read the book, they will recall our many conversations and see how much I have profited from their ideas Thus, although it is much too brief to be adequate to my debt, let me at least formally thank my students and colleagues at the Universities of Miami, Cincinnati, Tennessee, Connecticut, and Syracuse in Florence, as well as the Pennsylvania State University Along with those great students and fine colleagues, the staffs of each institution were unusually supportive and special friends as well Similar thanks are in order to the granting foundations and institutes for advanced study that have supported the research and writing that have gone into this book, starting with the Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies at UCLA and the Regents of the University of California, who awarded me a handsome University of California Regents Intern Fellowship that allowed me to complete my studies and carry out my first years of research in Venice This was followed by a series of research grants from the Taft Foundation at the University of Cincinnati and several Delmas Foundation grants that supported more than a decade of ongoing research in Venice and Italy, until an invitation to the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton as a National Endowment for the Humanities Fellow in the early 1980s pulled together the first part of my career and gave me the opportunity to consider the broader issues that stood behind my first two books and pointed to this work These were followed by another NEH Fellowship for a year at Harvard’s research villa in Florence, I Tatti, in the 1990s and a John Simon Guggenheim Foundation Fellowship, part of which I again spent at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton There and at I Tatti in 1990–1991 I began formally writing this book The handsome research support that I received soon after as the Weiss Chair in the Humanities at the Pennsylvania State University was continued at the University of Miami and enhanced generously by my being made a College of Arts and Sciences Cooper Fellow there Each freed up considerable time for writing this book Invitations to the American Academy in Rome as a Rome Senior Visiting Professor and once again to Harvard’s Villa I Tatti as the Robert Lehman Senior Visiting Professor allowed me to finish it A special note of thanks is also due to my colleagues at each of these idyllic study centers; they have taught me much more than they realized and have enriched my life My deep gratitude also goes to the staffs, who did so much to make my time profitable and truly special Although once again there are many who should be named, let me note just five of the most important: Chris Celenza, director of the American Academy in Rome; Walter Kaiser, former director of Villa I Tatti, and its current head librarian, Michael Rocke, and director, Lino Pertile, along with his gracious partner and organizer of life at the villa, Anna Bensted Finally, thanks are due to all who have read or discussed parts of this book over the years, most importantly to the readers for Cambridge University Press, John Marino and Nick Terpstra, whose comments were both encouraging and most helpful Colleagues who also read parts or all of the book, Konrad Eisenbickler, Karen Barzman, Michele Laughran, Jim Farr, Mary Lindeman, and Laura Giannetti, were crucial for inspiring the many revisions that have gone into it and made it far stronger than it otherwise would have been Laura Giannetti, who has long been much more than a colleague and mentor, not only read the whole book more than once, saved me from numerous foolish errors, and made crucial suggestions, she also lived the book