Panbiogeography tracking the history of life

PANBIOGEOGRAPHY Oxford Biogeography Series Edited by A Hallam, B.R Rosen, and T.C Whitmore Wallace's Line and Plate Tectonics T.C Whitmore Cladistic Biogeography Christopher J Humphries and Lynne R Parenti Biogeography and Quaternary History in Tropical America T.C Whitmore and G.T Prance Biogeographical Evolution of the Malay Archipelago T.C Whitmore Vanishing Rainforests: The Ecological Transition in Malaysia S Robert Aiken and Colin H Leigh Australian Rainforests Paul Adam The Africa-South America Connection Wilma George and Rene Lavocat The Palaeobiogeography of China Yin Hongfu Life History and Biogeography: Patterns in Conus Alan J Kohn and Frank E Perron An Outline of Phanerozoic Biogeography Anthony Hallam Panbiogeography: Tracking the History of Life R.C Craw, J.R Grehan, and MJ Heads PANBIOGEOGRAPHY Tracking the History of Life Robin C Craw John R Grehan Michael J Heads New York Oxford Oxford University Press 1999 Oxford University Press Oxford New York Athens Auckland Bangkok Bogota Buenos Aires Calcutta Cape Town Chennai Dar es Salaam Delhi Florence Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi Paris Sao Paulo Singapore Taipei Tokyo Toronto Warsaw and associated companies in Berlin Ibadan Copyright © 1999 by Oxford University Press, Inc Published by Oxford University Press, Inc 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Oxford University Press Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Craw, R C (Robin C.) Panbiogeography : tracking the history of life / Robin C Craw, John R Grehan, and Michael J Heads p cm.—(Oxford biogeography series) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-19-507441-6 Biogeography Life—Origin I Grehan, John R II Heads, Michael J III Title IV Series QH84.C678 1999 578'.09—dc21 97-41638 987654321 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper Acknowledgments Proofreading and general critique of manuscripts was kindly provided by James Boone, Scott Griggs, Trish Hanson, Jonathan Leonard, Judy Rosovsky, and Claudia Violette Comments or information on specific topics were kindly contributed by Paul Ackery (British Museum of Natural History, London), Laurel Collins (Florida International University), Lucy Cranwell Smith (Tuscon, Arizona), Gabriel Dover (University of Leicester), John Elder (University of North Dakota), Tomas Feininger (Vieux-Quebec, Quebec), Keith Langdon (Great Smoky Mountains National Park), Paul Mann (University of Texas at Austin), Simon Mickleburgh (Fauna and Flora Preservation Society, UK), Brian Patrick (Otago Museum, New Zealand), Robert Ricklefs (University of MissouriSt Louis), Rolf Sattler (McGill University), Jack Sites (Brigham Young University, Utah), Dwight Taylor, and Jonathan Wendel (Iowa State University) Particular thanks are also due to Ian Henderson (Massey University) for facilitating electronic transfers of manuscripts, Patricia Mardeusz and other library staff at the University of Vermont, Jerome Djangmah (University of Ghana), Adwoa Appiah, Wisdom Akonta, Martin