THE ROUTLEDGE COMPANION TO ETHICS The Routledge Companion to Ethics is an outstanding survey of the whole field of ethics by a distinguished international team of contributors Over 60 entries are divided into six clear sections: The history of ethics Meta-ethics Perspectives from outside ethics Ethical perspectives Morality Debates in ethics The Companion opens with a comprehensive historical overview of ethics, including entries on Plato, Aristotle, Hume and Kant, and the origins of ethical thinking in China, India and the Middle East The second part covers the domain of meta-ethics, including entries on cognitivism and non-cognitivism, explanation, reasons, moral realism and fictionalism The third part covers important challenges to ethics from the fields of anthropology, psychology, sociobiology and economics The fourth and fifth sections cover competing theories of ethics and the nature of morality respectively, with entries on consequentialism, Kantian morality, virtue ethics, relativism, morality and character, evil, responsibility and particularism in ethics among many others A comprehensive final section includes entries on the most important topics and controversies in applied ethics, including rights, justice and distribution, the end of life, the environment, poverty, war and terrorism The Routledge Companion to Ethics is a superb resource for anyone interested in the subject, whether in philosophy or related subjects such as politics, education, or law Fully indexed and cross-referenced, with helpful further reading sections, it is ideal for those coming to the field of ethics for the first time as well as readers already familiar with the subject John Skorupski is Professor of Moral Philosophy at the University of St Andrews, Scotland His books include Ethical Explorations (1999) and The Domain of Reasons (forthcoming in 2010) ROUTLEDGE PHILOSOPHY COMPANIONS Routledge Philosophy Companions offer thorough, high quality surveys and assessments of the major topics and periods in philosophy Covering key problems, themes and thinkers, all entries are specially commissioned for each volume and written by leading scholars in the field Clear, accessible and carefully edited and organized, Routledge Philosophy Companions are indispensable for anyone coming to a major topic or period in philosophy, as well as for the more advanced reader The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics, Second Edition Edited by Berys Gaut and Dominic Lopes The Routledge Companion to Ethics Edited by John Skorupski The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion Edited by Chad Meister and Paul Copan The Routledge Companion to the Philosophy of Science Edited by Stathis Psillos and Martin Curd The Routledge Companion to Twentieth Century Philosophy Edited by Dermot Moran The Routledge Companion to Philosophy and Film Edited by Paisley Livingston and Carl Plantinga The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Psychology Edited by John Symons and Paco Calvo The Routledge 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Stewart Goetz The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Law Edited by Andrei Marmor The Routledge Companion to Islamic Philosophy Edited by Richard C Taylor and Luis Xavier López-Farjeat PRAISE FOR THE SERIES The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics “This is an immensely useful book that belongs in every college library and on the bookshelves of all serious students of aesthetics.” – Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism “The succinctness and clarity of the essays will make this a source that individuals not familiar with aesthetics will find extremely helpful.” – The Philosophical Quarterly “An outstanding resource in aesthetics … this text will not only serve as a handy reference source for students and faculty alike, but it could also be used as a text for a course in the philosophy of art.” – Australasian Journal of Philosophy “Attests to the richness of modern aesthetics … the essays in central topics – many of which are written by well-known figures – succeed in being informative, 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this compendium is an excellent resource Highly recommended.” – Choice “Highly recommended for history of science and philosophy collections.” – Library Journal “This well conceived companion, which brings together an impressive collection of distinguished authors, will be invaluable to novices and experience readers alike.” – Metascience The Routledge Companion to Twentieth Century Philosophy “To describe this volume as ambitious would be a serious understatement … full of scholarly rigor, including detailed notes and bibliographies of interest to professional philosophers … Summing up: Essential.” – Choice The Routledge Companion to Philosophy and Film “A fascinating, rich volume offering dazzling insights and incisive commentary on every page … Every serious student of film will want this book … Summing Up: Highly recommended.” – Choice The Routledge Companion to Metaphysics “The Routledge Philosophy Companions series has a deserved reputation for impressive scope and scholarly value This volume is no exception … Summing Up: Highly recommended.” – Choice THE ROUTLEDGE COMPANION TO ETHICS Edited by John Skorupski First edition published 2010 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2010 To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk © 2010 John Skorupski for selection and editorial matter; individual contributors for their contributions All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data The Routledge companion to ethics / edited by John Skorupski p cm – (Routledge philosophy companions) Includes bibliographical references and index Ethics I Skorupski, John, 1946– BJ21.R68 2010 170–dc22 2009050204 ISBN 0-203-85070-X Master e-book ISBN Hbk ISBN 13: 978-0-415-41362-6 Ebk ISBN 13: 978-0-203-85070-1 CONTENTS List of illustrations Notes on contributors Preface PART I History xv xvi xxv 1 Ethical thought in China YANG XIAO Ethical thought in India STEPHEN R L CLARK 21 Socrates and Plato RICHARD KRAUT 31 Aristotle CHRISTOPHER TAYLOR 41 Later ancient ethics A A LONG 52 The Arabic tradition PETER ADAMSON 63 Early modern natural law KNUD HAAKONSSEN 76 Hobbes BERNARD GERT 88 Ethics and reason MICHAEL LEBUFFE 99 10 Ethics and sentiment: Shaftesbury and Hutcheson MICHAEL B GILL 111 11 Hume JAMES A HARRIS 122 INDEX doctrine of double effect (DDE) 257–58, 260, 603, 604, 828 Doll, Richard 787 Donagan, Alan 565 Doris, J.M 393 Dostoevsky, Fyodor 230, 355 double effect, doctrine of see doctrine of double effect (DDE) Driver, Julia 17 Druart, Thérèse-Anne 66 dualism of practical reason (Sidgwick) 194, 197, 198, 200, 545 Dubuffet, Jean 230 Dummett, Michael 346 Dumont, Louis 23 Durkheim, Émile 369–70, 371 duty(ies): and Bentham 150–51; and Kant 164; prima facie 473–74, 632; and rights 670–71; and Smith 140 duty-based ethics see deontology/ deontologists Dworkin, Ronald 511, 676, 697–98 Dwyer, S 775 Dylan, Bob 754 cases 723, 724–26; see also euthanasia; suicide Enlightenment 78; rights theory 84–86 environment/environmental ethics 754–64; and aesthetics 533–34; and animal liberation theorists 760; and anthropocentrism 762–63; Christianity and destruction of 755, 762; conceptual challenges 757–61; and deep ecology 757, 762; growth in concern with and responses to challenges 754–57; and intrinsic value 758–60; and land ethic 755–56; and moral standing 758; and pluralism 760–61, 763; and population policy 738; and poverty 802–3 envy 590, 646 envy test 697 Epictetus 61, 62 Epicurean ethics/Epicureanism 52, 53–58, 130, 144, 146, 480; and death 55, 708–11; and fear of god 54–55; and friendship 52, 57; and hedonism 52, 56–57; and justice 52, 57; and pleasure 55, 56–57, 59; and virtue 57 Epicurus 52, 53–58, 54, 145; Letter to Menoeceus 54 epistemic error theory 337, 338 equal-value view: and value of life 727–28 equality: and dignity 565; and egalitarianism 700; and feminist ethics 519; and free speech 769; and Hobbes 94 equality for its own sake 447 equality of resources (Dworkin) 697–98 equity 470, 471, 475 erotica 773 error theory 335, 336–39, 348, 405; arguments for 338–39; and cognitivism 344; epistemic 337, 338; and hermeneutic fictionalism 341–42; metaphysical 337–38; of morality 305, 438; and non-cognitivism 336, 342–44; and revolutionary fictionalism 339–41 essence: and existence (Heidegger) 243–45 eternal life 714 ethical rationalists 83 eudaimonia 42, 43–44, 45, 46, 49, 52, 480, 486, 508–9, 649 euthanasia 610, 721, 722–23, 724, 726 Euthyphro dilemma 253, 261 Evans-Pritchard, Edward 371 Evens, T.M.S 377–78 evil 584–94; and Aquinas 584, 591; “banal” 587, 591; definition 584, 587; and Descartes 103; distinction between natural and moral 584–85; and explanation ecology 755 economy: and Hegel 175 education: and Mill 190 egalitarianism 554–55; and distributive justice 697–701; and equality 700; luck 697–99; Paretian 700; and personal conduct 699–700 egoism 34, 111, 445; attack on by sentimentalists 111–14; rational 475–76 Ehrlich, Paul: Population Bomb 754–55 Eichmann, Adolf 587, 591, 592 elections: Hegel’s critique of democratic 169, 175 Elisabeth, Princess of Bohemia 100 embryonic cell research 790–92 emotions: of condemnation 576–79; contrast between evaluative conception and mechanical conception of 575; and moral judgements 389–91, 392; and moral philosophy 574–75; and partiality 623–24; and Stoicism 61, 483 emotivism/emotivists 302, 304, 306, 321–25, 332, 405 empathy 486 empirical ethics 402–4 empirical intractability thesis 386, 387–88 ending life 720–28; and autonomy issue 727; and quality-of-life issue 727; and withdrawal of treatment/feeding tubes 836 INDEX 593–94; modern analyses of 586–88; and Nietzsche 209; privative theory of 591; as a special category 585–86 evil agents 591–92 evil character 588–92 evolution 256–57, 397–98, 401–2, 403–4, 406 Ewing, A.C 467 excellence: and Arabic ethics 65; Aristotle and intellectual 44, 45–46 existence: and essence (Heidegger) 243–45 existentialism 230–39; and Beauvoir 237–38; definition 232; distinction between existential philosophy and 231–32; emphasis on the individual 230; and Fanon 238–39; and Heidegger 231, 241, 244; and humanism 232; and Kierkegaard 239; and Nietzsche 230, 235; and Sartre 230–31, 232, 233–37, 241; thinkers 230 expected values 450–51 experience condition 709–10 experience machines 649–50 explanatory reasons 275–76 expressivism 306, 312, 313, 315–16, 364, 392 externalists/externalism: and internalists 385–92; morality-reasons 436–37; motivational judgement 307–10; naturalistic motivational 308; nonnaturalistic motivational 309; reasons 437 theorists 520; and natural law 510; and pornography 774; and relational approaches 517, 518; and relationships 515–16, 518; and rights 516–17; and sexuality 519–20; and theory of the self 517–18; and “woman” category 519–20 Ferlinghetti, Lawrence 754 fertility rates 802 Fichte, J.G 562, 568–70, 571 fictionalism 311–12, 336, 343, 348; hermeneutic 341–42; revolutionary 339–41 fidelity 60, 468–69, 472, 473 Finnis, John 506–7, 508, 509; Aquinas 505, 506; Fundamentals of Ethics 506, 507; Natural Law and Natural Rights 506, 507, 510 first-order ethical theory 249 Flanagan, O 393 Foot, Philippa 204–6, 304, 435, 479, 482, 504 foresight: and moral responsibility 602–5 forgiveness 575–76 formal methods 408–18; decision theory 413–14; deontic logic 408–10; game theory 414–16; measurement theory 410–13; and population ethics 418; social choice theory 417–18; welfare economics 416–17 formalism 533 formula of autonomy (FA) 162–63 formula of humanity as an end (FHE) 161–62, 163, 564, 565, 567, 622, 676 formula of the kingdom of the kings (CKE) 162–63, 167, 490 formula of universal law (FUL) 159–61, 164, 165 Foucault, Michel 228, 372, 374, 375; ethicsmorality distinction 374, 375; and power 374, 376; and techniques of the self 375–76 Francis, Leslie Pickering 749 Frankena, W 658 Frankfurt, Harry 16 Frankfurt scenarios 267, 270 free speech 769–78; and equality 769; and pornography 773–75; and racist hate speech 769, 775–77; reasons for importance 769–70; and regulation 769, 770–73 free will 72–73; and Descartes 101–2, 103; and Hume 128; and Nietzsche 209–10 freedom: and anthropology 376; and Hegel 171–73; and Heidegger 244–45; and Hobbes 171; and Kant 245; and responsibility 263–73; and Sartre 234–35, 236; and Spinoza 104, 107 facts 347–48, 349, 351, 438; and reasons 279–81 faith 82 fallibilists/fallibilism 302, 361 falsafa 63 false consciousness 153 falsity: and moral judgements 305–10 family loyalties: and partiality/impartiality 622–23 Fanon, Frantz 230; Black Skin White Masks 238 al-Fárábí 64, 65, 66, 70–71, 72–73; Aphorisms 70; Directing Attention to the Way of Happiness 66 Faubion, J.D 376–77 fear 574; of death 707, 713–14; and respect 563 felicity 101, 108–9 feminist ethics 514–23, 699, 762, 763; areas of disagreement 519–20; and care ethics 483–84, 487, 515, 521–22; common themes 515–18; criticism of traditional ethics 515, 516; and equality 519; future directions 520–23; and global justice 520–21; and the good 521–23; issues covered 514; and mainstream moral 837 INDEX Sidgwick 287, 292–93; and Spinoza 106; and Stoic ethics 60; supervenience of 293–95 Gould, Stephen Jay 402 gratitude 96–97, 472 Greeks, ancient 26, 52, 54, 55, 168, 378, 526, 542, 580 Green, T.H 192–94, 195–98, 199–201, 201, 202, 220, 661, 662, 