Encyclopedia of marine science

encyclopedia of Marine Science Contributors Contributors Craig Bonn Beaufort Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Kyle R Dedrick Marine Information Resources Corporation Matthew Keene Duke Marine Laboratory David L Porter Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Elijah W Ramsey III U.S Geological Survey, National Wetlands Research Center Royce Randlett, Jr Helix Mooring Systems Robert C Smoot, IV McDonogh School Bradley Weymer Texas A&M University, Ocean Drilling Program Photo Research Glenn R Williams Barbara Williams Tryon Palace Historic Sites & Gardens Encyclopedia of Marine Science C Reid Nichols President and Oceanographer Marine Information Resources Corporation Ellicott city, Maryland and Robert G Williams, Ph.D SeNior Scientist Marine Information Resources Corporation Adjunct Instructor Craven Community College New Bern, North Carolina Dedicated to Gerhard Neumann (1911–1996), Willard J Pierson, Ph.D (1922–2003), James Edward Paquin, Ph.D (1940–2004), and Franklin E Kniskern, Ph.D (1940–2008) ENCYCLOPEDIA OF Marine Science Copyright © 2009 by C Reid Nichols and Robert G Williams, Ph.D All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher For information contact: Facts On File, Inc An imprint of Infobase Publishing 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Nichols, C Reid   Encyclopedia of marine science / authors, C Reid Nichols and Robert G Williams [and others] p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN-13: 978-0-8160-5022-2 (alk paper) ISBN-10: 0-8160-5022-8 (alk paper) Marine science—Encyclopedias I Williams, Robert G II Title GC9.N53 2009 551.4603—dc22 2007045166 Facts On File books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755 You can find Facts On File on the World Wide Web at http://www.factsonfile.com Text design by James Scotto-Lavino Illustrations by Melissa Ericksen Printed in the United States of America VB Hermitage 10 This book is printed on acid-free paper and contains 30 percent postconsumer recycled content Contents Acknowledgments ix Introduction x A Note on Measurements and Conversions xi Entries A–Z Feature Essays: “Marine Embedment Anchors: A Twist on Anchors” by Royce Randlett, Jr 26 “Undersea Exploration: A Biographical Sketch of Jacques-Yves Cousteau” by Robert G Williams, Ph.D 140 “Air-Sea Interactions: A Biographical Sketch of Vagn Walfrid Ekman” by Robert G Williams, Ph.D 153 “Drill Ship: Glomar Challenger ” by Bradley A Weymer 187 “The Sargasso Sea: Sea of Legends” by Robert G Williams, Ph.D 207 “Cold Seeps: It Is Not All Hot Stuff” by Robert G Williams, Ph.D 231 “Antarctica’s Tabletops: Bergs of Note” by Kyle R Dedrick 236 “Icebreaking: A Marine Science Perspective” by C Reid Nichols 237 “The Joint Global Ocean Flux Study” by David L Porter, Ph.D 257 “Radioactive Waste Disposal in the Sea” by Kyle R Dedrick 306 “Oceanographic Innovations: A Biographical Sketch of Fridtjof Nansen” by Robert G Williams, Ph.D 351 “The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA’s) National Marine Sanctuary Program” by Craig Bonn 356 “A Brief History and Current and Future Programs at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory” by David L Porter, Ph.D 363 “Ocean Explorations: A Biographical Sketch of Dr Robert D Ballard” by C Reid Nichols 388 “Drill Ship JOIDES Resolution” by Bradley A Weymer 404 “Ocean Platforms for Research: The Harvest Platform” by C Reid Nichols 409 “Modern Physical Oceanographer: A Biographical Sketch of Walter Heinrich Munk” by Robert G Williams, Ph.D 428 “The Deep Sea Drilling Project” by Bradley A Weymer 434 “NOAA’s Physical Oceanographic Real-Time System (PORTS®)” by Robert G Williams, Ph.D 439 “Acoustic Tide Gauges: A Sound Way to Measure Water Levels” by Robert G Williams, Ph.D 529 Appendixes: Appendix I Marine Science Further Resources 577 Appendix II Selected Major Oceans, Seas, Gulfs, and Bays Worldwide 586 Appendix III Classification of Marine Organisms 588 Appendix IV Periodic Table of the Elements 589 Appendix V The Geologic Timescale 591 Appendix VI Selected Listing of Marine Laboratories 592 Appendix VII Modern Map of the World’s Oceans 595 Index 596 Acknowledgments This encyclopedia could not have been produced without the efforts of the contributors With support from Frank Darmstadt and Melissa CullenDupont, the authors were able to complete this work despite complications arising from the overseas deployments of Col C Reid Nichols, USMC Reserve In addition, a number of people have reviewed particular entries, and the authors are thankful for their many valuable suggestions: Dr Bill Boicourt, Helen Dawson, Patrick Dennis, John Hoyt, Robert Freeman, Jim Hall, Benjamin Nich- ols, Caitlin Nichols, Libby Nichols, and Cindy Nichols Dr Carrie Root took an interest in reading every entry, and her comments improved the overall quality of this encyclopedia Barbara Williams and Glenn Williams worked tirelessly on the design of numerous figures and tables The authors also thank Henry Rasof, who provided the initial impetus for this encyclopedia —C Reid Nichols and Robert G Williams, Ph.D ix 612  Index milkfish 285 millipedes, classification 40 Mine Countermeasures and Clearing (MCM) 449–450 minerals, in seawater See constancy of composition Minerals Management Service (MMS) 152, 406, 