Arkoh (University College, Winneba), everyone at Esi Adazewa Fie, Nozepo Nobanda, and Bob Drummond (National Herbarium, Zimbabwe) for their assistance This page intentionally left blank Contents What Is Panbiogeography? Life as a Geological Layer: Panbiogeography and the Earth Sciences 30 Ecology, History, and the Panbiogeography of Africa 64 Mapping the Trees of Life: Panbiogeography, Phylogenetic Systematics, and Evolutionary Processes 88 Tracking the Trees of Life: Line, Map, and Matrix 115 Toward a New Regional Biogeography: The Revival of Biogeographical Classification 145 Tracks, Nodes, Biodiversity, and Conservation Glossary 180 References Index 221 182 163 This page intentionally left blank PANBIOGEOGRAPHY REFERENCES 215 Springer, V G (1982) Pacific plate biogeography with special reference to shorefishes Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology 367,1-182 Stace, C A (1989) Plant taxonomy and biosystematics, 2nd ed Edwin Arnold, London Stafleu, F (1954) A monograph of the Vochysiaceae IV Erisma Acta Botanica Neerlandica 3,458-80 Stagman, J G (1978) An outline of the geology of Rhodesia Rhodesia Geological Survey Bulletin 80 Stearly, R F (1992) Historical ecology of the Salmoninae, with special 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American hystricognath rodents: reflections of the far away and long ago Special Publication Pymatuning Laboratory of Ecology Woods, C A (1984) Hystricognath rodents In Orders and families of recent mammals of the world (eds S Anderson and J K Jones Jr.), pp 389-446 John Wiley and Sons, New York Woolley, A R., and Garson, M S (1970) Petrochemical and tectonic relationship of the Malawi carbonate—alkaline province and the LupataLebombo volcanics In African magmatism and tectonics (eds T N Clifford and I G Gass), pp 237-262 Hafner Publishing Company, Darien, Connecticut 220 REFERENCES Wormwald, N (1984) Generating random regular graphs Journal of Algorithms 5,247-280 Wulff, E V (1943) Introduction to the historical geography of plants Chronica Botanica Co., Waltham, Massachusetts Zhao, T Q (1991) Fish fauna and zoogeographical division of HexiAlashan region, northwest China Acta Zoologica Sinica 37,153-167 Zhengyi, W (1983) On the significance of Pacific intercontinental discontinuity Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 70,577-590 Zug, G R (1985) Anew skink (Reptilia: Sauria: Leiolopisma) from Fiji Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 98,221-231 Index Africa biodiversity, 84 Cape biota, 85 centers of origin, 66 Fouta Djalon plateau, 83 Gondwanic boundaries, 81 Miombo woodland, 80 rainforest, 82 regions, 65, 67, 71, 74 Ahlquist, J E., 79 Ainsworth, R., 101,108 Airy Shaw, H K., 83 Akery, P., Albert, V A., 40, 57, 58 Alkin, B., 163 Allen, J A., 146 Allen, R T., 32 Alvarenga, H., 23 Ames, P L., 79 Amorin, D S., 33 Anderson, N M., 124,125 Animal biogeography admiral butterflies, 17 Anolis, 54 Anas, 68 ant beetles, 33 Aviceda, 68 bats, blind snakes, Bocageia, Drosophila, 56 Etheophanus, 93 Cyprinodon variegatus, 112 