663; Prolegomena to Ethics 192 Greene, J.D et al 389 Greenpeace 827 grief: and Stoicism 61 Grisez, Germain 506 Grote, John 193, 198 Grotius, Hugo 78, 79, 85, 91, 541 growth, and Dewey 226 Guantánamo Bay 820, 821 guilt 580–81; and Nietzsche 210–12, 214–15 freedom of the will (Kant) 156, 162, 163–65 Frege-Geach problem 304, 306, 316, 326–27, 330, 344 Frey, R.G 751 friendship: and Aristotle 48–50, 622; and Epicurean ethics 52, 57; and partiality 622 Fuller, Lon 502 functionalism 317, 415–16 fundamentalism 376–77 Gahuku Gama 378 Gaia 267 Galen 64–65, 69, 70 game theory 414–16 Gandhi, Mahatma 23, 28–29, 657, 659–60, 662, 663, 664–65 Garrard, Eve 588, 591–92 Gassendi, Pierre 144–45 Gauthier, David 739 Gay, John 144 Geach, Peter 304, see also Frege-Geach problem General Medical Council 782 generalism/generalists 628; arguments for 636–37; and particularism 628–38 Geneva Conventions 816 German Police Battalion (101) 589 Giacometti, Alberto 230, 232 Gibbard, Alan 306 Gilligan, Carol 483, 515 Gilson, Etienne 510 GISSI trial 784–85 global warming 415 goals 233, 234–35 God 99, 470, 471, 554, 619; and James 221, 223; and natural law 509–10; and Nietzsche 214; and Paley 147; and Smith 140–41; and Spinoza 107 Gödel 317 Godlovitch, Ross and Stan 742 gods 253–54, 255; and Epicurean ethics 54–55; Greek 54; and Plato 37 Godwin, William 617 Golding, Martin 505–6, 511 good/goodness: and Arabic ethics 66; and Aristotle 40, 41–43, 46; and Confucianism 6–8; definability of 289–93; and Descartes 101, 103; and feminist ethics 521–23; and hedonists 286, 292, 469; Kantian 61; and Legalism 12; and measurement theory 410, 412–13; and Moore 475–76; and Nietzsche 208–9; and open question argument 286–96, 323–24; and Plato 39–40; as self-realization 195–96, 197–98, 199–200; and Shaftesbury 116, 117; and habitus 375 Haldane, John 506, 507 Hall, Pamela 509 Hamilton, Christopher 592 Hamilton, Sir William 218 Hampshire, Stuart 224 Hampton, Jean 577–78 Hanfeizi 5, 6, 11 happiness 206, 393, 662; and Arabic ethics 68–69, 70–71; and Butler 114; and Descartes 101; and Epicurean ethics 53–54; and Hume 483; and Mill 181, 182, 187–88, 190; and Stoic ethics 58; see also eudaimonia 52 Hardin, Garrett 754 Hare, R.M 743; Freedom and Reason 511 harm 710–11; minimizing risk of in research participants 782, 783 Harman, Gilbert 359, 393 Harris, John 742 Harsanyi, J 417 Hart, H.L.A 423, 502, 680, 687; The Concept of Law 502 Haybron, Daniel 588, 592 hedonism/hedonists 52, 144, 194, 195, 469, 654; Epicurean 52, 56–57; and experience machines 649–50; features of 648; and net benefit 446, 447; objections to 649–50; quantitative 194, 199; and Sidgwick 194–95; and welfare 648–50, 710 Heekeren, H.R et al 389 Hegel, G.W.F 168–79, 220, 681; and conscience 555–56, 557–58; Encyclopedia 571; and freedom 171–73; individual autonomy and social reconciliation 838 INDEX human flourishing 232–33, 625 human nature: and Confucianism 9, 14; and Daoism 14; and Legalists 12; and Mohism 11; and open question argument 288 human rights 669, 677–78, 805 humanists 657 humanitarian intervention 811 humanity as an end: Kant’s formula of 161–62, 163, 564, 565, 567, 622, 676 Hume, David 111, 120, 122–31, 146, 259, 400, 404, 405–6; and artificial virtues 123–26; and deontology 485; Enquiry concerning Human Understanding 123; Enquiry concerning the Principles of Morals 122, 128–30; and evil character 589, 590; and justice 124–25, 129–30, 171; legacy of 130–31; and natural abilities 127–28; “Of the Standard of Taste” 122; “On Suicide” 122; and passions 147, 259–60; and reason 92; and religion 122, 254; and Smith 133, 141; Treatise of Human Nature 122, 123–28, 483; and utility 141; and virtue 123–28, 130, 146–47, 151, 483–84, 547 Humeans: and motivation 457–58 Hume’s law 410 Hursthouse, Rosalind 479, 482, 486; On Virtue Ethics 482 Hutcheson, Francis 85, 111–13, 114, 115, 120, 122–23; arguments against moral rationalism 115, 118–20; attack on egoism 111–13; Illustrations on the Moral Sense 118; and Smith 133 Huxley, Julian 400, 401, 402 hybrid theory: and punishment 687–88; and welfare 652–53 hypothetical imperatives 158, 541 177–78; and justice 171, 174; and Kant 170; master-servant dialectic 562, 570; moderate collectivism of 168–69, 178; and morality 558; Phenomenology of Spirit 562, 570–71; Philosophy of Right 168, 169, 178; and punishment 174, 681; and recognition 562, 570–71; rejection of atomistic individualism 168–69; rejection of open democratic elections 169, 175; rejection of social contract 169–70, 176–77, 199; social role obligations 176–77; structure of analysis in Philosophy of Right 173–76; theoretical context of moral philosophy 168–70 Heidegger, Martin 228, 230, 241–50; and authenticity 245–49; Being and Time 241–42, 245; and conscience 556; and “das Man” 246–47, 248; and Dasein 242, 243; essence and existence 243–44, 247; and existentialism 231, 241, 244; and freedom 244–45; and individuality 249–50; and perfectionism 249 Held, Virginia 520, 522 Hellenistic ethics 52–53 see also Epicurean ethics/Epicureanism; Stoic ethics Helsinki Declaration (1964) 781, 782, 783–84 Henry, Thomas 402 hermeneutic fictionalism 341–42 hermit problem 734 Hezbollah 563 Hill, Jr, Thomas E 462 Himmler, Heinrich 590–91 Hindu ethics 21, 25–26 Hinduism 28 Hirschkind, C 377 historicism: and natural law 511 Hitler, Adolf 400, 532, 589 Hittinger, Russell 503, 507 Hobbes, Thomas 85, 88–98, 144, 490, 541, 672; and civil society 93–94, 95, 97; criticism of 88; distinguishing morality from religion 88, 97–98; equality and impartiality 94; and freedom 171; and gratitude 96–97; and justice 91, 95–96; and laws of nature 90, 91, 92–94, 97; Leviathan 79, 81, 97; misinterpretations of 88; and morality 88–92; and natural law 79–80, 81, 91–92; opposition to autonomy 96; political theory 89–90, 93; and reason 89–90, 91–92, 97 Hohfeld, Welsey 672, 673 holism of reasons: and particularism 634–35 Holocaust 585, 593 Homer 25 Horgan, T 351–54 Ibn ‘Adí, Yahyá 64, 67–68, 70, 72, 73; Refinement 71 idealism/idealists 195–97, 297; alternative to utilitarianism 195–97; contribution to moral theory 201–2; defences of 198–201; good as self-realization 195–96, 197, 198–99; objections to 197–98 ideals: moral rules and moral 658–59; and second best 659–60; and self-sacrifice 660–65 Ilaiah, Kancha 29 imagination: and Smith 135, 136 immunity rights 673 impartial spectator 137, 139–41, 618–19 impartiality 94, 617–26 see also partiality incompatibilism 265–66 indeterminism 270–72 India 21, 370–71; independence campaign 28 839 INDEX just war theory 716, 810, 813, 826 justice: distributive see distributive justice; egalitarian 697–701; and Epicurean ethics 52, 57; feminist ethics and global 520–21; and Hegel 171, 174; and Hobbes 91, 95–96; and Hume 