517 mine warfare (MIW) elements of 403 magnetically detonated mines 103 Mine Countermeasures and Clearing (MCM) 449–450 mine warfare ships 100, 122 Q-routes 449–450 mining 342–343 See also offshore drilling mink 25 Minorities in the Aquatic Sciences program 22 minor plates 343, 359 Mir-1 (submersible) 513 MIROS Direction Wave and Surface Current Radar 399, 454 Mir-2 (submersible) 513 Mississippi River delta formation 474 model of 344 mouth dead zone at 203, 308 freshwater plume at 210, 472 Mistral 334 MIW See mine warfare MLLW See Mean Lower Low Water MMPA See Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 MMS See Minerals Management Service Mobile Offshore Base project 49 MOCNESS See Multiple Opening/Closing Net and Environmental Sampling System model basin 343, 360 models 343–344 of current 90, 91, 361, 383, 443, 445, 446, 554 diagnostic 302, 343–344 global circulation models 383 ground-truthing of 383 history 428 for hurricane forecasting 302–303 of internal waves 247 numerical (computer) modeling 382–384 (See also Fourier analysis) and chaos theory 85 in climate forecasting 90–91 in current forecasting 361 in geophysics 396–397 of halocline 473 uses 344 in weather forecasting 178 prognostic 302, 343–344, 442 resolution of 383 in ship design 360 statistics and 506 of waves 198, 219, 247, 560–561, 563 Moho See Mohorovicic discontinuity Mohole project 345 Mohorovicˇic´, Andrija 344 Mohorovicic discontinuity (Moho) 344–345, 391, 429 Molchanov, Pavel A 446 mole (ship berth) 452 mole crabs (sand fleas) 60 molecular diffusion 137 molecular scattering 475 molecular viscosity coefficient 175 Mollard, Jean 140 Molloy Deep 313 mollusks 345 See also zebra mussel aquaculture 35 in bathypelagic zone 53 benthic 59–60 characteristics 80 classification of 80, 81 dinoflagellate infection 433 in hadal zone 209 in Red Sea 458–459 Mombasa Reserve 311 Monitor National Marine Sanctuary 287, 318, 319, 356 monkfish (goosefish) 200 monogamy, in fish 117 Monoplacophora 345 Monsoon Current 122 monsoons 346, 346–347 in Bay of Bengal 54 and current 148, 149, 162, 501 in Indian Ocean 346–347, 379–380 and Indian Ocean currents 240, 261 in Pacific Ocean 418 in Persian Gulf 423 Monterey Bay Aquarium 462 Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary 286, 318 Monterey Peninsula College 286 Montgomery, Raymond B 557 Moon lunar cycle, mean sea level calculation and 329 lunar day 275 lunar node, and tide prediction 442 orbit precession 442 phases of 275 and tides 531, 531 mooring(s) 347–349, 348 acoustic release of 8–9, 71 anchoring of 26–27 for buoys 71–72, 138 oceanographic 27–28, 28, 348–349 subsurface 349 Morris J Berman (barge) 321 Morse, Samuel Finley Breese 326, 497 Morse code 326, 497 Moskowitz, Lionel 484 motion, Newton’s second law of 120, 444 Mozambique Current 14, 122 Mpumhuti Reserve 311 MSX (Haplosporidium nelsoni) 88 MTS See Marine Technology Society MTS/IEEE Oceans 322 mullet 79, 164, 265, 285, 424, 505 Multiple Opening/Closing Net and Environmental Sampling System (MOCNESS) 374 munitions, proximity fuse 363 Munk, Walter Heinrich 345, 402, 428–429, 474 Murmanskaya drill platform 410 murrelet 290 mushroom anchor 27 muskrat 298 mussels bacteria in 48 classification of 345 mariculture 285 near hydrothermal vents 230 MVCO See Martha’s Vineyard Coastal Observatory N NAC See North Atlantic Current (NAC) NAD 27 See North American Datum of 1927 NAD 83 See North American Datum of 1983 NADW See North Atlantic Deep Water nangrove rivulus 282 Nanhai II drill platform 412 nanoplankton 433, 575 Nansen, Fridtjof 153, 154, 237, 350, 351, 395 Nansen bottle 104, 135, 350–353, 352, 395–397 Nansen cast 350 Nansen Cordillera 38 NAO See North Atlantic Oscillation Nares, George Strong 280 Narrow River Marine Reserve 311 NASA See National Aeronautical and Space Administration Nathaniel B Palmer, R/V 237 National Aeronautical and Space Administration (NASA) 353–354 Europa probe 231 facilities 353–354 Jupiter probes 167 Landsat Program 354, 438 missions 353 Neutral Buoyancy Lab 286 research by 202 satellites 353–354 TOPEX/Poseidon altimeter 18 National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI) 143 National Bureau of Standards 331 National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science (NCCOS) 356 National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) 90, 127, 219, 302, 357, 398 National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying (NCEES) 84 National Data Buoy Center (NDBC) 72, 93, 97, 138, 409, 561 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) 80, 88, 159 National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS) 355, 357 National Geodetic Survey (NGS) 125–126, 228, 329, 357, 552 National Geodetic Vertical Network 329–330 National Geographic Society 140, 143, 462 National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) 127, 357 National Geospatial Intelligence Agency (NGA) 361 Digital Nautical Chart (DNC) 137–138, 155 and geodesy 185 Naval Oceanographic Office and 361 and Notice to Mariners 382 National Hurricane Center, U.S (NHC) 224–225 National Ice Center 354–355 functions 234, 236, 237, 239, 263 research 11, 30 staff 11 National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA) 361 Index   613 National Invasive Species Act of 1996 249 National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) ATOC