Cryptography and nework security principles and practices

C ONTENTSNotation xiii Preface xv About the Author xxiii Chapter 0 Reader’s Guide 1 0.1 Outline of This Book 2 0.2 A Roadmap for Readers and Instructors 2 0.3 Internet and Web Resources

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DATA AND COMPUTER COMMUNICATIONS, EIGHTH EDITION

A comprehensive survey that has become the standard in the field, covering(1) data communications, including transmission, media, signal encoding, linkcontrol, and multiplexing; (2) communication networks, including circuit- andpacket-switched, frame relay, ATM, and LANs; (3) the TCP/IP protocol suite,including IPv6, TCP, MIME, and HTTP, as well as a detailed treatment of

network security Received the 2007 Text and Academic Authors Association (TAA) award for the best Computer Science and Engineering Textbook of the year ISBN 0-13-243310-9

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE,

OPERATING SYSTEMS, SIXTH EDITION

A state-of-the art survey of operating system principles Covers fundamentaltechnology as well as contemporary design issues, such as threads,

microkernels, SMPs, real-time systems, multiprocessor scheduling, embeddedOSs, distributed systems, clusters, security, and object-oriented design

Received the 2009 Text and Academic Authors Association (TAA) award

for the best Computer Science and Engineering Textbook of the year.

ISBN 978-0-13-600632-9

BUSINESS DATA COMMUNICATIONS, SIXTH EDITION

A comprehensive presentation of data communications and

telecommunications from a business perspective Covers voice, data, image,and video communications and applications technology and includes a number

of case studies ISBN 978-0-13-606741-2

COMPUTER NETWORKS WITH INTERNET PROTOCOLS

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NETWORK SECURITY ESSENTIALS, FOURTH EDITION

A tutorial and survey on network security technology The book covers

important network security tools and applications, including S/MIME, IPSecurity, Kerberos, SSL/TLS, SET, and X509v3 In addition, methods forcountering hackers and viruses are explored

COMPUTER SECURITY (with Lawrie Brown)

A comprehensive treatment of computer security technology, including

algorithms, protocols, and applications Covers cryptography, authentication,access control, database security, intrusion detection and prevention, malicioussoftware, denial of service, firewalls, software security, physical security, human

factors, auditing, legal and ethical aspects, and trusted systems Received the

2008 Text and Academic Authors Association (TAA) award for the best Computer Science and Engineering Textbook of the year ISBN 0-13-600424-5

WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS, Second Edition

A comprehensive, state-of-the art survey Covers fundamental wireless

communications topics, including antennas and propagation, signal encodingtechniques, spread spectrum, and error correction techniques Examinessatellite, cellular, wireless local loop networks and wireless LANs, includingBluetooth and 802.11 Covers Mobile IP and WAP ISBN 0-13-191835-4

HIGH-SPEED NETWORKS AND INTERNETS, SECOND EDITION

A state-of-the art survey of high-speed networks Topics covered include TCPcongestion control, ATM traffic management, Internet traffic management,differentiated and integrated services, Internet routing protocols and multicastrouting protocols, resource reservation and RSVP, and lossless and lossycompression Examines important topic of self-similar data traffic

ISBN 0-13-03221-0

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Marcia Horton

Executive Editor:Tracy Dunkelberger

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Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on appropriate page within text.

If you purchased this book within the United States or Canada you should be aware that it has been

wrongfully imported without the approval of the Publisher or the Author.

Copyright © 2011, 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Prentice Hall.All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America.This publication is protected by Copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise.To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, 1 Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, NY 07458

Many of the designations by manufacturers and seller to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the

designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps.

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To Antigone never dull never boring the smartest person I know

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C ONTENTS

Notation xiii

Preface xv

About the Author xxiii

Chapter 0 Reader’s Guide 1

0.1 Outline of This Book 2

0.2 A Roadmap for Readers and Instructors 2

0.3 Internet and Web Resources 4

0.4 Standards 5

Chapter 1 Overview 7

1.1 Computer Security Concepts 9

1.2 The OSI Security Architecture 14

1.3 Security Attacks 15

1.4 Security Services 19

1.5 Security Mechanisms 23

1.6 A Model for Network Security 25

1.7 Recommended Reading and Web Sites 27

1.8 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems 29

PART ONE SYMMETRIC CIPHERS 31

Chapter 2 Classical Encryption Techniques 31

2.1 Symmetric Cipher Model 33

2.2 Substitution Techniques 38

2.3 Transposition Techniques 53

2.4 Rotor Machines 55

2.5 Steganography 57

Chapter 3 Block Ciphers and the Data Encryption Standard 66

3.1 Block Cipher Principles 68

3.2 The Data Encryption Standard (DES) 77

3.3 A DES Example 85

3.4 The Strength of DES 88

3.5 Differential and Linear Cryptanalysis 89

3.6 Block Cipher Design Principles 92

3.7 Recommended Reading and Web Site 96

Chapter 4 Basic Concepts in Number Theory and Finite Fields 101

4.1 Divisibility and the Division Algorithm 103

4.2 The Euclidean Algorithm 105

v

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4.3 Modular Arithmetic 108

4.4 Groups, Rings, and Fields 116

4.5 Finite Fields of the Form GF(p) 120

4.6 Polynomial Arithmetic 122

4.7 Finite Fields of the Form GF(2n) 129

Appendix 4A The Meaning of mod 144

Chapter 5 Advanced Encryption Standard 47

5.1 The Origins AES 148

5.2 AES Structure 150

5.3 AES Round Functions 155

5.4 AES Key Expansion 166

5.5 An AES Example 169

5.6 AES Implementation 174

Appendix 5A Polynomials with Coefficients in GF(28) 180

Appendix 5B Simplified AES 183

Chapter 6 Block Cipher Operation 192

6.1 Multiple Encryption and Triple DES 193

6.2 Electronic Codebook Mode 198

6.3 Cipher Block Chaining Mode 201

6.4 Cipher Feedback Mode 203

6.5 Output Feedback Mode 205

6.6 Counter Mode 206

6.7 XTS Mode for Block-Oriented Storage Devices 210

6.8 Recommended Web Site 214

Chapter 7 Pseudorandom Number Generation and Stream Ciphers 218 7.1 Principles of Pseudorandom Number Generation 219