124–25, 129–30, 171; and Kant 165–66; and Leibniz 84, 109; libertarian 695–97; and Mill 188–89; and Plato 34, 39–40, 539; pluralist 701–2; and punishment 680–81; and Rawls 460, 462, 692–94, 701, 739–40; restorative 689; retributive 682–85; and rights 681; and Smith 138; social contract theory 57 justifiability 459, 460 Indian ethical thought 21–30; and caste 22–24; and dharma 24, 25, 27; four human goals of 24; and kárma 27, 28; and moksha 26–27; routes to freedom 28; ultimate aim of 26–27 indignation 577–78 individual: existentialism and emphasis on 230 individualist restriction 496–97 individuality: and Heidegger 249–50 inequality: and poverty 797, 805 inherent value 745, 746 innatism 258 insight principle 557 institutional approach: and partiality 617–18 institutions: and Hegel 175–76 integrity argument 620 intellectual goods: and Spinoza 107 intellectualism: and Arabic ethics 65–66 intelligent action: and Dewey 225–26 intention: and moral responsibility 602–5 internalists/internalism: and externalists 385–92; morality-reasons 436–37; motivational judgment 306–7, 308; reasons 437 intrinsic value 656, 758–60 intuitionism/intuitionists 310, 467–76; as epistemological foundationalists 468; falling into disrepute 476; main features of 467–70; and pluralism 470–76 irrealism 297, 298; and moral fictionalism 311 is/ought distinction 259, 261, 491 ISIS-2 trial 785 Islam: and Arabic ethics 72 Israelites 625 Kagan, Shelly kalon 60 káma 24 Kames, Lord (Henry Home) 130 Kant, Immanuel/Kantian ethics 60, 156–67, 170, 249, 259, 384, 393–94, 442, 456–65, 478, 548, 621, 630, 656; and a priori method 156–57, 170, 289; and animals 461–62, 750; and autonomy 162–63, 458–60, 461, 564; and Categorical Imperative 157, 158, 159–65, 200, 300, 310, 456, 541, 633; and conscience 555; and constructivism 462–63; Critique of Practical Reason 156, 166, 456; Critique of Pure Reason 156, 165, 166; and dignity 564–65; division of world into phenomenal and noumenal 220; formula of autonomy (FA) 162–63; formula of humanity as an end (FHE) 161–62, 163, 564, 565, 567, 622, 676; formula of the kingdom of ends (FKE) 162–63, 167, 490; formula of universal law (FUL) 159–61, 164, 165; and freedom 245; and freedom of the will 156, 162, 163–65; Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals 156, 157, 162–63, 164, 233, 256; and happiness 634; influence of Stoicism on 487; main themes in ethics of 256–57; The Metaphysics of Morals 156, 157, 161, 162, 165, 456, 682; and moral judgements 157–59; and moral principles 156–57, 170; and rationality/reason 156, 233, 234, 456–57, 554; and “realm of ends” 456–57, 462; and recognition 569; Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason 166–67; and religion 166–67; and respect 562, 563–66, 567–68, 571; theory of law and justice 165–66; and virtue 479 Kantians 310, 487; approaches to authority of morality 463–65; approaches to content Jaggar, Alison 520 James, William 217, 218, 219, 221–24; as an indeterminist 221; and Mill 222–23; Pragmatism 218; Principles of Psychology 219; and radical pluralism 221; view of moral philosophy 222; The Will to Believe 222, 223 James, Henry: The Golden Bowl 530–31 Jaspers, Karl 230 játis 23–24 Jews 64 jñána 28, 29 judgements, moral 305–10; and emotions 389–91, 392; and Kant 157–59 jurisprudence 72, 501–5, 506, 507, 511 jus ad bellum 810 jus in bello 810 just share 696 840 INDEX 109; “Memoir for Enlightened Persons” 109–10; and natural law 84, 100, 108, 109 Leiter, Brian 206 Leopold, Aldo 755, 760; Sand County Almanac 755 liberal communitarianism 220 liberalism: and Mill 189–91 liberals 822 libertarian justice 695–97 lifeboat example 747–48 linguistic turn 298 Little, Margaret 631 Locke, John 80, 144, 541; Essay Concerning Human Understanding 550; and morality 81, 85; and natural law 81–82; and rights 85 logic, deontic 408–10 logical empiricists 302 lower cultures: and ascetic ideal (Nietzsche) 215 Luban, David 822–23 luck egalitarianism 697–99 Lucretius 55, 708; and the mirror of time 712–13 lying 777 Lyons, David 357, 362 of morality 458–62; and autonomy 461; and choice 310; and deontology 485; moral psychology 457–58; and motivation 458; and rationality 487 kárma 27, 28 Kekes, John 587 Keller, Gottfried 531 Kerr, Fergus 508, 509 Keynes, Maynard 289 Kierkegaard, Søren 230, 239; The Concept of Anxiety 239; The Sickness unto Death 239 killing 707, 714–17, 822 al-Kindí 64, 71; Discourse on the Soul 69; On Dispelling Sadness 64, 66, 67, 69, 70 kindness 307, 482 King, Martin Luther 502, 665 kingdom of ends: Kant’s formula of 162–63, 167, 490 kinship systems 376 Kitcher, Philip 399 knowledge, moral: and conscience 552–53, 554, 558; and perceptual knowledge 635 Koenigs, M et al 391 Koggell, Christine 521 Kohlberg, Lawrence 385 Koran 63 Korean War 816 Korsgaard, Christine 6, 464, 465, 520 Kreimer, Seth 822 Krishna 21, 23, 26 Kuhn, Ulrich 510 McCosh, James 218, 219 McDowell 328–31, 332–33, 392 McDowell, John 306–7, 321, 328–31, 332–33, 392, 482 McGinn, Colin 590 McInerny, Ralph 504, 506, 507, 510 MacIntyre, Alasdair 373, 486, 503; After Virtue 503, 507; Dependent Rational Animals 507 Mackie, John 291, 305–6, 339, 347–48, 392, 399, 405 MacKinnon, C 774 Madison, James 86 Mahabarata 21 Mahmood, S 377 Malthus, Robert 736 Mandeville, Bernard 122, 133 Marcel, Gabriel 230 Maritain, Jacques 504; Man and the State 504 Marx, Karl 239 Marxists 370 master-servant dialectic (Hegel) 562, 570 mathematics 218, 471 Matsuda, M 775 Mauss, Marcel 370, 371 Meadows, Donnella and Dennis: Limits to Growth 755 measurement theory 410–13 Lambek, Michael 372–73 land ethic 755–56 Lannoy, Richard 25 Laozi 5, 13–14 law 420–29, 670; and Kant 165–66; and moral aims 420–21; moral obligatoriness of 427–29; and morality 421–29; see also natural law law of nations 77, 84 “law of unintended consequences” 171 Lawrence, D.H 289 laws of nature (Hobbes) 90, 91, 92–94, 97 least-inexcusable-war theory 810, 811 Lebanon, war in (2006) 563 left-libertarians 696 legal norms 421–23 legal positivism 502 legal standing 758 Legalism/Legalists 3, 6–7, 11–13, 15 legality 426–27 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm 83, 99, 100, 108–10; “Felicity” 108–9; and justice 84, 841 INDEX Medical Research Council 782 medicine: Arabic ethics and spiritual 69–71 Mencius 5, 6, 8, 9, 10 Mencius 8, 9–10 Mental Capacity Act (2005) 784 mercy 690 meta-ethics 130, 298, 336, 348, 384, 385, 392–93, 408 metaphysical error theories 337–38 metaphysical ethics 288–89 military necessity: and limited conduct of war 811–12, 814 Mill, James 181 Mill, John Stuart 152, 181–91, 218, 224; and conscience 553, 555; and consequentialism 181, 184; critique of Bentham 148–49, 152; Green on 193; and happiness 181, 182, 187–88, 190; and James 222–23; and