and 10 fisheries management 101, 168, 174, 199, 216, 217, 357, 438–439, 572 law enforcement activities 305 NOAA employees in 355 water temperature data 524 National Marine Manufacturers Association 323 National Marine Sanctuaries, U.S 318, 356 See also marine sanctuaries National Marine Sanctuaries Act of 1972 318, 356 National Medal for Science 429 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 355–357 See also National Geodetic Survey; National Marine Fisheries Service; National Ocean Service; National Weather Service Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) 99, 397, 438, 463 agencies under 93, 355–357 ATOC and 10 charts, nautical 86 ecological restoration projects 88 and Exclusive Economic Zone 168 fleet 356, 357, 453, 467 and geodesy 185 GOES satellite 189 marine spill response 319–321 mission 355 National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service 355, 357 National Ice Center and 11, 354 National Marine Sanctuary Program and 356 National Water Level Observation Network 128 Next Generation Water Level Measurement System 529 NOAA Corps 355 NOMAD buoy 93, 377 Oceanic and Atmospheric Research laboratories 355, 357 Office of Response and Restoration 321 Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (PMEL) 231–232 Polar-Orbiting Operational Environmental satellites 302, 438 PORTS system (See Physical Oceanographic Real-Time System) research by 157, 202 research funding 87, 303, 399, 429–430 Sea Grant 57 in Search and Rescue 482 Sustainable Seas Expeditions 143 tide and current tables 126, 146, 212, 530 tide houses 532 wave measurement and forecasting 561 weather forecasting 178 Weather Radio 358 Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute and 568 National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC) data available from 123, 127, 219, 302, 353, 357, 398 data standards development and 127 functions of 304 National Oceanographic Partnership Program (NOPP) 202, 393 National Ocean Sciences Bowl (NOSB) 4, 286 National Ocean Service (NOS) Coast Pilot (publication) 365, 382, 414 functions of 356–357 history 356, 400 mean sea level calculations 329 navigation charts 86, 228, 357 PORTS system and 397, 439 tide and current tables 212, 357, 442, 534 National Polar Orbiting Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) 302, 438 National Research Council 21 National Science Foundation 286 Ocean Observatory Initiative 327 research funding 87, 187, 303, 327, 390, 429, 434 National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) 127 National Student ROV Competition 286 National Water Level Observation Network 128, 329, 533 National Weather Service (NWS) Advanced Weather Interactive processing System (AWIPS) 355 climate data 90 data collection 93 functions 355 history 355 Mariners Weather Log 302 marine spill response 319–321 National Data Buoy Center 72, 93, 97, 138, 409, 561 National Hurricane Center 224–225 weather forecasting 178, 179 NATO, Cooperative Engagement Capability 364 Natuna Sea 412 natural gas exploration for 401, 406–407 formation of 33 offshore drilling for 404–408 transport of 406 natural hazards 357–360 natural resources See resources NAUI See National Association of Underwater Instructors Nautical Almanac 337, 362, 366, 367 nautical charts See charts, nautical nautical mile, international 261 Nautile (submersible) 513 Nautiloidea 81 nautilus 80, 81 naval architects 226, 360–361 Naval Center for Space Technology 302 Naval Oceanographic Office (NAVOCEANO) 361–362, 400, 414 Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) 362 Remote Sensing Division 302 research 244, 273, 399 Naval Reserve, U.S 296 Naval Sea Systems Command (NAVSEA) 101, 343 Naval Surface Warfare Center 360 Navarin Canyon 512 NAVD 88 See North American Vertical Datum of 1988 Navier, Claude Louis Marie Henri 382, 547 Navier-Stokes equations 382–383, 547 navigation 362–366, 365 See also charts, nautical angle measurement and 330 backup to electronic systems 362, 364, 365– 366, 368 bathymetry information and 53 celestial 330, 362, 364, 366 day shapes 129 dead reckoning 129–130, 362, 398 Inertial Navigation Systems 269 inland/harbor/coast 365–366 large ship 364–365 methods 362–364 navigator training and certification 536–537 open-ocean 365 Rules of the Road 72, 74 subsurface 368 support systems for 304 time measurement and 331 vector methods 550 navigation aids 366, 366– 367, 367 buoys 70, 348, 349, 367 day shapes 129 navigation lights 366–367 sound signals 367 navigational astronomy See celestial navigation navigation devices 362, 367–369 See also charts, nautical; Nautical Almanac; sextant chronometer 331, 362 compass 102–103 depth finder 362 Differential GPS 136– 137, 193, 365, 455, 496 GPS 102, 362–365, 368 radar 47, 365, 368 radio 365, 367–368 satellites 130, 362–364 navigation lights 366–367 navigator, functions of 364, 366, 368 NAVOCEANO See Naval Oceanographic Office NAVSEA See Naval Sea Systems Command Navy, British, Submarine Rescue Team 513 Navy, U.S See also amphibious warfare; mine warfare; Naval Research Laboratory; Office of Naval Research aerographer’s mate 11– 12, 516 certification programs 12, 83–84 combatant ships, types and functions 99–101 Cooperative Engagement Capability 364 Cousteau (Jacques-Yves) and 140 environmental policies 88 forecasting 12, 179 Geosat satellite and 