with me for the last twenty years that have gone into it and made them truly special Thus I dedicate the book to her along with all those who have contributed so much to it and made the path to its completion less epic and slightly less furioso than Ariosto’s tale, but rich with shared pleasures and good friendship Popolo minuto (little people) Ciompi Rising and 157, 158–9, 160, 161, 299–300 in civiltà 104–5 in Florence 157, 158–9, 160, 299–300, 312 rise of 77 in Venice 83–4, 86, 88 Population of Italian cities birth control, effect of ( Birth control) Black Death as Malthusian check on 126–9 table 25 Porto Longo, Battle of 184 Portraits by Botticelli 345–7 clothing in 357–67 consensus realities and 342–5 disegno in 357 in Florence 339–41 footwear in 360–1 group scenes 333–4 of intellectuals 367–70 by Leonardo 348–57 Magi, depiction of 339–41, 345–6 by Mantegna 347–8 of Piero de’ Medici 339–40 realistic nature of 333 rise of 328–36 of scholars 367–70 techniques of 332–3 in Venice 341–5 women’s fashions in 360, 361 Portugal, patronage of explorers by 426–7 Poverty 4, 6, 126, 168–9, 188, 363–4, 429, 485, 520, 547–9 Power and Imagination (Martines) 13 Prato in thirteenth century 31 Prince, The (Machiavelli) generally 414 Ariosto compared 462 Castiglione compared 455 Fortuna in 446, 447–8 Guicciardini compared 536 politics in 444 power in 104 virtù in 440, 442, 445, 446, 447–8, 449–50, 451 war in 443 Printing 387–99 demand for 394–5 diaspora of Rinascimento and 587, 588 first times and 389, 397–9 in Greek 395–7 guilds and 391–2 industrial development, lack of 391–2 paper, role of 392–4 pattern of technological change in 392 process of 388–9 record keeping and 393–4 resistance to 397–9 rise of, in Rinascimento 387–90 Sixtus IV and 389 in Venice 390–1, 395 Prisca Theologia (Ficino) 261, 266–7, 323–4 Private justice 72–7 see also Vendetta Profugiorum ab erumna libri (Leon Battista Alberti) 252–3 Prophecy of Joachim of Fiore 1–6, 7, 49, 67, 424–5, 497 Savonarola and 489, 491, 499 Prostitution during Rinascimento 358–9, 433–7, 473, 475, 476–88, 490, 551 Protestantism 509–10, 513–15, 547–8 Psalms (Bible) 258 Pucci, Lorenzo 470–1 Pulci, Luigi 316–17 Puligo, Domenico 479–80 Pullan, Brian 548 Purgatory 514–15 Pythagoras 262 Querini, Vicenzo 499–501, 531–2 Querini family 85–6 Querini-Tiepolo conspiracy 84–6, 87, 97, 101–2 Questio utrum Adam vel Eva magis peccavit (Arienti) 374 Ragionamenti (Aretino) 473–7, 482–3 see also Sei giornate Raimondi, Marcantonio 384, 471–2, 473–4 Ramusio, Giovanni Battista 426 Raphael (Raffaelo Sanzio da Urbino) 348, 382–3, 554–5, 560 Ravenna, Venetian expansion in 413–14 Rebirth concept Boccaccio and 228–9 circularity of time and 6–9, 221–2 Dante and 224 end of world and 1–6 Ficino and 267 first times and 45–7 Great Social Divide and 16 linearity of time and 6–9, 221 New Age, Rinascimento as 6–9 “the New” and 6–9 papacy and 276 Petrarch and 224–7 rejection of “the New” and 220–1 relics and 222–3 Roman revivalism 223–7 tombs and 222–3 urban geography and 223 Reconquista (Spain) 421–2 Reform concept of 12 of corruption 493–6 Council of Trent and 515–16 cultural reform 438, 449–50, 477 of prostitution 484–5 religious enthusiasm and 496–502 religious reform 396, 397 Savonarola and 489–93 social reform 438, 449–50, 477 Regensburg, Diet of 532 Relics 9, 35, 46, 67–8, 211, 222–3, 277, 293, 340 Religion, gender and 535 Religion, Wars of 578 Religious enthusiasm See Spiritual enthusiasm Religious reform 396, 397 Renaissance, problems with term 9–12 René of Anjou 287, 407 Renewal concept 8, 11–12, 74–5, 228–9, 276, 489 Republicanism of Cicero 238 civic morality and 238–40, 300–1 defense of 238, 300–1, 534 Gian Galeazzo Visconti and 176, 