Galapaganus, 57, 61 ghost moths, 95 Gila, 45 honey eaters, 79 Hylambates maculatus, 78 hystricognath rodents ,73 iguanas, 57, 61 Lycaena rubidus, 89 Miniopterus minor, Monotis, 156 Orocr'ambus,,175 Oxydia, 57 Paracance, 57 Pholidobolus, 104 Polihierax, 68 Promerops, 79 Pteropus, 71 Raphidura, 68 ratites, 23 Rattusfuscipes, 95 Sisorioidea, 221 222 INDEX Animal biogeography (continued) Tadorna, 68 Tramea, 89 Tirumala, Anon, 170 Armstrong, P., 69 Ashlock, P D., 89 Aubreville, A., 8,54,67, 73,75,80,83 Austin, M P., 164 Avise, J C, 108 Axelrod, D L, 48,49,55, 66,67 Backus, R H., 146 Bailey, T C., 130 Ball, I R., 115 Balogh, G., 89 Banarescu, I P., 3, Bardack, D., 35 Barendse, W., 32 Barratt, B I P., 175 Barrett, S R, 60 Baum, D A., 69 Beard, J S., 81 Belasky, P., 160 Benton, M J., 38 Bews, J W., 66 Biodiversity Africa, 84 biodiversity atlas project, 168 butterflies (New Zealand), 173 gap analysis, 169 global map, 167,179 hierarchical classification, 165 isolation from environment, 165 Lammermoor / Lammerlaw Ranges, 174 main massings, 21, 79 National Parks, 170 nodes/hotspots, 167 ocean basin classification, 167 panbiogeographic approach, 165 spatial structure, 164 species conservation, 176 systematic approaches, 164 Wellington Harbour, 175 Biogeography America, 154 areas of endemism, 146 barriers, 5,13 Buffon's law, 145 center of origin (Darwinian), correlation with geology, 41 disjunction, dispersal, 5,15 dispersal vs vicariance, 5,6,9 ecogeographic areas, 146 ecological, 64 founder events, historical, 64 homology 148,154 insular distribution, 52 landbridges, mapping techniques, 116 means of dispersal, 6,16 Mesozoic, 79 mobilism/immobilism, 15,16 phylogeography, 108 phytogeographic elements, 78 Pleistocene, 31 provenance, 88 refugia, 32 regions, 145 spatial logic, 148 vicariance, 9,17 vicariance regression, 50 vicariant form-making, 13,15, 100,105,113 Wallace's regions, 146 wing dispersal, 103,113 Blake, D B., 38 Blanc, C P., 164 Bledsoe, A H., 23 Blondel, J., 65,85 Borgmeir, T., 90 Borkin, A J., 32 Boughey, A S., 67 Bowman, D., 164 Bramwell, D., 8, Brenan, J P M., 65 Breteler, R, 71 Briggs,J.C,3,60 Bright, R C., 41 Brignoli, P M ,12, Brooks, D R., 65, 85,86,86,99,117, 121 Brower, A V Z., 33 Brown, J H., 30,65,85, 86,92 Brown, J W, 57 INDEX Brummitt, R K v 68 Brundin, L., 103 Buffon, G L L., 145 Bullini,L., 177 Burrows, J E., 76 Burton, J A., 71 Bush, M B., 33 Butler, D., 177 Cadle, J E., 65,85 Cain, S A., 3,21,117 Camp, W H., 3,27, Cantino, P D., 100 Carlquist, S., 71 Carlton, C E., 33, 34 Carolin, R., 155 Carson, H L., 55,56,60 Case, J A., 27, Cernosvitov, L., 117,119 Chamberlain, V E., 157,158 Chesser, R T., 12, Chiappe, L M., 35 Chiba, H., 89 Chin, N K M., 155 Christie, D M., 60 Clague, D A., 55,56 Clegg, M T., 39 Climo, F M., 89,170,171 Cockburn, A., 177 Collins, T M., 108 Connor, E R, 129,137 Conroy, M J., 169 Conservation conservation biology, 170,173 conservation management, 174 hybrid species, 176 Coope, G R., 31 Corner, E J H., 97 Cornet, B., 39 Cowie, R H., 56 Cox, C B., 3,35, 39, 53, 73,146,155 Cox, R T., 33,34 