18 Meteorology and Oceanography (METOC) officers 12, 337–338, 388 model basin 343 614  Index National Ice Center and 354 Navy Postgraduate School nowcasting by 382 patrol craft 421 quartermaster 451 research by 202 research vessels 218–219 Scientific Ice Expeditions (SCICEX) 38, 210–211 Standard Missile program 364 surface warfare 516, 516 Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute and 568 Navy anchor 27 Navy Navigation Satellite System (TRANSIT) 130 Navy Oceanographic and Meteorological Automatic Device (NOMAD) buoy 93, 377 Nazca Plate 343 NCCOS See National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science NCDC See National Climatic Data Center NCEES See National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying NEAR mission 363 nearshore currents 369 Nearshore Video Imaging System 170 nearshore zone 98 NEC See North Equatorial Current nekton 63–64 nematodes, benthic 59 Neogene period 113–114, 119 NEPA See National Environmental Policy Act nephelometer 426, 545 Nephelometric Turbidity Units 426 neptunegrass 299 neritic zone 369–371 definition of 150, 312 fish 369–370 NESDIS See National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service nets 371, 371–376, 372 abandoned 375 state-or-the-art 375 types 371–373, 373–375 Neumann, Gerhard 198, 484 Neumann spectrum 484 neuston nets 372, 374 Neutral Buoyancy Lab (NASA) 286 New England Fishery Management Council 278 Newfoundland-Labrador Shelf 314 Newport-Bermuda race 204 Newton, Sir Isaac 330, 444, 528–531, 564 Newton’s second law of motion 120, 444 New Zealand Shelf 314 Next Generation Water Level Measurement System (NGWIMS) 529 NGA See National Geospatial Intelligence Agency NGDC See National Geophysical Data Center NGS See National Geodetic Survey NGWIMS See Next Generation Water Level Measurement System NHC See National Hurricane Center Nichols, C Reid 238, 388, 409 Nile River 334 NIMA See National Imagery and Mapping Agency nimbostratus clouds 92 Niña, La See La Niña Niño, El See El Niño Niskin, Shale 396 Niskin bottle 135, 353, 395–396 nitrates 376, 384 nitrification 171 nitrites 376 nitrogen and eutrophication 464 levels, as limiting factor 272 Redfield ratio 457 nitrogen cycle 62, 376–377, 384 nitrogen-fixing bacteria 16–17, 384 nitrous oxide, as greenhouse gas 376 Nixon, Richard M 158, 301 NOAA See National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration NOAA Corps 355 Nobel Peace Prize 351, 395 Nobel Prize 153, 270, 362, 455 Noble Charles Copeland drill platform 411 NODC See National Oceanographic Data Center NOMAD (Navy Oceanographic and Meteorological Automatic Device) buoy 93, 377 nonselective scattering 475 nontidal current 122–123, 225 NOPP See National Oceanographic Partnership Program nor’easters 50–51, 126, 358–359 Nori 16, 285 North America climate of, Gulf Stream and 42, 520 continental shelf 41 North American B-25C Mitchell archaeological site 287 North American Datum of 1927 (NAD 27) 129 North American Datum of 1927 (NAD27) 185 North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83) 129, 136, 185 North American Plate 279 North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88) 329, 552 North Atlantic Bloom Experiment 257 North Atlantic Central Water 42 North Atlantic Current (NAC) 122, 377, 377–378 associated currents 76, 135, 149, 204, 264, 381 fog generated by 42, 378 and North Atlantic gyre 41, 377 North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) eastern 264 location 32, 42 Pacific Deep Water and 419 source 32, 66, 111, 135, 526, 557 western 264 North Atlantic Drift See North Atlantic Current North Atlantic Ocean Arctic Oscillation 43 definition of 40–41 gyre 41, 76, 206, 207, 377 Icelandic Low 126 Kelvin waves in 260–261 productivity 150 weather 42 North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) 43 North Atlantic region, climate in 90, 264 North Australian Shelf 314 North Brazil Current 152, 206 North Brazil Shelf 314 North Carolina State University 539 Northeast Australian Shelf 314 Northeastern Regional Association of Coastal Ocean Observing Systems 393 Northeast Trade Winds 41 Northeast U.S Continental Shelf 314 North Equatorial Countercurrent 161, 378 North Equatorial Current (NEC) 122, 378–381, 379 associated currents 76–77, 149, 206, 208, 377, 500 characteristics 42 monsoon and 240, 347 and North Atlantic gyre 41, 207–208 and North Pacific gyre 208, 418 Northerly Island (dredge) 70 Northern Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument 318 North Pacific Central Water 418 North Pacific Current 208, 261, 262, 381 North Pacific Drift 122, 417–418 North Pacific Fishery Management Council 278 North Pacific Intermediate Water (NPIW) 415–416, 419–420 North Pacific Marine Science Organization (PICES) 192 North Pacific Ocean Aleutian Low 126 boundary 417 currents 261 gyre 75, 208, 262, 306, 381, 417–418 productivity 150 salinity 418 North Pacific region, climate in 262 North Sea 283 as Large Marine Ecosystem 314 offshore drilling in 406, 411 North Star (Polaris) 492 Northwest Association of Networked Ocean Observing Systems 393 Northwest Australian Shelf 314 Northwest Center for Sustainable Resources 286 Norwegian Bratvaag Expedition 351 Norwegian Current 377, 381 Norwegian North Polar Expedition 351 Norwegian Sea 38, 284 Norwegian Shelf 314 Norwegian trench 381 NOS See National Ocean