239–40 Guicciardini on 534–8 as ideal 71, 84, 86–7, 167, 175, 226, 413, 418, 487 later tradition of 87, 420, 589 meaningful life and 238 rise of 239 Savonarola and 451 virtù and 237–8, 239–40 Revelations (Bible) 1, 2–3 Revolutionary change, lack of, in Rinascimento 587–8 Rhetoric 246 Riario, Girolamo 319 Riario, Pietro 283–5, 556 Riario, Raffaele 319, 320 Ricci, Caterina de’ 497–8 Ricci, Matteo 523 Rich and Poor in Renaissance Venice (Pullan) 548 Ricordi (Guicciardini) 535, 536–7 Ridolfi, Carlo 581 Rienzo, Cola di 225–7 Rimini condottieri in 291–2 Venetian expansion in 413–14 Rinascimento See under specific topics Rizi, Francesco 580 Robbia, Andrea della 316–17 Robert the Wise (Naples) 64–5 Roma instaurata (Biondo) 276–7 Roman Academy 280–1, 282–3, 539 Roman Catholic Church See Catholic Church Roman Inquisition 512, 514, 517–18 Roman law 77, 223–4 Romano, Giulio 384, 471–2, 554–5 Roman system of money 147 Rome See also Papacy; specific popes ancient Rome See Ancient Rome Black Death in 125 as capital of Christian world 276–8, 493–4 papacy ( Papacy) Peter (apostle) and 44 pilgrimages to 21–35 Sack of (1527) 383–5, 502–9, 510, 524, 525–6 in thirteenth century 34–5 Rossi, Roberto de’ 240–1, 242–3 Rovereto 24 Rubens, Peter Paul 356 Ruffiani (pimps) 478 Sabellico, Marcantonio 390, 395, 397 Sack of Rome (1527) 383–5, 502–9, 510, 524, 525–6 Sacraments 514–15 Sacra pisside (pix of Christ’s blood) 293 Sadoleto, Jacopo 511 Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (1572) 575, 576 Saint John Lateran (Cathedral) 34–5 Saint John the Baptist (Leonardo) 356 Saint Mark’s (Cathedral) 27–8, 277 Saint Peter Healing with His Shadow (Masaccio and Masolino) 334–6 Saint Peter’s (Cathedral) 276–7 Salutati, Barbara Raffacani 436, 479–80, 482 Salutati, Coluccio on Bruni 240, 241 civic humanism and 238–9 Gian Galeazzo Visconti and 237–8 rhetoric of 167–8 scholarship of 369, 539 Vasari on 479–80 on virtù 237–8 Salvation 512–13 Salvemini, Gaetano 75, 78, 79, 81 Salviati, Francesco 319–20 Salviati, Leonardo 542 Salviati, Maria 534–5 Sangallo, Giuliano da 316–17, 555–6 San Lorenzo (Church) 301–2, 303–4, 307, 562–3 San Marco (Monastery) 301–2, 305 Sannazaro, Jacopo 291 San Pietro in Vincoli (Church) 277 Santa Maria del Carmine (Church) 333–6 Santa Maria del Fiore (Church) 31, 268–71 Santa Maria del Fiore (Il Duomo) 268–71 Santangel, Luis de 422–3 Sanuti, Nicolò 365–6 Sanuti, Nicolosa 365–6 Sapientes (committees) 96–7 Sarpi, Paolo 533–4 Savonarola, Girolamo 489–93 generally 323, 555–6, 575–6 on Adam and Eve 489–90 Alexander VI and 491, 492 Charles VIII and 489 Lorenzo I de’ Medici and 489 Medici family and 489–92 prophecy and 489, 491, 499 reform and 489–93 religious enthusiasm and 496 republicanism and 451 Savorgnan, Andriana 482, 485 Scholars, portraits of 367–70 Scholasticism 246 Scolopi (Poor Clerks Regular of the Mother of God of the Pious Schools) 522 Scottis, Andriana de 471 Scrovegni, Enrico 329–32 Scrovegni Chapel 329–32 Sculpture 336–9 Secretum (Petrarch) 215, 236 Seditious speech 552 Sei giornate (Aretino) 473–7, 482–3 Self and identity See also Consensus realities; Self-fashioning Self-fashioning 16, 112, 213, 215, 326–7, 366–7, 368–9, 371–2, 386, 458, 528–9 Seneca 258–9 Serrata of Maggior Consiglio (Venice) 82–9, 188 Sex Alexander VI and 404 Aretino on 473–7, 478, 481–2 Aristotle on 454 in art 384, 471–2 Boccaccio on 512 coitus interruptus 129 courtesans and 434–7, 479–80, 482–4, 485 footwear and 360–1 giovani and 480–1, 482, 527–8 Machiavelli on 453–5, 484, 551, 566 Michelangelo and 565–7 prostitution See Prostitution sodomy See Sodomy syphilis 431–4, 484–5, 486 virtù and 476 women and 371–2 Sforza (Muzio Attendolo) 164 Sforza, Alessandro 372 Sforza, Ascanio 