7.2 Pseudorandom Number Generators 226

7.3 Pseudorandom Number Generation Using a Block Cipher 229

7.4 Stream Ciphers 232

7.5 RC4 234

7.6 True Random Numbers 237

7.7 Recommended Reading 238

PART TWO ASYMMETRIC CIPHERS 243

Chapter 8 More Number Theory 243

8.1 Prime Numbers 245

8.2 Fermat’s and Euler’s Theorems 248

8.3 Testing for Primality 251

8.4 The Chinese Remainder Theorem 254

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CONTENTS vii

8.5 Discrete Logarithms 257

Chapter 9 Public-Key Cryptography and RSA 266

9.1 Principles of Public-Key Cryptosystems 269

9.2 The RSA Algorithm 277

Appendix 9A Proof of the RSA Algorithm 296

Appendix 9B The Complexity of Algorithms 297

Chapter 10 Other Public-Key Cryptosystems 300

10.1 Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange 301

10.2 ElGamal Cryptosystem 305

10.3 Elliptic Curve Arithmetic 308

10.4 Elliptic Curve Cryptography 317

10.5 Pseudorandom Number Generation Based on an Asymmetric Cipher 321

PART THREE CRYPTOGRAPHIC DATA INTEGRITY ALGORITHMS 327

Chapter 11 Cryptographic Hash Functions 327

11.1 Applications of Cryptographic Hash Functions 329

11.2 Two Simple Hash Functions 333

11.3 Requirements and Security 335

11.4 Hash Functions Based on Cipher Block Chaining 341

11.5 Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA) 342

11.6 SHA-3 352

Appendix 11A Mathematical Basis of Birthday Attack 356

Chapter 12 Message Authentication Codes 362

12.1 Message Authentication Requirements 364

12.2 Message Authentication Functions 365

12.3 Message Authentication Codes 372

12.4 Security of MACs 374

12.5 MACs Based on Hash Functions: HMAC 375

12.6 MACs Based on Block Ciphers: DAA and CMAC 380

12.7 Authenticated Encryption: CCM and GCM 383

12.8 Pseudorandom Number Generation Using Hash Functions and MACs 389

12.9 Recommended Reading 392

Chapter 13 Digital Signatures 395

13.1 Digital Signatures 396

13.2 ElGamal Digital Signature Scheme 400

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13.3 Schnorr Digital Signature Scheme 402

13.4 Digital Signature Standard (DSS) 403

PART FOUR MUTUAL TRUST 410

Chapter 14 Key Management and Distribution 410

14.1 Symmetric Key Distribution Using Symmetric Encryption 412

14.2 Symmetric Key Distribution Using Asymmetric Encryption 421

14.3 Distribution of Public Keys 423

14.4 X.509 Certificates 428

14.5 Public Key Infrastructure 436

Chapter 15 User Authentication Protocols 444

15.1 Remote User Authentication Principles 445

15.2 Remote User Authentication Using Symmetric Encryption 448

15.3 Kerberos 452

15.4 Remote User Authentication Using Asymmetric Encryption 470

15.5 Federated Identity Management 472

Appendix 15A Kerberos Encryption Techniques 481

PART FIVE NETWORK AND INTERNET SECURITY 485 Chapter 16 Transport-Level Security 485

16.1 Web Security Issues 486

16.2 Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) 489

16.3 Transport Layer Security (TLS) 502

16.4 HTTPS 506

16.5 Secure Shell (SSH) 508

Chapter 17 Wireless Network Security 521

17.1 IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN Overview 523

17.2 IEEE 802.11i Wireless LAN Security 529

17.3 Wireless Application Protocol Overview 543

17.4 Wireless Transport Layer Security 550

17.5 WAP End-to-End Security 560

Chapter 18 Electronic Mail Security 567

18.1 Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) 568

18.2 S/MIME 587

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CONTENTS ix

18.3 DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM) 603

18.4 Recommended Web Sites 610

Appendix 18A Radix-64 Conversion 612

Chapter 19 IP Security 615

19.1 IP Security Overview 616

19.2 IP Security Policy 622

19.3 Encapsulating Security Payload 627

19.4 Combining Security Associations 634

19.5 Internet Key Exchange 638

19.6 Cryptographic Suites 647

APPENDICES 651

Appendix A Projects for Teaching Cryptography and Network Security 651

A.1 Sage Computer Algebra Projects 652

A.2 Hacking Project 653

A.3 Block Cipher Projects 653

A.4 Laboratory Exercises 654

A.5 Research Projects 654

A.6 Programming Projects 655

A.7 Practical Security Assessments 655

A.8 Writing Assignments 655

A.9 Reading/Report Assignments 656

Appendix B Sage Examples 657

B.1 Chapter 2: Classical Encryption Techniques 659

B.2 Chapter 3: Block Ciphers and the Data Encryption Standard 662

B.3 Chapter 4: Basic Concepts in Number Theory and Finite Fields 666

B.4 Chapter 5: Advanced Encryption Standard 673

B.5 Chapter 6: Pseudorandom Number Generation and Stream Ciphers 678

B.6 Chapter 8: Number Theory 680

B.6 Chapter 9: Public-Key Cryptography and RSA 685

B.7 Chapter 10: Other Public-Key Cryptosystems 688

B.8 Chapter 11: Cryptographic Hash Functions 693

B.9 Chapter 13: Digital Signatures 695

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20.3 Password Management

20.4 Recommended Reading and Web Sites

20.5 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems

Appendix 20A The Base-Rate Fallacy

Chapter 21 Malicious Software

21.1 Types of Malicious Software

21.2 Viruses

21.3 Virus Countermeasures

21.4 Worms

21.5 Distributed Denial of Service Attacks

22.5 Firewall Location and Configurations

PART SEVEN LEGAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES

Chapter 23 Legal and Ethical Issues

23.1 Cybercrime and Computer Crime

23.2 Intellectual Property

23.3 Privacy

23.4 Ethical Issues

ONLINE APPENDICES

WilliamStallings.com/Crypto/Crypto5e.html

Appendix C Sage Problems

C.1 Getting Started with Sage

C.2 Programming with Sage

C.3 Chapter 2: Classical Encryption Techniques

C.4 Chapter 3: Block Ciphers and the Data Encryption Standard

C.5 Chapter 4: Basic Concepts in Number Theory and Finite Fields

C.6 Chapter 5: Advanced Encryption Standard

C.7 Chapter 7: Pseudorandom Number Generation and Stream Ciphers

C.8 Chapter 8: Number Theory

C.9 Chapter 9: Public-Key Cryptography and RSA

C.10 Chapter 10: Other Public-Key Cryptosystems

C.11 Chapter 11: Cryptographic Hash Functions

C.12 Chapter 13: Digital Signatures

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CONTENTS xi

Appendix D Standards and Standards-Setting Organizations

D.1 The Importance of Standards

D.2 Internet Standards and the Internet Society

D.3 National Institute of Standards and Technology

Appendix E Basic Concepts from Linear Algebra

E.1 Operations on Vectors and Matrices

E.2 Linear Algebra Operations over Z n

Appendix F Measures of Security and Secrecy

F.1 Perfect Secrecy

F.2 Information and Entropy

F.3 Entropy and Secrecy

Appendix G Simplified DES

Appendix H Evaluation Criteria for AES

H.1 The Origins of AES

H.2 AES Evaluation

Appendix I More on Simplified AES

I.1 Arithmetic in GF(24)

I.2 The Mix Column Function

Appendix J Knapsack Public-Key Algorithm

J.1 The Knapsack Problem

J.2 The Knapsack Cryptosystem

J.3 Example

Appendix K Proof of the Digital Signature Algorithm

Appendix L TCP/IP and OSI

L.1 Protocols and Protocol Architectures

L.2 The TCP/IP Protocol Architecture

L.3 The Role of an Internet Protocol

L.4 IPv4

L.5 IPv6

L.6 The OSI Protocol Architecture

Appendix M Java Cryptographic APIs

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M.6 Using the Cryptographic Application