Service NOSB See National Ocean Sciences Bowl Notice to Mariners 365, 382, 496 Nova (ship) 320 Nova Scotia Current 263 nowcasting 219, 382 NPIW See North Pacific Intermediate Water NPOESS See National Polar Orbiting Environmental Satellite System NRL See Naval Research Laboratory NR submarine 100 NSIDC See National Snow and Ice Data Center nuclear explosions, detection of 244 nuclear power plants feedwater 169–170 radioactive waste disposal 306–307 Index   615 thermal pollution from 308 types 169–170 wastewater 170 nuclear weapons Marshall Islands tests 44 radioactive waste disposal 306–307 nudibranchs 345, 575 Nuestra Señora de Atocha archaeological site 287 numerical (computer) modeling 382–384 See also Fourier analysis and chaos theory 85 in climate forecasting 90–91 in current forecasting 361 in geophysics 396–397 of halocline 473 uses 344 in weather forecasting 178 NURP1 462 nutria 251, 298, 401 nutrient cycles 384, 384–385 See also carbon cycle; nitrogen cycle nutrient regeneration 385–386 NWS See National Weather Service O oaks, on dunes 50 observatories See LamontDoherty Earth Observatory; Longterm Ecosystem Observatory at 15m; long-term environmental observatory; Martha’s Vineyard Coastal Observatory; ocean observatory; Sargasso Sea Ocean/Atmosphere Observatory Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) 536, 537 ocean(s) See also Arctic Ocean; Atlantic Ocean; Indian Ocean; Pacific Ocean; Southern Ocean average depth 52, 388 heat budget 213–214 pH of 426 salinity 471, 471 Ocean Alliance drill platform 410 ocean basins 387, 387–390, 389 ocean conditions, forecasting of 179, 361, 382 Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) 345, 390–391, 391, 404, 570 Ocean Dumping Act of 1972 540 ocean engineers 391–392 ocean floor, research on 187–188 Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR) laboratories 355, 357 oceanic crust See also midocean spreading ridges; plate tectonics; subduction zone age of 279, 339, 435 density of 252, 339, 344–345 depth of sediment on 436 and isostatic equilibrium 252–253 thickness of 252, 279, 334, 387, 401 Oceanic Engineering Society 322 oceanic province 150 oceanic zone 392 ocean observatory 392–394, 393 maritime commerce and 304 Ocean Observatory Initiative 327 Oceanographer of the Navy 337 oceanographers biological 62–63, 288, 400, 401, 440 chemical 86–87, 176, 184, 400, 401 fisheries management 201 geological 187–188, 400, 401 physical 184, 205, 395, 402, 428–430, 430 professional associations 22, 402–403 oceanographic instruments 394–400 digital, value of 400 in situ sensors 392 for life-forms study 395 for physical properties study 397–399 for seafloor study 396–397 for seawater study 395–396 testing and maintenance 395 oceanographic libraries 361 oceanographic moorings, anchoring of 27–28, 28 oceanography 400–402 acoustical 18–19 history 400 subjects of study 22, 400 subspecialties 400, 401–402 Oceanography Society, The 133, 402–403 Oceanography Society Fellows Program 402 ocean sciences disciplines included in 21 subjects of study 21 Oceans Conference, The 244 Ocean Star drill platform 410 ocean sunfish 205 ocean surface current radar See OSCR Ocean.US 202, 393, 403 ocean wind waves 195 Octopoda 82 See also octopus octopus blue-ringed 82 characteristics 81, 82 classification of 80, 81, 345 commercial importance 82 Giant Pacific 82 Octopus Hole Conservation Area 311 ODP See Ocean Drilling Program Odyssey (AUV) 395 Office of Naval Research (ONR) 403, 403–404 Mobile Offshore Base project 49 Naval Research Laboratory 362 research 364 research funding 87, 244, 303, 327, 429–430 Office of Response and Restoration (NOAA) 321 offshore drilling 404–408, 405 See also Deep-Sea Drilling Project; oil production platforms in Antarctica 31, 33 in Arctic 33 contour currents and 110 diving and 144, 255 drill platform design 391 drill platform types 405, 406 eddies and 145, 152 exploration 406–407, 434–435 in Gulf of Mexico 145, 203, 275, 406 history 406 internal waves and 247 in North Sea 33 offshore region 98 Offshore Sea-Barge (SeaBee) 106 offshore structures, design of 391 offshore zone, of barrier island 50 Ohio class submarines 100 oil See also offshore drilling; oil production platforms formation of 33, 408 natural releases of 406 offshore leases 152 in Persian Gulf 424 as pollutant 306 reserves, in Barents Sea 381 spill response 72–73, 179, 309, 319–322, 407 spills 165, 319, 320–321 transport of 406 Oil Pollution Act of 1990 319 oil production platforms 408–412 design and construction 408 old, disposal of 408 as research platforms 409 selected examples 410–412 types 405, 406, 408 oil shale 406 Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund 319 Okhotsk Current 122 Oleander, CMV 62 Oliver Hazard Perry class 100 olive trees 334 Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary 318 OMEGA navigation system 368 OML See oxygen minimum layer ONR See Office of Naval Research ooze 412–413 calcareous 75, 390, 412, 486 definition of 75, 486 formation 99, 209 and petroleum formation 78 radiolarian 209 siliceous 390, 412, 486 OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) 406 open coast beach 413 open roadstead 441 Operation Castle 44 Operation Crossroads 44 Operation Desert Storm See Gulf War (1991) Operation Iraqi Freedom 218 Operation UNIFIED ASSISTANCE 337 Opler, Paul