404 Sforza, Caterina 441–2 Sforza, Francesco 192–9 Cosimo de’ Medici and 310, 311–12 in Italian Hundred Years’ War 203 marriage of 402 statue of 352 Sforza, Galeazzo Maria 320–1, 402 Sforza, Gian Galeazzo 399–400, 405, 408–9 Sforza, Gian Galeazzo Maria 352, 402–3 Sforza, Ginevra 372–4 Sforza, Giovanni 405 Sforza, Ippolita 374 Sforza, Isabella 402–3 Sforza, Ludovico I (Il Moro) generally 442 ascension of 322 French invasion of Italy and 399–400, 401–3, 405, 408–9, 411, 412 Isabella d’Este and 383 Leonardo and 351–2, 355 Leon Battista Alberti and 294, 295 marriage of 379 Pius II and 295 Sforza, Ludovico II 505–6 Sforza da Montefeltro, Battista 374 Sforza family 298, 352, 355 see under specific family members Sforzeschi 164, 196, 197 Shakespeare, William 545, 583–4 Shared primary culture 219, 229, 230, 233, 237, 243, 248, 251, 254, 255, 257, 261, 267, 325, 421, 433, 438, 440, 451, 532–3 Shemek, Deanna 463 Siege of Castel Sant’Angelo 503, 504–6, 510 Siena academies in 541 civiltà in 69–72 economic competition with Florence 135 Florentine control of 400 Intronati (the dazed ones) 541, 544–6, 583–4 in Italian Hundred Years’ War 178 pilgrimages to Rome through 33 population of 128–9 in thirteenth century 31, 32–3 Sigismund (Emperor) 193, 293 Signorelli, Luca 555–6 Signori (Milan) 89–93 Signoria 104–5 Signori di Notte 100–1 Simone, Tommaso di ser Giovanni di (Masaccio) 333–6, 338–9 Sistine Chapel 282, 517, 560–2 Sixtus IV (Pope) Florence and 323 Lorenzo de’ Medici and 318–19, 320–1 patronage of 281–3 printing and 389 Spanish Inquisition and 511 Sixtus V (Pope) 522 Sleeping Cupid (Michelangelo) 556 Social reform 438, 449–50, 477 Society and Culture in Early Modern France (Davis) 575 Society of Jesus See Jesuits Sociology of the Italian Renaissance, The (Von Martin) 75 Socrates 258–9 Sodomy accusation of 280–1, 348–9 active and passive in 101, 481–2 culture of 481–2 defense of 472–3, 544 Donatello and 308–9 in Florence 551 Michelangelo and 565–7 prosecution of 101, 490, 551, 566–7 in Rinascimento 481–2 in Venice 101 Solomon (Bible) 260 Somaschi 522 Sophocles 397 Sorbolò, Niccolò 196 Sottoposti (those on the bottom) Ciompi Rising and 157, 158, 159–60 in guilds 146 in War of Chioggia 186 Sozzi, Francesco 544 Spain diaspora of Rinascimento in 579–80 exploration by 425–6, 427–8 Genoa, role of 422, 580, 589–90 Granada, conquest of 421–2 Jews in 428–9 “New World,” conquests in 508–9 patronage in 580 Reconquista 421–2 wealth from “New World,” 427 Spanish Inquisition 250, 281, 511 Spiritual enthusiasm 54, 496–502, 519–20, 521, 524, 549, 567–9, 572 Spoleto, Gregorio da 461 Sprezzatura (effortlessness) 16, 301, 306–7, 452–3 Storia d’Italia (Guicciardini) 535–6 Strata, Filippo di 397–8 Strozzi, Palla di Nofri 240–1, 341 Strozzi, Tito 461–2 Studia humanitatis (program of education) 246–9, 294, 378–9, 461 Studio of Florence 315–17 Suleiman the Magnificent (Ottoman) 582–3 Sulla 242 Summa theologica (Aquinas) 246 Sumptuary laws 141–2, 363–6, 436 Sweynheym, Conrad 389–90 Sword of justice 42–3, 51, 70–1, 98 Sylvester (Pope) 40–1, 249–50 Syphilis 431–4, 484–5, 486 Tamberlane 180–1 Taxation of Church lands 48–9, 50–1 direct taxes 105 in Florence 201, 310–11 in France 406–7 Gian Galeazzo Visconti and 173, 176 of Jews 429 in Naples 403 papacy and 511 revenue collection 105–6 Teachers in early Rinascimento 208 Terence 378–9 Terze Rime (Franco) 436–7 Teseida delle nozze d’Emilia (Boccaccio) 216 Theatines 521 Theogenius (Leon Battista Alberti) 252–3 Thiene, Gaetano 521 Thucydides 250, 397 Tibaldi, Pellgrino 580 Tiepolo, Baiamonte 85–6 Tiepolo family 85–6 Tintoretto (Jacopo Comin) 554–5 Titian 382–3, 471–2, 554–5, 580 Todesillas, Treaty of 427 Toscanelli, Paolo 252 Tour