liberalism 189–91; and liberty 249; and nature 224; On Liberty 186, 190; and pleasure 185–86, 193; and pragmatism 218; principle of utility 181–82, 187–88, 193; and qualitative hedonism 185–86, 193; Representative Government 190; sanctions and moral motivation 186–87; Sidgwick on 193; Subjection of Women 184, 190; theory of justice and moral rights 188–89; Utilitarianism 181, 183–84, 186, 187, 188, 224; and utilitarianism 181–84, 189, 191, 193, 245 Millennium Declaration 800 Millennium Development Goals 800–801 Miller, D 702; Principles of Social Justice 701, 702 Millgram, E 393 mineness: and Heidegger 245–46, 247 minimal realism 316 minimalism 315–16, 317 miniride principle 747 Minow, Martha 517 Miskawayh 68, 69–70, 71; Refinement 64, 68, 70, 72; Shorter Healing 67 Mohism 3, 10–11, 15 moksha 26–27 Moll, J et al 389 monism/monists 467, 469–70, 476 monotonicity 411, 412 Moore, G.E 256, 412, 467, 469, 470, 475–76, 526, 759; critique of metaphysical ethics 288–89; and naturalistic fallacy 288, 400, 501; open question argument 286–89, 308, 321, 322–25; and organic unities 412; Principa Ethica 286–96, 475–76; and supervenience 293–94 moral claims 352 moral codes 374 moral development 385 moral division of labour 699 moral expertise: and Plato 35, 36 moral faculty 114–15 moral judgements see judgements, moral moral language 300, 311–12 moral obligations 82, 210, 540, 544–45; and Dewey 225; and reasons 434–39; and value 440 moral principles 473, 628; abstinence of 635–36; definition 628–29; eliminativism of 632; as guides 630, 636; and Kant 156–57, 170; and particularism/generalism debate 628–33; role of 629; as standards 629, 630 moral rationalism 111, 115–20 moral rights 150, 188–89, 674–75, 676 moral rules: and moral ideals 658–59 moral sense 85, 116–17, 118, 119–20 moral standing 758 moral statements: and cognitive content 302, 304–5 moral theology: and natural law 510–11 morality 24, 81, 253; and Aristotle 92; characterizing of 434; and Confucianism 6–7; critics of 546–48; defending 548–49; defining 206–7; distinction from ethics 374–75; distinctive elements of 541; error theory of 305, 348; features central to 298–301; and Hobbes 88–92; and Kantians 458–62, 463–65; and law 421–29; and Locke 81, 85; modern conception of 540–45; Nietzsche’s critique of 204–16, 540, 546–47; as a perspective within ethics 433–34; and religion 88, 97–98; and self-realization 196–97; and values 439–42; and Williams 205 morality of custom 210 morality in the pejorative sense (MPS) 206 morality-reasons externalism 436–37 morality-reasons internalism 436–37 More, Henry 83 Morris, G.S 219 Morton, Adam 586, 588 motivation 332, 457–58; and contractualism 491; debate between externalists and internalists 385–92; and Humeans 457–58; and Kantians 458; sanctions and moral 186–87 motivation externalists: debate between motive internalists and 385–92 motivational internalism 278–79 842 INDEX motivational judgment externalists 307–10, 312 motivational judgment internalists 306–7, 312 Mozi 5, 10 Mozi 10 Muir, John 755 murder 325–27, 332 see also killing Murphy, Jeffrey 399, 404–5, 575, 577 Mu‘tazilites 63 neo-Aristotelianism 317, 482 Neo-Confucian philosophers 16 Neoplatonists 38 nepotism 624 Nero, Emperor 590 net benefit 446–47 neurological disorders 261 New Testament 230, 625 Ng, Yew-Kwan 733 Nietzsche, Friedrich 204–16, 305, 338, 374, 480, 657, 658, 680; and ascetic ideal 213–16; and bad conscience 213; Beyond Good and Evil 235; critique of morality 204–16, 540, 546–47; and cruelty 211–12, 214, 215; and existentialism 230, 235; and good 208–9; and guilt 210–12, 214–15; On the Genealogy of Morality 207, 208, 210, 370; and punishment 210, 211, 680; and slave revolt in morality 208–10, 215; and virtue ethics 209, 483 nihilism 261, 262, 335–36, 357, 632 9/11 (2001) 285, 820 Noddings, Nel 515 non-analytic naturalists 308–9, 316 non-cognitivism 321–33, 405, 476; “a priori” objections to 321, 327–31; and contaminated response problem 328–29, 332–33; disentangling objection to 330–31, 333; and emotivism 321–25; and error theory 336, 342–44; and quasi-realism 325–27; synthetic 321, 331–33; see also cognitivism non-identity problem 735 non-maleficence 646 non-moral values 441–42 non-naturalism/naturalists 312, 315, 317–18 non-naturalistic motivational externalists 309–10 Norman, Richard 749 normative ethics 384, 393–94, 408, 413, 521 normative moral theory 476 normative reasons 275 normative relativism 359 Nozick, Robert 695–96, 750; Anarchy, State and Utopia 695 Nuremberg Code 781 Nussbaum, Martha 483, 486, 504, 506, 508, 520, 521, 522, 530–31, 575; capabilities approach 506, 509; The Fragility of Goodness 509 Næss, Arne 756–57 Nagel, Thomas 445, 464, 699 Narayan, Uma 521 Nash equilibrium 414, 415 natural abilities: and Hume 127–28, 129 natural law 501–12, 675; and Aquinas 76, 501, 504–5, 510; Catholic Church doctrine of 76; central role of the human person 505–6; and the common good 508–9; in contemporary moral theology 510–11; and Cumberland 80–81; differing theories of in contemporary marketplace 506–8; and Dworkin 511; early modern 76–86; and Enlightenment rights theory 84–85; and feminist moral theory 510; and Finnis 506–7; formation of early 77–79; and God 509–10; and Grotius 79; and Hobbes 79–80, 81, 91–92;and jurisprudence 501–5, 506, 511; and Leibniz 84, 100, 108, 109; and Locke 81–82; and moral rights 675; and natural rights 508; and Pufendorf 83–84; resurgence of interest in 501–5; and rights 676; roots 501; and Spinoza 80; Thomistic 76; and Wolff 84 natural rights 150, 504, 508 natural selection 397, 399, 403, 405 naturalism/naturalists 219, 288, 312, 315, 317; analytic 309, 316–17; distinction between methodological and substantive 331; Moore’s critique of 288–89; neoAristolian 317; non-analytic 308–9; and pragmatism 219 naturalistic cognitivism 322–23, 331–32 naturalistic fallacy 256, 288, 400, 501 naturalistic motivational externalists 308 nature: aesthetic experience of 528; and James 224; and Mill 224; and open question argument 288 nausea 329 Nazis 241, 400, 585, 587, 590, 593, 781 Nedelsky, Jennifer 517 negativity 14–15 Neiman, Susan 585 objective list theory 646–48, 652, 654 objective purport 299, 301, 313 objectivity 312 obligations, moral see moral obligations 843 INDEX Occam’s Razor 751 O’Neill, Onora 520, 521 open question argument 286–96, 308, 554, 636; and emotivism 321, 323–25, 332; and quasi-realism 332; and quasi-religion 327–28 optimum population problem 731–36, 737 option rights 673 organ transplants 498 organic unities 412 original position (Rawls) 462, 693, 694, 739–40 Pinckaers, Servais 510 Plato 31–40, 41, 52, 58, 69, 253, 624; Apology of Socrates 31–32, 33, 35, 36, 58; and Arabic thinkers 64; Crito 33, 34; dialogues of and early