A 158 optical beam transmittance 271 optical properties of water 34 optimal ship track planning 304, 402, 413–414, 518 Optimum Track Ship Routing (OTSR) 12 orangemouth corvina 272 Ordovician period 12, 113 Oregon State University 258 organic compounds definition of 427, 447 in food chain 427, 447 Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) 406 Ortelius, Abraham 435 orthophosphates 384 oscillators, Quality (Q) factor 450–451, 451 OSCR (ocean surface current radar) 125, 399, 454 OSHA See Occupational Safety and Health Administration osprey 25, 288 616  Index Osteichthyes (bony fish) 90, 171, 414 ostracoderms 12, 13 Othello (ship) 320 otoliths 395, 572 OTSR See Optimum Track Ship Routing otter 424, 548 Otter Bowl 286 otter trawl 374 Outer Banks of North Carolina 50–51, 96, 474, 488, 510, 549 Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act of 1953 540 oxygen level in seawater algal blooms and 297 eutrophication and 308 as limiting factor 272–273, 297 marine pollution and 272 oxygen minimum layer 82–83, 414–415 salinity and 297 temperature and 297 typical levels 415 stable isotope analysis 420 oxygen minimum layer (OML) 82–83, 414–415 Oyashio (Kamchatka) Current 415, 415–416 associated currents 14– 15, 261 as Large Marine Ecosystem 314 and water temperature anomalies 522 Oyster Recovery Partnership 35 oyster reefs, in estuaries 17 Oyster Restoration Foundation 88 oysters aquaculture 35, 285, 285 bacteria in 48 in Chesapeake Bay 88 classification of 345 commercial importance 64 Eastern 35, 88 in Persian Gulf 424 in Red Sea 459 ozone concentration, measurement of 270 P P P Shirshov Institute of Oceanology 513 Pacific Central-American Coastal ecosystem 314 Pacific Common Water 32 Pacific Deep Water 419 Pacific Equatorial Countercurrent 162 Pacific Equatorial Water 418 Pacific Fishery Management Council 278 Pacific Islands Ocean Observing System 393 Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (PMEL) 231–232 Pacific North Equatorial Current 379 associated currents 162, 261, 262, 378–379, 381 Pacific Ocean 417–419 See also North Pacific Ocean; South Pacific Ocean abyssal hills Benioff zone 58–59 calcite compensation depth 75 continental shelf 109 currents 417–418 depth 313, 417 gyres 75, 208, 262, 306, 381, 417–418, 425, 500–501 lagoons 265 Large Marine Ecosystems in 419 marine sanctuaries, U.S 318 salinity of 418 Southern Oscillation 156–157 storms 418 thermocline 525 water masses in 418 winds 417–418 Pacific Plate 279, 280 Pacific Rim countries 284 Pacific South Equatorial Current 500 Pacific Subarctic Water 418 Pacific Tsunami Warning Center 243, 244, 359 Pacific War Water Pool 418 pack ice 479 paddle grass 299 PADI See Professional Association of Diving Instructors Padilla Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve 311 PALACE floats 124 paleontologists 179–180, 419–420 Paleozoic era 12 Palmer Station 31 Pamlico Sound 265 Panama Canal 503 pancake ice 479 Pangaea 41, 240, 339, 435 PAR See photosynthetically active radiation parametrically induced roll 541 paranzella net 374 parasitism 420–421 cleaner fish 116 copepods 111–112 oyster parasites 88 parrot fish 117 Pascal, Blaise 174, 446 Pascal’s principle 174 passenger pigeons 160 Patagonian Shelf 314 Patagonian toothfish 30 pathologists, marine 401 patrol craft 421 Paull, Charles 231 PCB, as pollutant 306 PDRs See precision depth recorders pearls, cultured 285 pear ring 421 pelagic birds 288–289, 290 pelagic thresher 217 pelagic trawls 372 pelagic zone 421–422 definition of 312 fish 372, 422, 422 oceanic zone and 392 pelecaniformes 288 pelicans 288, 289 pelorus 330 penguins characteristics 288, 291 emperor 30, 288, 289 in food chain 33, 296 species 291, 565 in Weddell Sea 565 pennant line 347 perch 375 Peress, Joseph Salim 255 perfect storm 359, 378, 467 peridotites 570 period, of waves 197, 560, 563 permanent current 422–423 Perry submarine 514 Persian Gulf 423–425 characteristics 241 as marginal sea 284 oil production platforms in 411 Persian Gulf Water 424 Peru-Chile trench 540 Peru (Humboldt) Current 122, 425, 425–426 associated currents 32, 33, 66, 149, 208, 418, 502 as eastern boundary current 149 El Niño/La Niña and 156, 267 as Large Marine Ecosystem 314 and South Pacific gyre 500–501 upwelling of 156, 267, 418, 425, 426, 440, 549 petrel 288, 289–290, 290, 291, 565 Petrobas 36 drill platform 412 Pettersson, Otto 350, 351 Pfiesteria piscida 101, 165 pH 426 alkalinity 17 as limiting factor 272, 297 measurement 426 Phaeophycophyta 259–260 Phantom S2 (ROV) 462 phase, of waves 562, 563 Philippine Plate 343 Philippine Sea 284 phosphates 384 phosphorus and eutrophication 464 Redfield ratio 457 phosphorus cycle 384–385 photic zone 426–427 bacterioplankton 48 definition of 150, 312 epipelagic zone and 161 plankton in 433 photographers 427–428 photokeratitis (snow blindness) 15 photometers 270 photophores 34 photosynthesis See also primary production and carbon cycle 77 compensation depth 34, 103, 272 formula 447 photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) 131 phragmites 249 physical geology 188 physical oceanographers 184, 205, 395, 402, 428–430 Physical Oceanographic RealTime System (PORTS) 7, 165, 211, 213, 225, 304, 439, 443, 495, 496 physical oceanography 400 physical scientists 430 phytobenthos (plant benthos) 59 phytoplankton 430–431 Antarctic