Cracraft, J., 32,143 Craig, A J E K., 42 Crane, P R., 39 Cranston, P S., 3,33 Craw, R C., 15,18, 21,22,23,25,26, 28,29,45, 86, 89,94,95,108, 127,129,130,132,137,139,140, 223 141,142,143,146,147,153,155, 158,161,162,173,174,175,178 Crepet, W L., 27, 28 Crisci, J V., 3, 88,115,168 Crisp, M D.,23 Croizat, L., 8,13,14,16,26,29,31, 35,40,49,61,67, 73, 79, 88,89, 95,98, 99,101,103,114,117, 149,151,152,155,156,157, 158,159,160,161,167 Cronin, J E ,73 Crovello, T J., 142 Crow, J E, 109,110 Crozier, R H., 164 Cunningham, C W., 108 Darlington, P J., 31 Darwin, C., 4,5,56,89,100,107, 108,145 Darwin, R, Davis, A L V., 67 Davis, D R., 57 Davis, P H., 90 de Candolle, A.-P, 88,145,146 De Lattin, G., 31 de Jong, R., 88 de Queiroz, K., 57,58,88 De Salle, R., 56 Deevey, E S., 31 Deitz, R S., 60 Del Hoyo, J., 70 Dennis, R L H., 173 Desmond, A., 65 Di Marco, G., 61 Diels, L., 88 Dobson, J E., 148 Donoghue, M J., 39 Dover, G A., 109,110, 111 Dowd, J M., 39 Doyle, J A., 39 Dugdale, J S., 95 Duncan, P M., 38,60 Durnham, J W., 60 Easteal, S., 35 Ecology biogeography, 85 communities, 62, 79 competitive exclusion, 106 224 INDEX Ecology (continued) ecesis ,16 ecoclines/ecophyletic series, 80 ecological lag, 76 especes de liaison, 85 geology 41,44 grassed pans (dambos, vleis), 81 history, 65, 85 mangrove, 81, 82 marine transgression, 50, 76 means of survival, 16 Mesozoic origins, 62 Mesozoic weeds, 79 Miombo woodland, 80 mobilism, 16 rainforest, 82 savannah, 82 Termite mounds, 78 tectonic uplift, 44, 80,175 Ehrlich, P R., 163 Elder, J F Jr., 109,110,112,113 Eldredge, N., 166 Engler, A., 146,147 Ereshefsky, M., 176 Eskof, K Y, 155 Espinoza, D., 3, Estabrook, G E, 89 Evolution ancestor, 100 ancestral polymorphisms, 102 biogeographic constraints, 107 biogeographic correlation, 92 character recombination, 101 cohesion, 101 concerted evolution, 109 construction, 91 environment 91, 111 evolutionary constraints, 108 form-making, 13 heredity, 92 inheritance, 90 laws of growth, 107 macromutation, 110 molecular drive ,109 natural selection, 110 organism, 91 spatiotemporal entities, 113 vicariant evolution, 13,100,105, 113 Exell, A W., 92 Faith, D P., 164 Farris, J S., 132 Feininger, T., 60, 61,156 Feldmann, R M., 38 Felsenstein, J ,138 Ferris, V R., 113 Field, W D., 18 Fisher, D C, 88,114 Fjeldsa, J., 33 Fossils additional localities, 35 angiosperms, 39 Mesozoic/Tertiary, 38 minimal divergence times, 35 Forman, L L., 27 Fortino, A D., 120 Fosberg, F R., 64, 74, 75 Fox, R C., 38 Fry, C H., 70 Fryxell, P A., 40 Funk, V A., 55 Furon, R., 76 Galapagos, 60 Garrison, R W., 89 Garson, M S., 77, 78 Gascoigne, A., 8, Gastil, R G., 48 Gates, B., 89 Gatrell, A C., 130 Geology Alpine Fault, 47,172 California fault, 48 Cordilleras, 156 correlated with biology, 41 influence on distribution, 44, 60, 76 Karoo, 78 Lebombo Monocline, 78 Pacific, 156,160 Ruwenzori Mountains, 78 sea level regression, 50 southern Africa, 78 spreading ridges, 153 terranes, 61,156 INDEX George, W., 35, 73 Ghiold, J., 12 Ghiselin, M T., 4,113,176 Gibbs, G W., 124,125,173,174 Ciller, P S., 64 