M.7 JCA/JCE Cryptography Example

Appendix N The Whirlpool Hash Function

N.1 Whirlpool Hash Structure

N.2 Block Cipher W

N.3 Performance of Whirlpool

Appendix O Data Compression Using ZIP

O.1 Compression Algorithm

O.2 Decompression Algorithm

Appendix P PGP Random Number Generation

P.1 True Random Numbers

P.2 Pseudorandom Numbers

Appendix Q International Reference Alphabet

Glossary

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N OTATION

D, K D1K, Y2 Symmetric decryption of ciphertext Yusing secret key K

D, PR a D1PR a , Y2 Asymmetric decryption of ciphertext Yusing A’s private key PR a

D, PU a D1PUa , Y2 Asymmetric decryption of ciphertext Yusing A’s public key PU a

E, K E1K, X2 Symmetric encryption of plaintext Xusing secret key K

E, PR a E(PR a,X) Asymmetric encryption of plaintext Xusing A’s private key PR a

E,PU a E(PU a,X) Asymmetric encryption of plaintext Xusing A’s public key PU a

PRa Private key of user A

PU a Public key of user A

MAC,K MAC(K, X) Message authentication code of message Xusing secret key K

GF( p) The finite field of order , where is prime The field is defined as

the set Zptogether with the arithmetic operations modulo p

p p

GF(2n) The finite field of order 2n

Z n Set of nonnegative integers less than n

gcd gcd(i, j) Greatest common divisor; the largest positive integer that dividesboth and with no remainder on division.i jmod amod m Remainder after division of by a m

mod, K a K b(mod )m amod mod m = b m

mod, [ a [ b(mod )m amodm Z bmod m

dlog dloga, p (b) Discrete logarithm of the numberbfor the base (mod )a p

w f(n) The number of positive integers less than and relatively prime to

This is Euler’s totient function.

n n

Even the natives have difficulty mastering this peculiar vocabulary.

—The Golden Bough, Sir James George Frazer

xiii

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| i | j i divides , which means that there is no remainder when is divided

by i

j j

|, | | a | Absolute value of a

|| x || y xconcatenated with y

L x L y xis approximately equal to y

䊝 x 䊝 y Exclusive-OR of and for single-bit variables;

Bitwise exclusive-OR of and for multiple-bit variablesx y

y x

:,; :x; The largest integer less than or equal to x

僆 x僆 S The element is contained in the set S.x

·

Á , a k2

A · (a1, a2 , The integer A corresponds to the sequence of integers

(a1,a2, Á , a k)

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“The tie, if I might suggest it, sir, a shade more tightly knotted One aims at the perfect butterfly effect If you will permit me —”

“What does it matter, Jeeves, at a time like this? Do you realize that

Mr Little’s domestic happiness is hanging in the scale?”

“There is no time, sir, at which ties do not matter.”

—Very Good, Jeeves! P G Wodehouse

In this age of universal electronic connectivity, of viruses and hackers, of electronic dropping and electronic fraud, there is indeed no time at which security does not matter Twotrends have come together to make the topic of this book of vital interest First, the explosivegrowth in computer systems and their interconnections via networks has increased thedependence of both organizations and individuals on the information stored and communi-cated using these systems This, in turn, has led to a heightened awareness of the need toprotect data and resources from disclosure, to guarantee the authenticity of data andmessages, and to protect systems from network-based attacks Second, the disciplines ofcryptography and network security have matured, leading to the development of practical,readily available applications to enforce network security

eaves-OBJECTIVES

It is the purpose of this book to provide a practical survey of both the principles and practice

of cryptography and network security In the first part of the book, the basic issues to beaddressed by a network security capability are explored by providing a tutorial and survey ofcryptography and network security technology The latter part of the book deals with thepractice of network security: practical applications that have been implemented and are inuse to provide network security

The subject, and therefore this book, draws on a variety of disciplines In particular, it isimpossible to appreciate the significance of some of the techniques discussed in this bookwithout a basic understanding of number theory and some results from probability theory.Nevertheless, an attempt has been made to make the book self-contained The book presentsnot only the basic mathematical results that are needed but provides the reader with anintuitive understanding of those results Such background material is introduced as needed.This approach helps to motivate the material that is introduced, and the author considersthis preferable to simply presenting all of the mathematical material in a lump at the begin-ning of the book

INTENDED AUDIENCE

The book is intended for both academic and a professional audiences As a textbook, it isintended as a one-semester undergraduate course in cryptography and network security forcomputer science, computer engineering, and electrical engineering majors It covers the

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material in IAS2 Security Mechanisms, a core area in the Information Technology body ofknowledge; NET4 Security, another core area in the Information Technology body of knowl-edge; and IT311, Cryptography, an advanced course; these subject areas are part of theACM/IEEE Computer Society Computing Curricula 2005.

The book also serves as a basic reference volume and is suitable for self-study

PLAN OF THE BOOK

The book is divided into seven parts (see Chapter 0 for an overview):

• Legal and Ethical Issues

The book includes a number of pedagogic features, including the use of the computeralgebra system Sage and numerous figures and tables to clarify the discussions Each chapterincludes a list of key words, review questions, homework problems, suggestions for furtherreading, and recommended Web sites The book also includes an extensive glossary, a list

of frequently used acronyms, and a bibliography In addition, a test bank is available toinstructors

ONLINE DOCUMENTS FOR STUDENTS

For this new edition, a tremendous amount of original supporting material has been madeavailable online, in the following categories

• Online chapters: To limit the size and cost of the book, four chapters of the book

are provided in PDF format This includes three chapters on computer security andone on legal and ethical issues The chapters are listed in this book’s table ofcontents

• Online appendices: There are numerous interesting topics that support material

found in the text but whose inclusion is not warranted in the printed text A total offifteen online appendices cover these topics for the interested student The appen-dices are listed in this book’s table of contents

• Homework problems and solutions: To aid the student in understanding the material,

a separate set of homework problems with solutions are available These enable thestudents to test their understanding of the text

• Key papers: Twenty-four papers from the professional literature, many hard to find,

are provided for further reading

• Supporting documents: A variety of other useful documents are referenced in the text

and provided online

• Sage code: The Sage code from the examples in Appendix B in case the student wants

to play around with the examples

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PREFACE xvii

Purchasing this textbook now grants the reader six months of access to this onlinematerial See the access card bound into the front of this book for details

INSTRUCTIONAL SUPPORT MATERIALS

To support instructors, the following materials are provided:

• Solutions Manual: Solutions to end-of-chapter Review Questions and Problems.

• Projects Manual: Suggested project assignments for all of the project categories listed

below

• PowerPoint Slides: A set of slides covering all chapters, suitable for use in lecturing.