Convergence and 34 aquaculture 36 blooms 99, 165, 308, 376, 433, 440 classification 574 coccolithophores 99 and continental shelf water color 109 and deep chlorophyll maximum 131 definition of 433 in food chain 198, 272, 427, 430, 447 light absorption 427 nitrogen cycle and 376 photosynthesis, compensation depth and 34, 103, 272 Redfield ratio 457 Picard, Jacques 541 PICES See North Pacific Marine Science Organization picoplankton 433, 575 pier(s) definition of 440 rip currents and 273, 466 uses 452 Pierson, Willard J 198, 484 Pierson-Moskowitz spectra 484 pike 504 Pike Place Fish Market 326 pilchard 371, 422 piloting 362, 364–365 Index   617 Pilot Research Moored Array in the Tropical Atlantic See PIRATA pilots See docking pilots; harbor pilots Pinatubo, Mount 93, 193 pines, on dunes 50 piping plover 60 PIRATA (Pilot Research Moored Array in the Tropical Atlantic) 379 piston corer 49, 396, 431– 433, 432 pitch 571 pitch poling 541 Pitot-tube anemometer 29 plaice 200 planetary vorticity 175 planetary waves See Rossby waves planing hull 65 plankton 433 See also phytoplankton; zooplankton bacterial 47–48 benthic 59, 60 as food source 117 pelagic 421 population variability, and depth 351 and sediment 430, 486 survival strategies 34 toxic, and shellfish harvest 101 types 574–575 plankton bloom 149, 433–434 plankton ecosystems, carbon and nitrogen cycling in 62 plankton nets 372, 373, 374 planned position indicator (PPI) 365, 368, 454 planning of marine operations 304 plant benthos (phytobenthos) 59 plants See also grass(es); marine macrophytes; sea grass; submerged aquatic vegetation aquaculture 35, 36 of barrier islands 50, 51 dune 50, 51, 54, 57, 95, 510 in hydrological cycle 556 marine macrophytes 298, 298–299, 299 in wetlands 565–566 plate tectonics 434–437 See also mid-ocean spreading ridges; seafloor spreading; subduction zone; transform fault Atlantic Ocean, formation of 41, 240 Benioff zone 58–59 and climate 90 and earthquakes 279, 359, 389, 390, 417, 434, 436–437, 511, 540 formation of plates 345 Indian Ocean and 240 major plates 279–280, 359, 434, 436 mantle convection currents and 110, 111, 279, 339, 343, 345, 397, 402, 434, 436 and Mediterranean Sea 332 minor plates 343, 359 plate boundaries, and fracture zones 180, 180, 181, 435 research on 187, 188, 258, 266, 390, 400, 401–402, 435–436, 477 and Ring of Fire 465 seafloor trenches and shearing stresses 495 structure 253 and volcanoes 193–194, 279, 359, 389, 390, 417, 434, 511, 540 plover 288, 290, 291 plow anchor 27 plunging surf 369, 515, 515 PMEL See Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory pocket beach 413 Poey, Felipe 282 Poincaré, Henri 261 Poincaré waves 261 polar bears 296, 299–300, 300 Polar Current 33 polar currents 42 Polaris (North Star) 492 polarization lidars 269 Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental satellites 302, 438 polar orbiting satellite 302, 437–438, 438 Polar Sea (ship) 238, 239 Polar Star (ship) 237 Polar Stern (ship) 237 police, marine 305, 305, 482 pollock 199, 200, 323, 326, 539 pollution 267 See also marine pollution polychaete worms 59, 151, 209, 210 Polymode 380 polynyas 354 Polyplacophora 345 pomegranate shrubs 334 pomfret 424 Ponce de León, Juan 204 Pontchartrain Causeway, Lake 69 population 438–440 in ecology hierarchy 439–440 explosions and crashes 440 limiting factors 272–273 surveys, methods of 450 population inversion 268 porbeagle 370 porgies 460 pororocas 496 Porphyra 16 porpoises 84 Port and Waterway Safety Act of 1972 540 Porter, David L 257, 364 Port Honduras Marine Reserve 311 Port Royal (Jamaica) 287 PORTS See Physical Oceanographic Real-Time System ports and harbors 440–441 See also Physical Oceanographic Real-Time System docking pilots 144–145, 365 harbor pilots 144, 211, 365, 441 harbor police 305 high-speed vessels and 218 large ship navigation 364–365 maintenance dredging 145–146 and storm surge 509 Portuguese man-of-war 575 potassium, in seawater 104, 104–105, 105, 470, 472 potassium 40, in radiometric dating 455–456, 456 potential temperature 522–523 potential vorticity 175, 554 pound net 372–375 power, of waves 563 power plants See also nuclear power plants thermal pollution from 308 tidal 527–528, 528 wave-powered 562 power spectrum 535 Power Squadron, U.S 74, 126, 326, 542 PPI See planned position indicator Practical Salinity Scale 470 prawn 285, 292, 424, 458 precipitation in hydrological cycle 229 over ocean, measurement of 19 precision depth recorders (PDRs) prediction 442–443 See also forecasting v forecasting 442 of tides 211–213, 442, 531, 534–535, 552–553, 558 of waves 197–198, 428, 484–485, 560–562, 564 pressure 174, 443, 443–445 See also atmospheric pressure; fluid pressure; water pressure gauge v absolute 443, 446 measurement of 9, 103– 104, 443, 446 in trenches 540 units 444, 445 pressure gradient 445, 445–447 and currents 18, 123, 445, 446 and geostrophic flow 189–190, 190, 444 measurement of 445–446 monsoon and 346 and wind 267, 446 pressure gradient force, equation for 444, 446 Prestige (ship) 321 prickly pear cactus 54 primary colors 270 primary production 447 euphotic zone and 166 in food chain 149, 176 macrophytes 298 phytoplankton 198, 272, 427, 430, 447 primary waves (P waves) 408–409, 490, 490–491 prime meridian 331 Princess Anne (hovercraft) 221–222 Princess Margaret (hovercraft) 221–222 