Gillett, J., 56,68,83 Glaubrecht, M., 60 Golovatch, S I ,155 Good, R., 146,147 Gotelli, N J., 106 Grande, L., 4,155 Grant, B R., 177 Grant, P R., 177 Gray, R D., 90,91, 92,103,177 Greene, H.W M., 3,65, 85 Grehan, J R., 95,96,101,108,155, 156,164,165,166, 167,168,170, 171,175,176 Grene, M., Griffin, A R., 88 Griffiths, P E., 90 Grubb, P., 76 Habib, D., 39 Haddock, M H., 148 Haffer, J., 32 Hale, M., 79 Hall, B P., 77 Hallam,A.,31,158 Hammond, P M., 163 Hanafusa, H., 18 Hargraves, R B., 60 Harms, H., 83 Harper, J L., 163 Harris, A C, 38 Harvey, P H., 129 Harwood, D M., 23, 24 Hawaii, 55 Hawksworth, D L., 163 Haydon, D T., 6,16,56,85, 86 Heads, M J., 21,26,27,39,45,46, 47,50,51, 69,100,101,116,117, 118,137,141,142,157,167,168, 172,173,174,175 Hedges, S B., 32,41 Henderson, I M., 21,45,129,130, 132,133,135,136,137,170 Hendrickson, D A., 158 Hennig, W., 93 Herenden, P S., 38 Heslop-Harrison, J 100 Hesse, R., 64 Heyer, W R., 32, 88 Heywood, V H., 90 Hibbert, D S., 35 Hill, R S., 23,26,27 Hillis, D M., 104,105,106 Ho, J., 90 Hoelzer, G A., 100 Hoffman, A., 12 Holden, J C., 60 Holdhaus, K., 31 Holland, S M., 35 Holmes, A., 148 Holsinger, J R., 52,117,121 Homology, 19,22,27 Honeycutt, R L., 85 Hooker, J D., Hoss, M., 74 Houde, P., 93 Howes, G J., 124,125,155,157 Hubbard, G., 178 Hugot, J P., 73 Hull, D L., 3,113,114,176 Humphries, C J., 4,22,26,27,90, 113,132,164 Hutchinson, J., 39,40, 67, 71, 72 Huxley, T H., 146,147 Ibanez, C., Island arc accretion, 53 dispersal, 53 Galapagos, 60 Hawaii, 55 insular distribution, 52 Jablonski, D., 92 Jacobs, S C., 108 Janke, A., 41, 74 Jeffrey, C., 67 Jell, P A., 38 Jensky, W., 48 Jinks-Robertson, S., 109 Johnson, K., 89 Jones, D L., 27,156 Joseph, J H., 33 Juste, J., 225 226 INDEX Kamp, P J.}., 45 Kaneshiro, K Y, 56 Katz, M Bv 76 Kavanaugh, D H.,124,125 Keast, A., 53, 60 Keay, R., 73 Kellman, M., 82 Kellogg, J N., 60, 61 Kimura, M., 108 King, L C, 76, 78 Kingdon, J., 71 Kiriakoff, S G., 93 Klicka, J., 32 Koopman, K R, Ladiges, P ,3,164 Laj, C., 60,61 Lambert, R St J., 157,158 Lanteri, A A., 58,61 Lanza, B., 53 Lapierre, H J., 157 Larsson, S G., 38 Lawes, M J., 66 Lebrun, J., 85 Leenhouts, P ,84 Leestmans, R., 18 Leis, J M., 12 Letouzey, R., 71 Levyns, M R., 66 Lewin, R., 55 Lichtwardt, R W., 88 Linder, H P., 23 Llorente, J., 3, Londono, A C., 75 Long, J A., 35 Lonnberg, E., 76 Lopretto, E C., 117,121,141 Lourenc.o, W R., 164 Lovis, J D., 140 Lynch, J D., 12, Maldonado, M., 143,144 Mallet, J., 178 Manly, B R J., 129 Mann, P., 60,61,156 Mao, S., 43 Margules, C R., 164 Marshall, C R., 35 Martin, P G., 39, 73 Maruyama, S., 156 Marx, H., 88 Mathis, W N., 57,58 Matile, L., 117,121,155 Matthews, J V., 31 Mattson, P H., 60 Maurer, B A., 85 Maxson, L R., 32 May, R M., 163 Maynard Smith, J., 108 Mayo, S J., 155 Mayr, E., 3,4,6, 7, 60,89,100,177 McAllister, D E., 129,141,142 McKenna, M C., 31 McLaughlin, S P., 85,86 McLennan, D A., 65 Meacham, C A., 138 Melville, R., 27, 28 Merton, D., 177 Mickleburgh, S P., 71, 72 Millar, C I., 32 Miller, A L, 43 Miller, R L, 167 Miller, W B., 155 Minkley, W L ,48,49 Mlot, C., 