d’Auvergne, Madeline de la 577 Treatise on the Serpentine Disease Which in Spain Is Called Bubas (Diaz de Isla) 431–2 Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis 412–13, 420, 514, 577–8 Treaty of Todesillas 427 Trent Council of Trent 509–20 see also (Council of Trent) pilgrimages to Rome through 23, 24, 26 Treviso in Italian Hundred Years’ War 180 pilgrimages to Rome through 27 Trinity Trojan War 44 Turiano, Juanelo 580 Turks See Ottoman Empire Tuscan dialect 10, 543–4, 552 Tusculan Disputations (Cicero) 235 Twelfth Night (Shakespeare) 545, 583–4 Uccello, Paolo 307–8, 338–9 Umidi (Academy) 541–2 Unam Sanctum (Papal Bull) 51 Urban civilization See Civiltà (urban civilization) Urban V (Pope) 60–1 Urban VI (Pope) 53, 170 Urbino, condottieri in 291–2 Urbino, Raffaelo Sanzio da See Raphael (Raffaelo Sanzio da Urbino) Usodimare, Antoniotto 426 Usury 105, 136–7, 138–40, 150, 152, 329–30, 429 Valcamonica, Pietro Leon da 485 Valla, Lorenzo 41, 249–51, 289 Valori, Francesco 490, 493 Vasari, Giorgio generally 357 on Leonardo 349, 352–4, 356, 357 on Michelangelo 555, 569 on Salutati 479–80 Vendetta 98–9, 552 Veniality system 281–2 Venice Black Death in 117, 125 civic morality in 533–4 civiltà in 82–9 claims of equality with papacy and empire 38–45 Council of Ten 97, 101–2, 183, 195–6, 532 Doges see under (specific doges) Ferrara, war with 85 Florence, alliance with 318 French invasion of Italy and 405 Holy Office 517–18, 572–3 in Italian Hundred Years’ War 171–81, 188–99 Jews, isolation of 550 justice in 42–3 law in 100, 191–2 legitimacy of 38–47 Lombardy, division of 188–92 Mark (apostle) and 44–5, 46, 87, 100, 277 Muslims, isolation of 550 myth of 413, 450–1, 532, 533–4, 589 Naples, relations with 62–6 Ottoman Empire and 180–1, 583 pilgrimages to Rome through 24, 26–9 popolo grosso in 82–9 popolo minuto in 83–4, 86, 88 portraits in 341–5 printing in 390–1, 395 prostitution in 478–9 Querini-Tiepolo conspiracy 84–6, 87, 97, 101–2 as republic 420 Rimini, expansion in 413–14 Rome (ancient) and 44 scholarly focus on 14 Serrata of Maggior Consiglio 82–9 sodomy in 101 in thirteenth century 26–9, 32–3 in War of Chioggia 181–8 ( War of Chioggia) War of League of Cambrai 413–20, 500 war with Ferrara 85 Venice and the Defense of Republican Liberty (Bouswma) 589 Ventoux (Mount) 23–4 Vernacular 206, 212, 225, 378–9, 398, 527, 543–4, 552, 583–4 Verona, Guarino da 246–8, 378–9, 395–6 Verona, in Italian Hundred Years’ War 174–5, 189, 191–2 Veronese, Paolo 20, 517–18, 554–5 Veronica of Binasco 497–8 Verrocchio, Andrea del 316–17, 348–51 Vespucci, Amerigo 427–8, 585 Vianello, Andrea 360–1 Vicenza in Italian Hundred Years’ War 189, 191–2 Vignali, Antonio 544–5 Vigneri, Marco 471 Villani, Giovanni on Black Death 117 pilgrimage to Rome 32 on population 133–4 on poverty 127 on teachers 208 on textile industry 140, 144 Vinci, Leonardo da See Leonardo (da Vinci) Violence See under specific wars Ariosto on 463 Ciompi Rising and 157–61 in civiltà 154–6 gender and 156 “new men” and 154–6 private justice and 98–9, 100–1 Sack of Rome 502–9 Virgil 22–3, 80–1, 213–14, 224, 368–9, 465 Virgin of the Rocks (Leonardo) 352 Virgri, Caterina 374 Virtù See also Consensus realities Antonio Manetti on 257–8 Aretino on 469–76, 487–8 Ariosto on 460–5 Aristotle and 230, 233, 455–6 Barbaro on 256–7 Boccaccio on 228, 230–4 Book of the Courtier, The, and 438, 451–3, 455–60, 487 of Brunelleschi 257–8 Castiglione on 438, 451–3, 455–60, 487 Cellini on 524–5, 526 Cicero and 234–6 civic morality and 443, 473 Coluccio Salutati on 237–8 of Cosimo de’ Medici 301–2 “Count of Virtù” ( see Visconti, Gian Galeazzo) culture and 229–30, 233, 237, 438 Dante on 80–1, 224 in Decameron 217–19, 228, 