• PDF Files: Reproductions of all figures and tables from the book.

• Test Bank: A chapter-by-chapter set of questions.

All of these support materials are available at the Instructor Resource Center(IRC) for this textbook, which can be reached via personhighered.com/stallings or byclicking on the button labeled “Book Info and More Instructor Resources” at this book’sWeb Site WilliamStallings.com/Crypto/Crypto5e.html To gain access to the IRC,please contact your local Prentice Hall sales representative via pearsonhighered.com/educator/replocator/requestSalesRep.page or call Prentice Hall Faculty Services at 1-800-526-0485

INTERNET SERVICES FOR INSTRUCTORS AND STUDENTS

There is a Web site for this book that provides support for students and instructors The siteincludes links to other relevant sites, transparency masters of figures and tables in the book

in PDF (Adobe Acrobat) format, and PowerPoint slides The Web page is at

WilliamStallings.com/Crypto/Crypto5e.html For more information, see Chapter 0.

New to this edition is a set of homework problems with solutions available at this Website Students can enhance their understanding of the material by working out the solutions

to these problems and then checking their answers

An Internet mailing list has been set up so that instructors using this book canexchange information, suggestions, and questions with each other and with the author Assoon as typos or other errors are discovered, an errata list for this book will be available atWilliamStallings.com In addition, the Computer Science Student Resource site at

WilliamStallings.com/StudentSupport.html provides documents, information, and useful

links for computer science students and professionals

PROJECTS AND OTHER STUDENT EXERCISES

For many instructors, an important component of a cryptography or security course is a ject or set of projects by which the student gets hands-on experience to reinforce conceptsfrom the text This book provides an unparalleled degree of support, including a projectscomponent in the course The IRC not only includes guidance on how to assign and structure

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pro-the projects, but it also includes a set of project assignments that covers a broad range oftopics from the text.

• Sage Projects: Described in the next section.

• Hacking Project: This exercise is designed to illuminate the key issues in intrusion

detection and prevention

• Block Cipher Projects: This is a lab that explores the operation of the AES encryption

algorithm by tracing its execution, computing one round by hand, and then exploringthe various block cipher modes of use The lab also covers DES In both cases, anonline Java applet is used (or can be downloaded) to execute AES or DES

• Lab Exercises: A series of projects that involve programming and experimenting with

concepts from the book

• Research Projects: A series of research assignments that instruct the student to

research a particular topic on the Internet and write a report

• Programming Projects: A series of programming projects that cover a broad range of

topics and that can be implemented in any suitable language on any platform

• Practical Security Assessments: A set of exercises to examine current infrastructure

and practices of an existing organization

• Writing Assignments: A set of suggested writing assignments organized by chapter.

• Reading/Report Assignments: A list of papers in the literature — one for each

chapter — that can be assigned for the student to read and then write a short report.See Appendix A for details

THE SAGE COMPUTER ALGEBRA SYSTEM

One of the most important new features for this edition is the use of Sage for cryptographicexamples and homework assignments Sage is an open-source, multiplatform, freeware pack-age that implements a very powerful, flexible, and easily learned mathematics and computeralgebra system Unlike competing systems (such as Mathematica, Maple, and MATLAB),there are no licensing agreements or fees involved Thus, Sage can be made available oncomputers and networks at school, and students can individually download the software totheir own personal computers for use at home Another advantage of using Sage is thatstudents learn a powerful, flexible tool that can be used for virtually any mathematicalapplication, not just cryptography

The use of Sage can make a significant difference to the teaching of the mathematics

of cryptographic algorithms This book provides a large number of examples of the use ofSage covering many cryptographic concepts in Appendix B

Appendix C lists exercises in each of these topic areas to enable the student to gainhands-on experience with cryptographic algorithms This appendix is available to instruc-tors at the IRC for this book Appendix C includes a section on how to download and getstarted with Sage, a section on programming with Sage, and includes exercises that can beassigned to students in the following categories:

• Chapter 2 — Classical Encryption: Affine ciphers and the Hill cipher.

• Chapter 3 — Block Ciphers And The Data Encryption Standard: Exercises based on

SDES

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PREFACE xix

• Chapter 4 — Basic Concepts In Number Theory And Finite Fields: Euclidean and

extended Euclidean algorithms, polynomial arithmetic, and GF(24)

• Chapter 5 — Advanced Encryption Standard: Exercise based on SAES.

• Chapter 6 — Pseudorandom Number Generation And Stream Ciphers: Blum Blum

Shub, linear congruential generator, and ANSI X9.17 PRNG

• Chapter 8 — Number Theory: Euler’s Totient function, Miller Rabin, factoring, modular

exponentiation, discrete logarithm, and Chinese remainder theorem

• Chapter 9 — Public-Key Cryptography And RSA: RSA encrypt/decrypt and signing.

• Chapter 10 — Other Public-Key Cryptosystems: Diffie-Hellman, elliptic curve

• Chapter 11 — Cryptographic Hash Functions: Number-theoretic hash function.

• Chapter 13 — Digital Signatures: DSA.

WHAT’S NEW IN THE FIFTH EDITION

The changes for this new edition of Cryptography and Network Security are more substantial

and comprehensive than those for any previous revision

In the three years since the fourth edition of this book was published, the field has seencontinued innovations and improvements In this new edition, I try to capture these changeswhile maintaining a broad and comprehensive coverage of the entire field To begin thisprocess of revision, the fourth edition was extensively reviewed by a number of professorswho teach the subject In addition, a number of professionals working in the field reviewedindividual chapters The result is that, in many places, the narrative has been clarified andtightened, and illustrations have been improved Also, a large number of new “field-tested”problems have been added

One obvious change to the book is a revision in the organization, which makes for aclearer presentation of related topics There is a new Part Three, which pulls together all ofthe material on cryptographic algorithms for data integrity, including cryptographic hashfunctions, message authentication codes, and digital signatures The material on key manage-ment and exchange, previously distributed in several places in the book, is now organized in

a single chapter, as is the material on user authentication

Beyond these refinements to improve pedagogy and user friendliness, there have beenmajor substantive changes throughout the book Highlights include:

• Euclidean and extended Euclidean algorithms (revised): These algorithms are

impor-tant for numerous cryptographic functions and algorithms The material on theEuclidean and extended Euclidean algorithms for integers and for polynomials hasbeen completely rewritten to provide a clearer and more systematic treatment

• Advanced Encryption Standard (revised): AES has emerged as the dominant symmetric

encryption algorithm, used in a wide variety of applications Accordingly, this edition hasdramatically expanded the resources for learning about and understanding this impor-tant standard The chapter on AES has been revised and expanded, with additional illus-trations and a detailed example, to clarify the presentation Examples and assignmentsusing Sage have been added And the book now includes an AES cryptography lab,which enables the student to gain hands-on experience with AES cipher internals andmodes of use The lab makes use of an AES calculator applet, available at this book’sWeb site, that can encrypt or decrypt test data values using the AES block cipher