thought in 31, 32–37, 40; Euthyphro 37, 38, 630; and forms/ideas 38; and good 39–40; Gorgias 33, 34; and justice 34, 39–40, 539; The Laws 32, 39–40, 64; Meno 33, 36; Phaedo 35, 37–38; Phaedrus 38–39; Philebus 39; and piety 35, 37, 38; and pleasure 36–37, 48; Protagoras 36; The Republic 37, 38–39, 64, 65, 539, 540; and soul 35, 37–39, 65; Theaetetus 72; and virtues 34–37 Platonists/Platonism 297, 480 pleasure 36, 475; and Arabic ethics 67; and Aristotle 46–48; and Bentham 149, 192; and Epicurean ethics 55, 56–57, 59; and hedonism 648–49; and Mill 185–86, 193; and Plato 36–37, 48; and Stoicism 52, 59 Plotinus 27, 38 pluralism: debate between monism and 476; and distributive justice 701–2; and environmental ethics 760–61, 763; and intuitionism 470–76; and James 221 political goods: and Spinoza 106–7 political morality: and virtue ethics 486–87 political rule: and Arabic ethics 70–71 Popper, Karl 219 population 754–55 population ethics 418, 731–40; and aid 736; and coercive policies 736–38; and environmental issues 738; and Malthusian argument 736; optimum population problem 731–36, 737; and repugnant conclusion 732–33, 735; and social contract theory 739–40 population policy 736–38 pornography 519, 773–75 Porter, Jean 508, 510 Portmore, Douglas 449 positivists: and rights 674–75 possession: and Hegel 173–74 poverty 796–806, 798, 802; and the affluent 803–5; decline in and fertility rate decline 802; ending of 797; and environment 802– 3; and inequality 797, 805; lack of attention to world 802; and Millennium Development Goals 800–801; perpetuation of by global institutional arrangements 804; prevalence of 796; and purchasing power parities (PPPs) 797–99, 798; World Bank figures 799 pacifism 809; renunciatory 809–10, 811 Paley, William 146–48, 152 Pandian, Anand 373 paradox of analysis 289 Paretian egalitarianism 700 Pareto principle 416 Parfit, Derek 278, 418, 445, 732, 732–33, 735 partiality 617–26; and consequentialists 617–18; and deontology 618; and emotions 623–24; friends and families 621–24; institutional approach 617–18; and self-concern 620–21; versus the ethical perspective 618–19; wholesome versus suspect 624–25; within different ethical frameworks 617–18 particularism 628–38; arguments for and against 633–37; and holism of reasons 634–35; and moral principles 628–33; recent developments 637 passions: and Descartes 100–101, 102–3; and Hume 147, 259–60; and Spinoza 105–6 patriarchy 762, 763 patriotism 624 pefectionism 249, 647 Peirce, C.S 218, 219 penance 581–82 perception 557 Pérez, Sergio 588 perfectability 84 perfectionism/perfection 250, 654, 656–65; and Leibniz 108, 109, 110; and second best 659–60; and self-sacrifice 660–65; and Spinoza 106; Tolstoy-Gandhi version 657–58; and utilitarianism 660 Perrett, Roy: Hindu Ethics 26 person-affecting restriction 735–36, 737 personality 567 “philosophy as defense” (Rawls) 548 phronésis 45, 46 physician-assisted suicide 721–22, 723–25, 726 piety: and Plato 35, 37, 38 844 INDEX poverty of stimulus 258 power: and Foucault 374, 376 practical anthropology 170 practical import 300–301 practice theory 373 pragmatism 217–29, 444; and Dewey 219–20; and James 218; and Mill 218; and naturalism 219; origins 218; philosophy has no subject matter of its own idea 226–27; and Rorty 226–27 preferentism: and welfare 650–51, 652 preventative war 811 Price, Richard 287, 467 Prichard, H.A 467, 471, 472–73, 474, 542, 545, 548 prima facie duties 473–74, 632 principle of alternate possibilities (PAP) 266–67 principles, moral see moral principles prioritarianism 447, 700–701 prisoner’s dilemma 414–15, 542–44 probity: and Bentham 149–50 progress 400–402 projectivism 317, 328–29 promise-keeping 124–25 property rights 695, 696 prophecy: and Arabic ethics 72 proportionality: and limited conduct of war 817 propriety: and Smith 136–38 prudence: and Bentham 149; and Kant 157–58, 159; and Smith 141–42 pseudo-propositions 302 psychology, moral 384–94; debate between motive internalists and externalists 385–92; and meta-ethics 393; and normative ethics 393–94 psychopaths 391 public good 508, 509 Pufendorf, Samuel 80, 81, 83, 541 punishment 147, 574, 680–91; communicative theory of 684–85, 688, 689–90; consequentialist theory of 684, 686–88; and crime prevention 686; definition 680; and desert 682–85; displacement of by restorative justice idea 689–90; and Hegel 174, 681; and hybrid theory 687–88; and Legalism 12; and Nietzsche 210, 211, 680; in the perspective of justice 680–81; and retributive justice 682–85, 686, 687–88; and rights 681; and Smith 138 purchasing power parities (PPPs) 797–99, 798 pure liberty rights 672–73 quality-of-life 727 quantitative hedonism 194, 199 quasi-realism 316, 317, 321, 325–28, 332 quasi-religion: and open question argument 327–28 Quine, W.V.O 386, 387 Rachels, James 750 racist hate speech 769, 775–77 Railton, Peter 321, 331–32 randomized controlled trials 784, 784–86; strategies to determine when to stop 786–88 rape 631 Raphael: The School of Athens 529 rationality 83, 233, 487; and Aristotle 42–44, 59, 373; and utilitarianism 487–88; and virtue ethics 480–81, 487; see also moral rationalism; reason Rawls, John 403, 440; and constructivism 462; difference principle 460–61, 694, 700; and justice 460, 462, 692–94, 699, 701, 739–40; and original position 462, 693, 694, 739–40; Political Liberalism 694; and social contract theory 490, 739–40; A Theory of Justice 399, 400, 692; and veil of ignorance 693–94, 739; and virtue 479 al-Rází, Abú Bakr 64, 65, 67, 69, 71–72; Philosophical Way of Life 67; Spiritual Medicine 69, 70, 72 reactive attitudes: and responsibility 265 Read, Kenneth 378 realism/realists 83, 297–318, 438, 463; and cognitivism 302, 304–5, 346–54; as fallibilists 302; and intuitionists 467; and moral obligations 438; and objectivity 312; taxonomy of meta-ethical positions 303; and war 809, 810 reason 99–110, 259, 463–64; and Arabic ethics 65; and Hobbes 89–90, 91–92, 97; and Hume 92; and Kant 156, 554; and Plato 38, 39; and Stoicism 58, 59–60; see also rationality reasons for action 275–84; and actionexplaining desires 281–82; and beliefs 278; and the causal explanation of action 282–83; and desires 277–78; explanatory 275–76; and facts 279–81; holism of 634; and instrumental beliefs 281; and moral obligations 434–39; motivational 275, 276; normative 275, 276–77; overlapping categories of 275–78; and rational action 283–84; and values 440–41 reasons externalists 437 reasons internalists 437 845 INDEX reciprocal altruism 398 recognition 562, 569, 570–71 recognition respect 566 reflection, moral 140, 174 Reformation 77 Regan, Tom 744–46, 747–48, 759 regret 579–80 regulation: and speech 770–73 Reid, Thomas 130, 133 reincarnation 27 relativism 261, 262, 314–15, 