168 Molecular clock amphibians, 32 angiosperms, 39 cottons, 40 Molnar, R E.,3, Monger, J W., H 156 Monroe, B L., 23, 70 Montgomery, H., 60 Moore, J., 65 Moore, P D., 3,35,39,53, 73,146 Morain, S A., 116 Moreau, R E., 77 Moritz, C., 178 Morrone, J J., 3,115,117,120,121, 141,155,168 Mortimer, N., 50 Mourier, T., 60 Moya, A., 11 Murphy, R., 48 Myers, A A., 3, 64,117,143 Naranjo-Garcia, E., 155 Naumann, D., 3, INDEX Naylor, B Gv 38 Nelson, G., 3,4,6,90,113,120, 132,145,146,147,155,161, 162,164 New, T R., 173 Newbegin, M., 1.177 Nixon, K C, 27,28 Noon, B R., 169 Noonan, G R., 124 Nooteboom, H., 84 Nordenstam, B., 82 Notenboom, J., 52 O'Brien, S J., 177 Ohno, S., 110 Olsen, J S., 88 Olson, S., 79 Oreskes, N., 148 Oyama, S., 90,92 Page, R D M., 25,28, 86,95,96,99, 100,129,130,131,132,133,153, 154,155,161,162 Pagel, M D., 129 Panbiogeography ancestral range, 151 antinode, 21 assumptions, 19,124 baseline, 22,148 center of origin, 5,22,101,149 cladistics, 132 compatibility track analysis, 137 gate, 21, 29,167 generalized track, 124 geography, 29 geological correlation, 41, 45,153 geological prediction, 55, 60,154 graphical representation, 117 grid analysis, 141 main massing, 21,141 method, 19,29 minimal spanning tree, 20,129 nodal analysis, 132 nodal value, 134 node 20, 29,132,167 null hypothesis, 129 parsimony, 132 parsimony analysis of endemicity, 141 phylogenetic prediction, 92 regions, 161 spatial homology, 22,148 standard track, 124,139 statistical test, 129,136,139 steiner tree, 132 track 20,117,137,148 vertex, 134 vicariance zone, 120 Parenti, L R., 22,161,162 Patrick, B H., 50,175 Patterson, B D., 93 Patterson, C., 27,113 Pennington, T D., 83 Perkins, P D., 124 Petes, T D., 109 Petuch, E J., 38 Phipps, J B., 130 Pindell, J L., 60 Plant biogeography Acrostichum aureum, 76 Adansonia, 68 Airyantha, 68 Athrixia, 68 Balanopaceae, 27 Byblis, 68 Caesia, 68 Canarium, 82 Carapa, 82 Castanopis, 27 Chrysolepsis, 27 Colophospermum, 78 Conceveiba microstachys, 71 Coriaria, 156 cotton, 39, 57 Dianella, 79 Dicrurus paradiseus, 151 Dipterocarpaceae, 75 Erismadelphus, 71 Eucalyptus, 84 Eugenia, 84 Euphrasia, 151 Ficus, 97 Givotia, 68 Gnidia, 68 Glossopteris, 78 Heteropyxis, 84 Leonohebe, 50 Lithocarpus, 27 227 228 INDEX Plant biogeography (continued) monocotyledons, 84 Myrtaceae, 84 Nothofagus, 23,172 Paeonia, 105 Papaver aculeatum, 68 Pelargonium, 68 Finns, 32 Pitcairnia, 71 Pogonophora letouzeyi, 71 Relictina, 79 Roridula, 68 Rourea, 84 Schizaea, 151 Thespesia, 74 trigobalanoid genera, 27 Platnick, N., 3,4,90,113,132, 163 Polhemus, D A., 144 Popoff, M, 71 Popper, K., 132 Powell, J R., 56 Poynton, J C, 12, 78 Pressy,R L., 164 Pullin, A S., 173 Rabb, G B., 88 Radford, A., 88 Rainboth, W J., 144 Rapoport, E H., 116,130 Raven, P H., 66,164,179 Rentier, S S., 164 Ricklefs, R E., 65,164 Riddle, B R., 32,85 Roberts, J D., 32 Rogers, G M., 38 Rosa, D., 100 Roscoe, D J., 168 Rosen, B R., 6,141,143 Rosen, D E., 6,31,57 Rosenblatt, R H., 12 Ross, C A., 160 Ross, H H., 88 Ross, J R P.,160 Rotondo, G M., 56 Roughgarden, J., 54,61 Roure, R, 157 