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• Block Cipher Modes of Operation (revised): The material in Chapter 6 on modes of

operation has been expanded and the illustrations redrawn for greater clarity

• Pseudorandom number generation and pseudorandom functions (revised): The

treat-ment of this important topic has been expanded, with the addition of new material onthe use of symmetric encryption algorithms and cryptographic hash functions to con-struct pseudorandom functions

• ElGamal encryption and digital signature (new): New sections have been added on

this popular public-key algorithm

• Cryptographic hash functions and message authentication codes (revised): The

mater-ial on hash functions and MAC has been revised and reorganized to provide a clearerand more systematic treatment

• SHA-3 (new): Although the SHA-3 algorithm has yet to be selected, it is important

for the student to have a grasp of the design criteria for this forthcoming

cryptograph-ic hash standard

• Authenticated encryption (new): The book covers the important new algorithms,

CCM and GCM, which simultaneously provide confidentiality and data integrity

• Key management and distribution (revised): In the fourth edition, these topics were

scattered across three chapters In the fifth edition, the material is revised and dated into a single chapter to provide a unified, systematic treatment

consoli-• Remote user authentication (revised): In the fourth edition, this topic was covered in

parts of two chapters In the fifth edition the material is revised and consolidated into

a single chapter to provide a unified, systematic treatment

• Federated identity (new): A new section covers this common identity management

scheme across multiple enterprises and numerous applications and supporting manythousands, even millions, of users

• HTTPS (new): A new section covers this protocol for providing secure

communica-tion between Web browser and Web server

• Secure shell (new): SSH, one of the most pervasive applications of encryption

tech-nology, is covered in a new section

• DomainKeys Identified Mail (new): A new section covers DKIM, which has become

the standard means of authenticating e-mail to counter spam

• Wireless network security (new): A new chapter covers this important area of

net-work security The chapter deals with the IEEE 802.11 (WiFi) security standard forwireless local area networks; and the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) securitystandard for communication between a mobile Web browser and a Web server

• IPsec (revised): The chapter on IPsec has been almost completely rewritten It now

covers IPsecv3 and IKEv2 In addition, the presentation has been revised to improveclarity and breadth

• Legal and ethical issues (new): A new online chapter covers these important

topics

• Online appendices (new): Fifteen online appendices provide additional breadth and

depth for the interested student on a variety of topics

• Sage examples and problems (new): As mentioned, this new edition makes use of the

open-source, freeware Sage computer algebra application to enable students to havehands-on experience with a variety of cryptographic algorithms

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PREFACE xxi

With each new edition it is a struggle to maintain a reasonable page count while addingnew material In part, this objective is realized by eliminating obsolete material and tighten-ing the narrative For this edition, chapters and appendices that are of less general interesthave been moved online as individual PDF files This has allowed an expansion of materialwithout the corresponding increase in size and price

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This new edition has benefited from review by a number of people who gave generously oftheir time and expertise The following people reviewed all or a large part of the manuscript:Marius Zimand (Towson State University), Shambhu Upadhyaya (University of Buffalo),Nan Zhang (George Washington University), Dongwan Shin (New Mexico Tech), MichaelKain (Drexel University), William Bard (University of Texas), David Arnold (Baylor Uni-versity), Edward Allen (Wake Forest University), Michael Goodrich (UC-Irvine), XunhuaWang (James Madison University), Xianyang Li (Illinois Institute of Technology), and PaulJenkins (Brigham Young University)

Thanks also to the many people who provided detailed technical reviews of one ormore chapters: Martin Bealby, Martin Hlavac (Department of Algebra, Charles University

in Prague, Czech Republic), Martin Rublik (BSP Consulting and University of Economics inBratislava), Rafael Lara (President of Venezuela’s Association for Information Security andCryptography Research), Amitabh Saxena, and Michael Spratte (Hewlett-Packard Com-pany) I would especially like to thank Nikhil Bhargava (IIT Delhi) for providing detailedreviews of various chapters of the book

Joan Daemen kindly reviewed the chapter on AES Vincent Rijmen reviewed thematerial on Whirlpool Edward F Schaefer reviewed the material on simplified AES.Nikhil Bhargava (IIT Delhi) developed the set of online homework problems andsolutions Dan Shumow of Microsoft and the University of Washington developed all of theSage examples and assignments in Appendices B and C Professor Sreekanth Malladi ofDakota State University developed the hacking exercises Lawrie Brown of the AustralianDefence Force Academy provided the AES/DES block cipher projects and the securityassessment assignments

Sanjay Rao and Ruben Torres of Purdue University developed the laboratory

exercis-es that appear in the IRC The following people contributed project assignments that appear

in the instructor’s supplement: Henning Schulzrinne (Columbia University); Cetin Kaya Koc(Oregon State University); and David Balenson (Trusted Information Systems and GeorgeWashington University) Kim McLaughlin developed the test bank

Finally, I would like to thank the many people responsible for the publication of thebook, all of whom did their usual excellent job This includes my editor Tracy Dunkelberger,her assistant Melinda Hagerty, and production manager Rose Kernan Also, Jake Warde ofWarde Publishers managed the reviews

With all this assistance, little remains for which I can take full credit However, I amproud to say that, with no help whatsoever, I selected all of the quotations

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A BOUT THE A UTHOR

William Stallings has made a unique contribution to understanding the broad sweep of nical developments in computer security, computer networking and computer architecture

tech-He has authored 17 titles, and counting revised editions, a total of 42 books on variousaspects of these subjects His writings have appeared in numerous ACM and IEEE publica-

tions, including the Proceedings of the IEEE and ACM Computing Reviews.

He has 11 times received the award for the best Computer Science textbook of theyear from the Text and Academic Authors Association

In over 30 years in the field, he has been a technical contributor, technical manager,and an executive with several high-technology firms He has designed and implemented bothTCP/IP-based and OSI-based protocol suites on a variety of computers and operatingsystems, ranging from microcomputers to mainframes As a consultant, he has advisedgovernment agencies, computer and software vendors, and major users on the design, selec-tion, and use of networking software and products

He created and maintains the Computer Science Student Resource Site at

WilliamStalI-ings.com/StudentSupport.html.This site provides documents and links on a variety of subjects

of general interest to computer science students (and professionals) He is a member of theeditorial board of Cryptologia, a scholarly journal devoted to all aspects of cryptology

Dr Stallings holds a PhD from M.I.T in Computer Science and a B.S from NotreDame in electrical engineering

xxiii

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R EADER ’ S G UIDE

0.1 Outline of This Book

0.2 A Roadmap for Readers and Instructors

Subject MatterTopic Ordering

0.3 Internet and Web Resources

Web Sites for This BookOther Web Sites

Newsgroups and Forums

0.4 Standards

CHAPTER

1

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The art of war teaches us to rely not on the likelihood of the enemy’s not coming, but

on our own readiness to receive him; not on the chance of his not attacking, but rather

on the fact that we have made our position unassailable.