356–65, 372; agent 357, 358–61, 362, 363; appraiser 357, 361, 362–64; circumstantial 359; and disagreements 356–57, 358, 363, 364–65; and fallibilism 361; and moral disagreement 356–57; normative 359; and toleration 361 religion 253–55; and Arabic ethics 71–73; and ethics 253–55, 261; and idea of a favoured group 625; and James 223; and Kant 166–67; and morality 88, 97–98; and Plato 37; and Smith 140–41 Rembrandt: Bathsheba with King David’s Letter 529 renunciatory pacifism 809–10, 811 reparation 581–82, 689 repentance rituals 689 replacement problem 748 repugnant conclusion 732–33, 735 research 781–94; and “clot busters” clinical trials 784–86; consent and reasonableness of risk 788–89; doing more harm than good 790; embryonic cell/cybrids 790–92; ethical considerations in carrying out 783–84; ethical principles governing 782, 793; and Helsinki Declaration 781, 782, 783–84; minimizing of risk to participants 782, 783, 784; strategies to determine when to stop a randomized trial 786–88; unethical experiments 781 resentment 208, 576–78 respect 562–70; definition 562–63; and dignity 566, 567; and fear 563; and Fichte 568–70, 571; for humanity in persons 567–68; and Kant 562, 563–66, 567–68, 571; reciprocity of 568–69, 571; recognition and appraisal 566; varieties of 566–67 “respect principle” 748 responsibility 596–605, 607–16; and accountability 264; and answerability 264; and appraisability 264; ascriptions of 596–97, 600, 602, 604–5; and attributability 264, 600; compatability question 265–68; and consequences 598–602, 603–4; and determinism 265–70; disparity thesis 607–16; distinction between omission and action 609–10; and freedom 263–73; impossibility of moral 272–73; and indeterminism 265, 270–72; nature of moral 264–65; prospective 263, 597, 607–8; and reactive attitudes 265; relevance of intention and foresight to moral 602–5; retrospective 263, 597, 608; sharing of 613 restorative justice 689 retributive justice 682–85 revolutionary fictionalism 339–41, 343 Rhonheimer, Martin 510, 511 rights 79, 669–78; animal 744–46, 752; and benefits 671; claim 673; criticism of 671; distinction from right/rightness 669–70; distinctiveness of 670–72; and feminist ethics 516–17; and Hobbes 79–80; interest theory of 671, 672; intrinsic and extrinsic 677; and justice 681; justifying 675–77; and Locke 85; moral 150, 188–89, 674–75, 676; natural 150, 504, 508; and positivists 674–75; property 695, 696; and punishment 681; pure liberty 672–73; relation to duties 670–71; typology of 672–74; will theory of 671–72; see also human rights rights theory: Enlightenment 84–86 rights-based theories 675–77 Rist, John 508, 509 Rockefeller, John D 399 Rollin, Bernard 751–52 Rolston III, Holmes 756, 757, 759 Roman law 78 Rorty, Richard 217, 220–21, 226–28 Rosen, Gideon 302 Ross, W.D 412, 467, 468–69, 472–73, 632, 760–61 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 754; Discourse on the Origins of Inequality 137 Routley, Richard (later Richard Sylvan) 755–56, 757 Rowlands, Mark 752 Royal College of Physicians 782, 783 Royce, Josiah 584 rule-consequentialism 452–54 rule-egoism 452 rule of law 426, 428 rule-utilitarianism 182–84 Ruse, Michael 399 Russell, B 287 Russell, Luke 585, 590 Ryan, Alan 509 Ryan, Columba 505–6 846 INDEX sensibility 326–27, 330 sentiment/sentimentalists 8, 111–21, 124, 321–22, 547, 554; attack on egoism 111–14; rejection of moral rationalism 115–20 serial killers 589, 590 Sessions, George 757 Sexuality: and feminist ethics 519–20 Shaftesbury, Earl of 111–13, 114, 115, 116–18 Shakespeare, William 230; Macbeth 592; Othello 590 shame 580 Shang Yang 5, 11–12 Shen Buhai 5, 11 Shen Dao 5, 11 Shiva 22 Shue, Henry 822 Sidgwick, Henry 192–202, 199, 200–201, 287, 310, 468, 469–70, 471, 474–75; criticism of idealism 197–98, 199; dualism of practical reason 194, 197, 198, 200, 545; and goodness 287, 292–93; and hedonism 194–95; The Methods of Ethics 192; on Mill 193; and pluralism 474; and utilitarianism 194–95, 201 Sierra Club 755 Simon, Yves 504 Sinclair, Upton 529 Singer, Peter 403–4, 624–25, 742–44, 746, 748–49, 751, 759, 803; Animal Liberation 742, 748; Practical Ethics 748 skeptics/skepticism 297, 298, 305, 439 Skorupski, John 349–51 slave revolt in morality (Nietzsche) 208–10 slavery 79, 198–99, 358–59, 360, 696 Slote, Michael Smith, Adam 111, 120, 130, 133–42, 618; Adam Smith problem 142; and conscience 139–40; and Hume 133, 141; and Hutcheson 133; and impartial spectator 137, 139–41, 618–19; and justice 138; Lectures on Jurisprudence 140; and propriety 136–38; and prudence 141–42; and religion 140–41; and sympathy 134–36, 137, 139, 141, 142; Theory of Moral Sentiments 133, 141, 142; and utility 141–42; Wealth of Nations 133, 142 sociability 80, 81, 82 social anthropology 369–79 social choice theory 417–18 social contract theory 90–91, 145, 146, 403; Hegel’s rejection of 169–70, 195, 199; of justice 52, 57; and Rawls 490, 739–40 social Darwinism 399–400, 402 sacrifice 378 Salamanca school 504 Salt, Henry 742 sanctions 186–87, 193 Sandel, Michael 509 Sapontzis, Steve 752 Sartre, Jean-Paul 230–31, 232, 233–37; anti-Semitism work 237; and authenticity 233, 236; and bad faith 236–37; Being and Nothingness 236, 238, 241; and choice 234; and existentialism 230–31, 232, 233–37, 241; Existentialism Is A Humanism 230–31, 236; and Fanon 238; and freedom 234–35, 236; What Is Literature? 238 satyargraha 28–29 Scanlon, T.M 291, 441, 462, 464, 490, 492, 493, 494, 495; What We Owe to Each Other 490 Schauer, F 774 Scheper-Hughes, Nancy 372 Schlick, Moritz 302 Schnall, S et al 390 Schneewind, J.B 554 Schockenhoff, Eberhard 510, 511 scholasticism 78 Schopenhauer, Arthur 591 science: and ethics 256–61; and philosophers 384, 394 second best: and perfectionism 659–60 Second World War 502, 781, 797, 813, 816, 827 second-order feelings 116–17 self: and conscience 555–57; and feminist ethics 517–18; Foucault’s techniques of the 375–76 self-blame 579, 580 self-concern 20–21, 619 self-consciousness 570 self-cultivation: and Chinese ethical thought 15–16 self-defense 80, 189, 577, 601, 675, 824, 825 self-development 620–21 self-interest 88–89, 125, 126, 135, 142, 415, 545 see also egoism self-judgment: and conscience 552–53, 555 self-love 114 self-ownership 695, 696 self-preference 619 self-preservation 59, 89, 92, 471 self-realization 195–96, 197–98, 199–201, 202, 249 self-regard: and Bentham 152–53 self-sacrifice 660–65 semantic norms 352–53 Sen, Amartya 416, 417, 737–38 847 INDEX and Smith 134–36, 137, 139, 141, 142 synthetic biology techniques 790 Syse, Henrik 508 society, ideal 369–70; and Confucianism 7, 9, 12, 13; and Daoism 13; and Legalists 12; and Mohists 10, 11; Plato 39 Socrates 31–40, 53, 58, 67, 526 sophia 45, 46 soul: and Arabic