Runnegar, B., 160 Ruvolo, M., 101,103,105 Sachet, M -H., 74, 75 Sang, T.,105,106,107 Sarich, V M., 61, 73 Saunders, J H., 40 Savage, J M., 14 Savard, L ,39 Schilder, R A., 88 Schimper, A F W., 64 Schindewolf, O H., 90 Schlanger, S., 56 Schoener, A., 12 Schoener, T W.,12 Schulter, D., 65 Schuster, R M., 27,28 Sclater, P L., 146,147,161 Scott, M J., 169 Seaward, A C, Seberg, O., 4, Shanahan, T., 90 Shaw, J., 90 Shear, W A., 35 Sibley, C G., 23, 70,79 Simberloff, D., 65 Simpson, G G., 73,108 Sims, R W., 155 Sites, J W Jr., 57,58 Sippman, H J M., 92 Skottsberg, C., 117,119,155 Sluys, R., 155 Smith, A B., 141,143 Smith, C H., 89 Smith, L B., 88 Sneath, P H A., 115 Sober, E., 114 Sosson, M., 157 Southey, L, 68 Spanton, T G., 124 Springer, M S., 41 Springer, V G., 42,56 Stace, C A., 3,12,92 Stafleu, R, 73 Stagman, J G., 78 Stearly, R R, 32 Stock, C A., 42,52 Stockhert, B., 60 Stoddart, D R., 3,146 Storey, B C.,148,149 Stott, P.,3, 64,116 Strachan, T., 110 INDEX Stuessy, T R, 42,88 Systematics character geography, 89,101 gene/species trees, 101 geography, 88 homoplastic characters, 93,102 hybrids, 105 main massings, 105 natural classification, 89,113 panbiogeography, 114 phylogenetic predictions, 92 reciprocal illumination, 93 vicariance criterion, 93 Szymura, J M., 32 Tackaberry, R., 82 Tambussi, C, 23 Tanai, T., 23,38 Tangelder, I R Mv 32, 33 Taylor, D W., 35,41,42,117,121,155 Taylor, David Winship, 117 Terent'ev, P V Thewissen, J G M 93 Thome, R F 89 Thornton, I W B 12 Tiffney, B H 158 Touw, A 67 Townsend, C H T 117,119 Tozer, E T 160 Turnbull, J W 88 Turner, B J 109,110, 111, 112 Turner, J F 12 Tyler, M J 53 Udvardy, M D F 73,85,86,116, 117,146,147,165 Ulfstrand, S 163 Uriz, M.-J 143,144 Valentine, J W 92 Van Balgooy, M M J 77 van Steenis, C G G J 16, 83 Van Welzen, P C 53 Vane-Wright, R I 7,164 Vega, V 60,61 Vida, G 108 Vuilleumier 3, 65 Wagner, W L 55 Wallace, A R 65, 66,88, 89,146, 147,161,165,166 Waples, R S 12 Walter, H 81,82 Warming, E 64 Webb, P N 23,24 Wegener, A 148 Weibes, J T 99 Weinmark, H 67 Wendel, J F 40,57,58 Weston, P H 155,178 Wettstein, R., 88 Wickens, G., 69 Wiens,J.A.,65 Wild, H., 67, 78, 81 Wiles, J S., 61 Wiley, E O., 3,6,100 Williams, P H., 164 Wilson, E O., 164,179 Wilson, J B., 3, Wilson, M T., 38 Winfield, P., 163 Wirth, W W, 57,58 Wood, A E., 73 Woods, C A., 73, 74 Woodward, S P., 115 Woolley, A R 77, 78 Wormwald, N 137,139 Wulf, E V 155 Zhengyi, W 28 Zink, R M 12,32 Zinmeister, W J 38 229 ... Perron An Outline of Phanerozoic Biogeography Anthony Hallam Panbiogeography: Tracking the History of Life R.C Craw, J.R Grehan, and MJ Heads PANBIOGEOGRAPHY Tracking the History of Life Robin C Craw... the natural units of organic distribution and therefore the biogeographical structure of the history of life A richer conception of space is required in biology The discipline of biogeography needs... focuses on the role of locality and place in the history of life Its goal is to recover the importance of places and localities as direct subjects of analysis in biogeography Central to the panbiogeographic