—The Art of War, Sun Tzu

This book, with its accompanying Web site, covers a lot of material Here we give thereader an overview

0.1 OUTLINE OF THIS BOOK

Following an introductory chapter, Chapter 1, the book is organized into seven parts:

Part One: Symmetric Ciphers: Provides a survey of symmetric encryption, including

clas-sical and modern algorithms.The emphasis is on the two most important rithms, the Data Encryption Standard (DES) and the Advanced EncryptionStandard (AES) This part also covers the most important stream encryptionalgorithm,RC4,and the important topic of pseudorandom number generation

algo-Part Two: Asymmetric Ciphers: Provides a survey of public-key algorithms,

including RSA (Rivest-Shamir-Adelman) and elliptic curve

Part Three: Cryptographic Data Integrity Algorithms: Begins with a survey of

crypto-graphic hash functions This part then covers two approaches to dataintegrity that rely on cryptographic hash functions: message authentica-tion codes and digital signatures

Part Four: Mutual Trust: Covers key management and key distribution topics and

then covers user authentication techniques

Part Five: Network Security and Internet Security: Examines the use of cryptographic

algorithms and security protocols to provide security over networks and theInternet Topics covered include transport-level security, wireless networksecurity, e-mail security, and IP security

Part Six: System Security: Deals with security facilities designed to protect a

computer system from security threats, including intruders, viruses, andworms This part also looks at firewall technology

Part Seven: Legal and Ethical Issues: Deals with the legal and ethical issues related

to computer and network security

A number of online appendices at this book’s Web site cover additional topicsrelevant to the book

0.2 A ROADMAP FOR READERS AND INSTRUCTORS

Subject Matter

The material in this book is organized into four broad categories:

• Cryptographic algorithms: This is the study of techniques for ensuring the

secrecy and/or authenticity of information The three main areas of study in

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0.2 / A ROADMAP FOR READERS AND INSTRUCTORS 3

this category are: (1) symmetric encryption, (2) asymmetric encryption, and(3) cryptographic hash functions, with the related topics of message authenti-cation codes and digital signatures

• Mutual trust: This is the study of techniques and algorithms for providing

mutual trust in two main areas First, key management and distribution dealswith establishing trust in the encryption keys used between two communicatingentities Second, user authentication deals with establishing trust in the identity

of a communicating partner

• Network security: This area covers the use of cryptographic algorithms in

network protocols and network applications

• Computer security: In this book, we use this term to refer to the security of

computers against intruders (e.g., hackers) and malicious software (e.g.,viruses) Typically, the computer to be secured is attached to a network, andthe bulk of the threats arise from the network

The first two parts of the book deal with two distinct cryptographic approaches:symmetric cryptographic algorithms and public-key, or asymmetric, cryptographicalgorithms Symmetric algorithms make use of a single key shared by two parties.Public-key algorithms make use of two keys: a private key known only to one partyand a public key available to other parties

none of the material in Part One requires any special mathematical background To

understand AES, it is necessary to have some understanding of finite fields In turn,

an understanding of finite fields requires a basic background in prime numbers andmodular arithmetic Accordingly, Chapter 4 covers all of these mathematical prelim-inaries just prior to their use in Chapter 5 on AES Thus, if Chapter 5 is skipped, it issafe to skip Chapter 4 as well

Chapter 2 introduces some concepts that are useful in later chapters of PartOne However, for the reader whose sole interest is contemporary cryptography,this chapter can be quickly skimmed The two most important symmetric crypto-graphic algorithms are DES and AES, which are covered in Chapters 3 and 5,respectively

Chapter 6 covers specific techniques for using what are known as block metric ciphers Chapter 7 covers stream ciphers and random number generation.These two chapters may be skipped on an initial reading, but this material is refer-enced in later parts of the book

sym-For Part Two, the only additional mathematical background that is needed is in

the area of number theory, which is covered in Chapter 8 The reader who has skippedChapters 4 and 5 should first review the material on Sections 4.1 through 4.3

The two most widely used general-purpose public-key algorithms are RSAand elliptic curve, with RSA enjoying wider acceptance The reader may wish to skipthe material on elliptic curve cryptography in Chapter 10, at least on a first reading

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In Part Three, the topics in Sections 12.6 and 12.7 are of lesser importance.

Parts Four, Five, and Six are relatively independent of each other and can be

read in any order These three parts assume a basic understanding of the material in

Parts One, Two, and Three The four chapters of Part Five, on network and Internet

security, are relatively independent of one another and can be read in any order

0.3 INTERNET AND WEB RESOURCES

There are a number of resources available on the Internet and the Web to supportthis book and to help readers keep up with developments in this field

Web Sites for This Book

There is a Web page for this book at WilliamStallings.com/Crypto/Crypto5e.html.

The site includes the following:

• Useful Web sites: There are links to other relevant Web sites, organized by

chapter, including the sites listed throughout this book

• Errata sheet: An errata list for this book will be maintained and updated as

needed Please e-mail any errors that you spot to me Errata sheets for my

other books are at WilliamStallings.com.

• Figures: All of the figures in this book are provided in PDF (Adobe Acrobat)

format

• Tables: All of the tables in this book are provided in PDF format.

• Slides: A set of PowerPoint slides are provided, organized by chapter.

• Cryptography and network security courses: There are links to home pages for

courses based on this book; these pages may be useful to other instructors inproviding ideas about how to structure their course

I also maintain the Computer Science Student Resource Site, at William

Stallings.com/StudentSupport.html The purpose of this site is to provide

docu-ments, information, and links for computer science students and professionals Linksand documents are organized into six categories:

• Math: Includes a basic math refresher, a queuing analysis primer, a number

system primer, and links to numerous math sites

• How-to: Advice and guidance for solving homework problems, writing

techni-cal reports, and preparing technitechni-cal presentations

• Research resources: Links to important collections of papers, technical

reports, and bibliographies

• Miscellaneous: A variety of other useful documents and links.

• Computer science careers: Useful links and documents for those considering a

career in computer science

• Humor and other diversions: You have to take your mind off your work once

in a while

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0.4 / STANDARDS 5

Other Web Sites

There are numerous Web sites that provide information related to the topics of thisbook In subsequent chapters, pointers to specific Web sites can be found in the

Recommended Reading and Web Sites section Because the addresses for Web sites

tend to change frequently, the book does not provide URLs For all of the Web siteslisted in the book, the appropriate link can be found at this book’s Web site Otherlinks not mentioned in this book will be added to the Web site over time

Newsgroups and Forums

A number of USENET newsgroups are devoted to some aspect of cryptography ornetwork security As with virtually all USENET groups, there is a high noise-to-signalratio, but it is worth experimenting to see if any meet your needs The most relevantare as follows:

• sci.crypt.research: The best group to follow This is a moderated newsgroup

that deals with research topics; postings must have some relationship to thetechnical aspects of cryptology

• sci.crypt: A general discussion of cryptology and related topics.

• sci.crypt.random-numbers: A discussion of cryptographic-strength random

number generators

• alt.security: A general discussion of security topics.

• comp.security.misc: A general discussion of computer security topics.