ethics 69; and Epicurus 55; and Plato 35, 37–39, 65 source incompatibilists 267 speciesism 625, 743 Spector, Jessica 519 speech: disrespectful 778; free see free speech; regulation of 770–73; role in construction of social hierarchies 777–78 speech-act 321 Spelman, Elizabeth 520 Spencer, Herbert 399 Spinoza, B 80, 99–100; Ethics 104, 105–7, 107; moral theory 99–100, 104–8; Theological-Political Treatise 107, 108 spirit possession 373 spiritual medicine: and Arabic ethics 69–71 spontaneity 349–51 standard deontic logic (SDL) 408–10 standpoint 495 state: and Confucianism 6, 7; and Legalism 12 Steiner, Hillel 590 stem cells 791 Stoic ethics/Stoicism 52, 52–53, 58–62, 67, 239, 480, 481, 483, 486, 487; analysis of “appropriate” actions 60–61; and emotions 61, 483; and good/goodness 52, 60, 61; and happiness 58, 61; and pleasure 52, 59; and reason 58, 59–61; and virtue 61, 540 Strachey, Lytton 289 Strawson, P.F.: “Freedom and Resentment” 577 subject-independence 312 subjectivists 312–14 sublime 527 sufficientarianism 701 suicide 720; and Hume 122; physicianassisted 721–22, 723–25 summons: idea of 569, 571 Sumner, L.W 508 supervenience 293–95, 299–300, 309, 629–30 supreme emergency argument 829 surrealism 230 Sussman, David 821, 823 Swanton, Christine 479, 481; Virtue Ethics 483 Swinburne, Richard 581 sympathy: and Bentham 152–53; and Hume 125–26, 127; and Mill 189; Tarski schema 315 taste 152, 224 Taylor, Charles 509 techniques of the self (Foucault) 375–76 Temkin, L 700 teological theory 184, 440 termination thesis: and death 707–8 terrorism 820, 825–29; agents of 827; defining 825–28; goals of 827–28; moral assessment of 828–29; and supreme emergency argument 829; tactics 828; victims of 826–27 theória 46 Thomasius, Christian 83 Thomists 504, 506 “ticking bomb” hypothetical 823–25 Tierney, Brian 508 Timmons, M 351–54 toleration: and relativism 361 Tolstoy, L 525, 526, 529, 657, 659 torture 315–16, 342–43, 344, 541, 542, 820–29; definition 820–25; prohibition of as absolute issue 823–25; reasons for wrongness of 822–23; and “ticking bomb” hypothetical 823–25 “torture lite” 821–22 tradition, and MacIntyre 373 tragedy of the commons 754 Trainia, Cristina: Feminist Ethics and Natural Law 510 tranquillity: and Epicurean ethics 53, 57 treatment: withdrawal of 720, 722, 724, 725–26 truth 349–50, 352 truth-apt beliefs 351 truthaptness 347 truth conditions 312–16 truth-telling 544 Tucker, Abraham 146 Tufts, James 225 Tugwell, Simon 511 tyranny of the majority 189–90 Uncle Tom’s Cabin 529, 533 United Nations Convention Against Torture 820–21 universal law: Kant’s formula of 159–61, 164, 165 universal reason 567–68 untouchables 23 848 INDEX utilitarianism 118, 130, 144–53, 186–87, 259, 404, 418, 440, 442, 748; act vs rule 182–84; and Bentham 148–53, 192–93; and communitarianism 487; and consequentialism 444, 447; criticism of 198–99, 660; and distributive justice 693; and greatest happiness principle 146, 181, 259, 731; impartial observer argument 417; and Mill 181–84, 189, 191, 193, 245; and moral standing 758; and optimum population problem 731–35, 737; origins 144–46; and Paley 146–48; and perfectionism 660; and rationality 487–88; and sanctions 186–87; and Sidgwick 194–95, 201; and stopping of randomized trials 786; and terrorism 829 utility: and decision theory 413; and Gassendi 144–45; and Hume 128–29, 130, 141; and Mill 187–88, 190; Sidgwick and principle of 194; and Smith 141–42 utterances 4, 336, 337 morality 486–87; problems for contemporary 484–87; and rationality 480–81, 487; relationship between theories of moral right and wrong and 57; revival of 478; and role of theory 479–80 virtue politics: and Confucianism 7–8, 9–10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 17 Vishnu 22 voluntarism: and Leibniz 108, 109 von Hirsch, Andrew 688 von Wright, G.H 408 Waldron, Jeremy 820, 825 Walker, Margaret 518, 520 Walzer, Michael 701–2, 828; “dirty hands” argument 824; Spheres of Justice 701–2; “supreme emergency argument” 829 Wang Yangming 16 war 808–18; distinction and limited conduct of 812–16; and just war theory 716, 810, 813, 826; limited resort 810–11; military necessity and limited conduct of 811–12, 814; and pacifists 809; proportionality and limited conduct of 817; and realist theory 809, 810; responses to the presumption against 808–10 Warren, Mary Anne 746 wealth distribution 804 Weil, Simone 681 Weinreb, Lloyd 507 welfare 645–54, 709–10; and aim achievementism 651; desire-fulfilment theory of 446–47; and hedonism 648–50, 710; and hybrid theory 652–53; importance of 645–46; objective list theory 646–48, 652, 654; and preferentism 650–51, 652; views on distribution of 446–48 welfare economics 416–17 well-being 316–17, 523, 653–54 Westermarck, Edward: The Origin and Development of Moral Ideas 372 Whichcote, Benjamin 83 Whisnant, R 521 Whitbeck, Caroline 516 White, Jr, Lynn 755, 762 Widlok, Thomas 373 Wiggins, David 306–7, 392 Wilde, Oscar 657 will: and Descartes 101, 109 Williams, Bernard 4, 17, 205, 217–18, 374, 378, 547, 579–80, 589–90, 620, 714, 761 value(s) 526–27; aesthetic 525, 527–28; buck-passing account of 441; and contractualism 491–93; general and personal 734; intrinsic 656, 758; Mill’s theory of 182; and moral obligations 440; and morality 439–42; non-moral 441–42; and reasons 440–41; and Spinoza 106–7; and supervenience 293–95 value-judgements 290–91, 293 varnas 22–23 Vattel, Emer de 84 Veatch, Henry 504, 505, 507, 508 vegetarianism 749 veil of ignorance 693–94, 739 veracity 472 virtue(s) 373; and Arabic ethics 65–66; and Bentham 150–51, 153; and Epicurean ethics 57; and Hindu ethics 25; and Hobbes 89, 90; and Leibniz 108–9; and Plato 34–37; and Shaftesbury 116; and Spinoza 104, 107; and Stoic ethics 61, 540 virtue ethics 130, 233, 372, 373, 478–88, 548, 620–21; and Aristotle 44–45, 151, 480, 481–82, 540, 662; and caring 483–84; and Chinese ethical thought 484; of classical antiquity 479–80; comparisons with other ethical traditions 487–88; definition and characteristics 478–81; and deontology 485–86; forms of 481–84; and Hume 123–28, 130, 146–47, 151, 483–84, 547; and Nietzsche 209, 483; and political 849 INDEX Wilson, Edward O 400, 401; Sociobiology 398 Wittgenstein, Ludwig 220, 228, 631 Wolfendale, Jessica 821–22 Wolff, Christian 83, 84 Wollaston, William 83, 119 women: and Mill 190; see also feminist ethics World Bank 799 World Food Summit (1996) 800 World Wide Web 257, 258 worse-off principle 747 wrongdoing, responding to 573–82 wrongness 451 xing Xunzi 5, 6, 8, 10, 15 Xunzi Young, Iris 519 Yuracko, Kimberly 523 Z-lives 733 Zeno of Citium 52, 53 Zhu Xi 16 Zhuangzi 5, 13, 14–15 Zhuangzi 13, 14 Zigon, Jarrett 374–75 zipper argument 739 850 ... 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