230–4 in Discourses on the First Decade of Titus Livy 439–40, 445, 447–8, 449–50, 451 gender and 445, 454 in Greece 230 Guicciardini on 536–7 honor and 80, 172–3, 190, 232–3, 257, 445–6, 452–3, 456–7 Lionardo Alberti on 254–6 love poetry and 218–20 Machiavelli on 179, 414, 438–41, 442, 444–51, 487 new understanding of 233–4 overview 16–17 patronage and 301 Petrarch on 234–7 popolo grosso and 230, 233–4, 239–40 in The Prince 440, 442, 445, 446, 447–8, 449–50, 451 republicanism and 237–8, 239–40 in Rome (ancient) 113, 224, 230 sex and 476 women and 371, 374, 465–9 Visconti, Azzone 59–60 Visconti, Bernabò 171–4 Visconti, Bianca Maria 196, 197, 198, 402 Visconti, Caterina 188–9, 192 Visconti, Filippo Maria generally 179, 288 death of 402 Fortuna and 193 in Italian Hundred Years’ War 192–5, 196–8, 200 territories in Lombardy 188–9 Visconti, Gabriele Maria 188–9 Visconti, Galeazzo I 59, 171 Visconti, Gian Galeazzo generally 192, 242, 418 as “Count of Virtù,” 171, 173, 174, 178–9 death of 179, 188–9, 199, 321 Fortuna and 179 French invasion of Italy and 401–3 in Italian Hundred Years’ War 171–81 popolo grosso and 171, 172–3 republicanism and 176, 239–40 Salutati and 237–8 tyranny of 239, 241 in War of the Eight Saints 167–8, 170–1 Visconti, Giovanni Maria 188–9, 192 Visconti, Matteo 91–3 Visconti, Ottone 91–2 Visconti, Valentina 401–2 Visconti family 58–9, 89–93, 162, 298, 401 see under specific family members Vita (Cellini) 502, 524 Vita (Leon Battista Alberti) 252–3 Vita nuova (Dante) 213 Vita S Potito (Leon Battista Alberti) 252–3 Vite de’ più eccellenti architetti, pittori e scultori italiani (Vasari) 349 Vitelleschi, Giovanni 165 Viterbo, academies in 541 Vocabulario della Lingua Italiana (Salviati) 542 Volterra, Daniele da 517 Volterra revolt 315 Von Martin, Alfred 75 Votive Picture of Doge Agostino Barbarigo (Giovanni Bellini) 342–5 Waldseemüller, Martin 428 Wallace, William 555 War of Chioggia 181–8 Genoa in 181–8 Hungary in 185 Ottoman Empire in 181–8 popolo grosso and 182–3, 186 sottoposti in 186 War of League of Cambrai 413–20, 500 War of the Eight Saints 166–71 Ghibellines in 167, 169–70 Guelphs in 158–9, 166, 167, 169–70 overview 157 Wars of Religion 578 Wedding Feast of Cupid and Psyche (Romano) 384 Wenceslaus (Emperor) 173 White Company 162 Witt, Ron 205–6 Woman in Ermine, The (Leonardo) 352 Women See also Gender; specific women academies and 544–6 Ariosto on 463–4, 466, 468 Aristotle on 454 Bembo on 466 Boccaccio on 360, 370–1 Castiglione on 453–5, 465 Clement VII on 454–5 diaspora of Rinascimento and 576–9 literature and 370–8, 544–6 Plato on 455 portraits, women’s fashion in 360, 361 in religion 497–9 sex and 371–2 virtù and 371, 374, 465–9 writers 370–1, 375–8, 436, 466, 468, 584 Women’s Writing in Italy 1400–1600 (Cox) 370–1, 468 Worms Diet of Worms 507 Edict of Worms 504, 507 Xavier, Francis 523, 586 Xenophon 289, 397 Yates, Francis 260–1 Yersin, Alexandre 118–19 Zanobi del Lama, Gaspare di 347 Zeno, Carlo 183–4, 185, 187, 188 Ziane, Sebastian (Doge) 42 Zitelle (House of Old Maids) 485, 486 Zorzi, Giacomo 569–74 Zuccaro, Federico 580 ... Princeton, Harvard’s Villa I Tatti in Florence, and the American Academy in Rome The Renaissance in Italy A Social and Cultural History of the Rinascimento Guido Ruggiero University of Miami 32 Avenue... Self, and Society in Renaissance Italy (2007) and The Blackwell Companion to the Worlds of the Renaissance (2002) His articles have appeared in many journals, including The American Historical Review,... Europeans was still the center of the world Thus for all its geographical variety, Italy was seen as a particular and significant geographical entity Finally, as a place, the Italian peninsula was