• comp.security.firewalls: A discussion of firewall products and technology.

• comp.security.announce: News and announcements from CERT.

• comp.risks: A discussion of risks to the public from computers and users.

• comp.virus: A moderated discussion of computer viruses.

In addition, there are a number of forums dealing with cryptography available

on the Internet Among the most worthwhile are

• Security and Cryptography forum: Sponsored by DevShed Discusses issues

related to coding, server applications, network protection, data protection,firewalls, ciphers, and the like

• Cryptography forum: On Topix Fairly good focus on technical issues.

• Security forums: On WindowsSecurity.com Broad range of forums, including

cryptographic theory, cryptographic software, firewalls, and malware

Links to these forums are provided at this book’s Web site

0.4 STANDARDS

Many of the security techniques and applications described in this book havebeen specified as standards Additionally, standards have been developed tocover management practices and the overall architecture of security mechanisms

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and services Throughout this book, we describe the most important standards inuse or being developed for various aspects of cryptography and network security.Various organizations have been involved in the development or promotion ofthese standards The most important (in the current context) of these organiza-tions are as follows:

• National Institute of Standards and Technology: NIST is a U.S federal agency

that deals with measurement science, standards, and technology related to U.S.government use and to the promotion of U.S private-sector innovation.Despite its national scope, NIST Federal Information Processing Standards(FIPS) and Special Publications (SP) have a worldwide impact

• Internet Society: ISOC is a professional membership society with worldwide

organizational and individual membership It provides leadership in ing issues that confront the future of the Internet and is the organizationhome for the groups responsible for Internet infrastructure standards,including the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the InternetArchitecture Board (IAB) These organizations develop Internet standardsand related specifications, all of which are published as Requests forComments (RFCs)

address-• ITU-T: The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is an international

organization within the United Nations System in which governments and theprivate sector coordinate global telecom networks and services The ITUTelecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) is one of the three sectors

of the ITU ITU-T’s mission is the production of standards covering all fields oftelecommunications ITU-T standards are referred to as Recommendations

• ISO: The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)1is a wide federation of national standards bodies from more than 140 countries,one from each country ISO is a nongovernmental organization that pro-motes the development of standardization and related activities with a view

world-to facilitating the international exchange of goods and services and world-to oping cooperation in the spheres of intellectual, scientific, technological, andeconomic activity ISO’s work results in international agreements that arepublished as International Standards

devel-A more detailed discussion of these organizations is contained in devel-Appendix D

1 ISO is not an acronym (in which case it would be IOS), but it is a word derived from the Greek, meaning

equal.

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O VERVIEW

1.1 Computer Security Concepts

A Definition of Computer SecurityExamples

The Challenges of Computer Security

1.2 The OSI Security Architecture

1.3 Security Attacks

Passive AttacksActive Attacks

1.4 Security Services

AuthenticationAccess ControlData ConfidentialityData IntegrityNonrepudiationAvailability Service

1.5 Security Mechanisms

1.6 A Model for Network Security

1.7 Recommended Reading and Web Sites

1.8 Key Terms, Review Questions, and Problems

CHAPTER

7

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KEY POINTS

◆ The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) security architecture provides

a systematic framework for defining security attacks, mechanisms, andservices

◆ Security attacks are classified as either passive attacks, which include

unauthorized reading of a message of file and traffic analysis or activeattacks, such as modification of messages or files, and denial of service

◆ A security mechanism is any process (or a device incorporating such a

process) that is designed to detect, prevent, or recover from a security attack.Examples of mechanisms are encryption algorithms, digital signatures, andauthentication protocols

◆ Security services include authentication, access control, data confidentiality,

data integrity, nonrepudiation, and availability

This book focuses on two broad areas: cryptographic algorithms and protocols, whichhave a broad range of applications; and network and Internet security, which relyheavily on cryptographic techniques

Cryptographic algorithms and protocols can be grouped into four main areas:

• Symmetric encryption: Used to conceal the contents of blocks or streams of

data of any size, including messages, files, encryption keys, and passwords

• Asymmetric encryption: Used to conceal small blocks of data, such as encryption

keys and hash function values, which are used in digital signatures

• Data integrity algorithms: Used to protect blocks of data, such as messages,

from alteration

• Authentication protocols: These are schemes based on the use of cryptographic

algorithms designed to authenticate the identity of entities

The field of network and Internet security consists of measures to deter, prevent,

detect, and correct security violations that involve the transmission of tion That is a broad statement that covers a host of possibilities To give you afeel for the areas covered in this book, consider the following examples ofsecurity violations:

informa-1. User A transmits a file to user B The file contains sensitive information(e.g., payroll records) that is to be protected from disclosure User C, who is

The combination of space, time, and strength that must be considered as the basic elements of this theory of defense makes this a fairly complicated matter Consequently, it is not easy to find a fixed point of departure.

—On War, Carl Von Clausewitz

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1.1 / COMPUTER SECURITY CONCEPTS 9

not authorized to read the file, is able to monitor the transmission and capture

a copy of the file during its transmission

2. A network manager, D, transmits a message to a computer, E, under its agement The message instructs computer E to update an authorization file toinclude the identities of a number of new users who are to be given access tothat computer User F intercepts the message, alters its contents to add ordelete entries, and then forwards the message to computer E, which acceptsthe message as coming from manager D and updates its authorization fileaccordingly

man-3. Rather than intercept a message, user F constructs its own message with thedesired entries and transmits that message to computer E as if it had comefrom manager D Computer E accepts the message as coming from manager Dand updates its authorization file accordingly

4. An employee is fired without warning The personnel manager sends amessage to a server system to invalidate the employee’s account When theinvalidation is accomplished, the server is to post a notice to the employee’sfile as confirmation of the action The employee is able to intercept themessage and delay it long enough to make a final access to the server toretrieve sensitive information The message is then forwarded, the actiontaken, and the confirmation posted The employee’s action may gounnoticed for some considerable time

5. A message is sent from a customer to a stockbroker with instructions forvarious transactions Subsequently, the investments lose value and thecustomer denies sending the message

Although this list by no means exhausts the possible types of network securityviolations, it illustrates the range of concerns of network security

1.1 COMPUTER SECURITY CONCEPTS

A Definition of Computer Security

The NIST Computer Security Handbook [NIST95] defines the term computer security

as follows:

COMPUTER SECURITY

The protection afforded to an automated information system in order to attain theapplicable objectives of preserving the integrity, availability, and confidentiality ofinformation system resources (includes hardware, software, firmware, information/data, and telecommunications)

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This definition introduces three key objectives that are at the heart ofcomputer security:

• Confidentiality: This term covers two related concepts:

Data1confidentiality: Assures that private or confidential information is

not made available or disclosed to unauthorized individuals

Privacy: Assures that individuals control or influence what information

related to them may be collected and stored and by whom and to whomthat information may be disclosed

• Integrity: This term covers two related concepts:

Data integrity: Assures that information and programs are changed only in

a specified and authorized manner

System integrity: Assures that a system performs its intended function in an

unimpaired manner, free from deliberate or inadvertent unauthorizedmanipulation of the system

• Availability: Assures that systems work promptly and service is not denied to

authorized users

These three concepts form what is often referred to as the CIA triad

(Figure 1.1) The three concepts embody the fundamental security objectives forboth data and for information and computing services For example, the NIST

standard FIPS 199 (Standards for Security Categorization of Federal Information

and services

Integrity

Availability Figure 1.1 The Security Requirements

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and Information Systems) lists confidentiality, integrity, and availability as the three

security objectives for information and for information systems FIPS 199 provides auseful characterization of these three objectives in terms of requirements and thedefinition of a loss of security in each category:

• Confidentiality: Preserving authorized restrictions on information access

and disclosure, including means for protecting personal privacy and etary information A loss of confidentiality is the unauthorized disclosure ofinformation

propri-• Integrity: Guarding against improper information modification or

destruc-tion, including ensuring information nonrepudiation and authenticity

A loss of integrity is the unauthorized modification or destruction ofinformation

• Availability: Ensuring timely and reliable access to and use of information.

A loss of availability is the disruption of access to or use of information or aninformation system

Although the use of the CIA triad to define security objectives is well established,some in the security field feel that additional concepts are needed to present a completepicture Two of the most commonly mentioned are as follows:

• Authenticity: The property of being genuine and being able to be verified and

trusted; confidence in the validity of a transmission, a message, or messageoriginator This means verifying that users are who they say they are and thateach input arriving at the system came from a trusted source

• Accountability: The security goal that generates the requirement for actions

of an entity to be traced uniquely to that entity This supports tion, deterrence, fault isolation, intrusion detection and prevention, andafter-action recovery and legal action Because truly secure systems are notyet an achievable goal, we must be able to trace a security breach to

nonrepudia-a responsible pnonrepudia-arty Systems must keep records of their nonrepudia-activities to permitlater forensic analysis to trace security breaches or to aid in transactiondisputes

Examples

We now provide some examples of applications that illustrate the requirements justenumerated.2For these examples, we use three levels of impact on organizations orindividuals should there be a breach of security (i.e., a loss of confidentiality,integrity, or availability) These levels are defined in FIPS PUB 199:

• Low: The loss could be expected to have a limited adverse effect on

organiza-tional operations, organizaorganiza-tional assets, or individuals A limited adverse effectmeans that, for example, the loss of confidentiality, integrity, or availability

2 These examples are taken from a security policy document published by the Information Technology Security and Privacy Office at Purdue University.

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might (i) cause a degradation in mission capability to an extent and durationthat the organization is able to perform its primary functions, but the effec-tiveness of the functions is noticeably reduced; (ii) result in minor damage toorganizational assets; (iii) result in minor financial loss; or (iv) result in minorharm to individuals.

• Moderate: The loss could be expected to have a serious adverse effect on

organizational operations, organizational assets, or individuals A seriousadverse effect means that, for example, the loss might (i) cause a significantdegradation in mission capability to an extent and duration that the organi-zation is able to perform its primary functions, but the effectiveness ofthe functions is significantly reduced; (ii) result in significant damage toorganizational assets; (iii) result in significant financial loss; or (iv) result insignificant harm to individuals that does not involve loss of life or serious,life-threatening injuries

• High: The loss could be expected to have a severe or catastrophic adverse

effect on organizational operations, organizational assets, or individuals

A severe or catastrophic adverse effect means that, for example, the lossmight (i) cause a severe degradation in or loss of mission capability to anextent and duration that the organization is not able to perform one ormore of its primary functions; (ii) result in major damage to organizationalassets; (iii) result in major financial loss; or (iv) result in severe or cata-strophic harm to individuals involving loss of life or serious, life-threateninginjuries

C ONFIDENTIALITY Student grade information is an asset whose confidentiality

is considered to be highly important by students In the United States, the release

of such information is regulated by the Family Educational Rights and PrivacyAct (FERPA) Grade information should only be available to students, theirparents, and employees that require the information to do their job Studentenrollment information may have a moderate confidentiality rating While stillcovered by FERPA, this information is seen by more people on a daily basis, isless likely to be targeted than grade information, and results in less damage ifdisclosed Directory information, such as lists of students or faculty ordepartmental lists, may be assigned a low confidentiality rating or indeed norating This information is typically freely available to the public and published

on a school’s Web site

I NTEGRITY Several aspects of integrity are illustrated by the example of a hospitalpatient’s allergy information stored in a database The doctor should be able to trustthat the information is correct and current Now suppose that an employee (e.g., anurse) who is authorized to view and update this information deliberately falsifiesthe data to cause harm to the hospital The database needs to be restored to atrusted basis quickly, and it should be possible to trace the error back to the personresponsible Patient allergy information is an example of an asset with a highrequirement for integrity Inaccurate information could result in serious harm ordeath to a patient and expose the hospital to massive liability

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An example of an asset that may be assigned a moderate level of integrityrequirement is a Web site that offers a forum to registered users to discuss somespecific topic Either a registered user or a hacker could falsify some entries ordeface the Web site If the forum exists only for the enjoyment of the users, brings inlittle or no advertising revenue, and is not used for something important such asresearch, then potential damage is not severe The Web master may experiencesome data, financial, and time loss

An example of a low integrity requirement is an anonymous online poll ManyWeb sites, such as news organizations, offer these polls to their users with very fewsafeguards However, the inaccuracy and unscientific nature of such polls is wellunderstood

A VAILABILITY The more critical a component or service, the higher is the level ofavailability required Consider a system that provides authentication services forcritical systems, applications, and devices An interruption of service results in theinability for customers to access computing resources and staff to accessthe resources they need to perform critical tasks The loss of the servicetranslates into a large financial loss in lost employee productivity and potentialcustomer loss

An example of an asset that would typically be rated as having a moderateavailability requirement is a public Web site for a university; the Web site providesinformation for current and prospective students and donors Such a site is not acritical component of the university’s information system, but its unavailability willcause some embarrassment

An online telephone directory lookup application would be classified as alow availability requirement Although the temporary loss of the application may be

an annoyance, there are other ways to access the information, such as a hardcopydirectory or the operator

The Challenges of Computer Security

Computer and network security is both fascinating and complex Some of the reasonsfollow:

1. Security is not as simple as it might first appear to the novice The ments seem to be straightforward; indeed, most of the major requirementsfor security services can be given self-explanatory, one-word labels: confi-dentiality, authentication, nonrepudiation, or integrity But the mechanismsused to meet those requirements can be quite complex, and understandingthem may involve rather subtle reasoning

require-2. In developing a particular security mechanism or algorithm, one must alwaysconsider potential attacks on those security features In many cases, successfulattacks are designed by looking at the problem in a completely different way,therefore exploiting an unexpected weakness in the mechanism

3. Because of point 2, the procedures used to provide particular services are oftencounterintuitive Typically, a security mechanism is complex, and it is not obviousfrom the statement of a particular requirement that such elaborate measures are

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