Prince William Sound 307, 319, 320 Principles and Practices Exam 361, 392 prism 270 Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI) 143 prognostic models 302, 343–344 progressive (propagating) wave 563 progressive vector diagram (provec) 550 prokaryotic algae 16 prokaryotic plankton 47–48 Prometeu drill platform 410 propagating (progressive) wave 563 propagation-loss diagram 19 ProSensing multifrequency delta-k radar 399 protected areas 357 Protobranchiate bivalves 345 Protocol on Environmental Protection (Antarctic Treaty) 31 provec See progressive vector diagram proximity fuse 363 Pterophryne 207 pteropods 53, 75, 412, 575 PT 109 388 Public Law 94-265 See Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act Puerto Rican Trench 41, 313, 540–541 puffin 290 pull net 374 pulsed laser 268 pure drift currents 152 purse-seine netting 101, 199, 216, 301, 372, 374, 375, 426 pushboats 569 pushnet 374 P waves See primary waves 618  Index pycnocline 447–448 halocline and 210, 447, 472 and internal waves 246 oxygen minimum and 415 and solitary waves 496 and sound speed 497 thermocline and 525 in Tropics 557 Q Q-routes 449–450 quadrat 450 quahog 285 Quality (Q) factor 450–451, 451 quartermaster 451–452 quartz crystal clocks 331 quay 452 Queen Anne’s Revenge Marine Reserve 311 quick installation platform 49 QuikSCAT 354 Quillayute Needles Refuge 311 quillback 573 R raccoons 25 RACON 538 RADAESAT and 313 radar 453–455 backscatter and 47 CODAR (coastal ocean dynamics applications radar) 125, 399, 454, 463 current measurement with 125, 398–399 delta-k radar 125, 399, 454 Doppler 302, 337, 453, 454, 495 Doppler weather 302, 337, 454 history 453 MIROS Direction Wave and Surface Current Radar 399, 454 in navigation 47, 365, 368 OSCR (ocean surface current radar) 125, 399, 454 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) 47, 125, 381, 455 theory and technology 453–454 types and uses 454–455 radar altimeter 17–19, 446, 455 radar scatterometers 302, 337, 455 radian (angle measure) 330 radiation, and heat flow 214, 215 radio, in navigation 365, 367–368 radioactive waste, as pollutant 306–308 radio beacons 367 radio-frequency (RF) wireless modem 97 radiolarian ooze 209 radiolarians 384, 385, 412– 413, 486 radiometers 397 radiometric dating 179, 186, 455–456, 456 radio navigation 362 radiosondes, balloon-borne 445–446 radio waves, attenuation in seawater 454 RAFOS floats 124 rainfall See precipitation rain gauges, acoustic 19 Raleigh, Sir Walter 57 Raman lidars 269 Raman scattering 268 Ramapo, USS 466 Randlett, Royce, Jr 27 Rapidly Installed Breakwater (RIB) 69, 456–457 raster graphics 128 rat, bandicoot 424 rattail, abyssal 3, 313 rat-tailed fish (grenadiers) 53 Ravilious, Corinna 463 ray (vector quantity) 563 Rayleigh, Lord See Strutt, John W Rayleigh scattering 475 Rayleigh wave 490 rays as benthic 59 blue-spotted ribbontail stingray 132 classification of 89–90, 171 food 111 longtail butterfly 458 Maltese 370 RCV-150 462 Reagan, Ronald 140, 429 rebreathers 139, 255 red cedars 50 red drum 50, 60, 172, 265, 285 Redfield, Alfred Clarence 384, 457 Redfield ratio 457 Redhead grass 513 redhorse 573 redox discontinuity layer 60 Red Sea 457–460 climate 458 extreme halophiles in 457 as Large Marine Ecosystem 314 as marginal sea 284 oil production platforms in 411 salinity 241, 458, 471 undersea mining in 342 Red Sea Water 458 red snapper 172 red tide 101, 307, 308, 430, 433 reed, invasive species 250 reef fish 460, 491 See also coral reef fish reefs See coral reefs refraction of light, under water 270–271 of waves 197, 273, 563 refractometer 460–461 Regina Maersk, M/V 107 Regional Fishery Management Councils 216, 278–279, 572 relative dating 461, 461–462 relative sea level (RSL) 329 relative (local) vorticity 175, 553–554 relativistic effects, in time 330–331 Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) 462, 462–463 academic programs on characteristics 45 deployment and retrieval 469 docking stations 145 in marine archaeology 38 in Mine Countermeasures and Clearing 449 ROV operator 469, 513, 537, 568 training programs 286 in undersea mining 342 uses 400, 406, 462, 513 remote sensing 397, 463– 464 See also radar; sonar lasers and 268 in Mine Countermeasures and Clearing 450 in primary production imaging 447 and salinity maps 471 renewable fuels 517 reptiles, marine 314–317 research barges 48–49 research boats 65 research funding 87 research meteorologists 303, 336 research platforms 409 research submarines 100 reservoirs, residence time 464 residence time 464 residual flow 165 Resolution, HMS 404 resonant frequencies and Quality (Q) factor 450–451 seismic waves and 491 resources in abyssal zone in abyssopelagic zone in Antarctica 30, 31 on atolls 44 and Exclusive Economic Zone 168, 269 legislation protecting 540 and territorial sea 269 respiration, and carbon cycle 77 restoring force, of waves 562–563 restricted maneuvering, day shapes for 129 reverse osmosis water purification 170 reversing thermometers 353, 397 Reynolds, Osborne 151, 344 Reynolds number 151, 344 Rhodamine WT 147 RIB See rapidly installed breakwater RIBs See Rigid Inflatable Boats rice, wild 566 Richardson, Lewis Fry 152, 497 Richardson current meter 398 Richter, Charles 359 Richter scale 359 ridge (sand feature) 474 ridge, mid-ocean See midocean spreading ridges rigging 130 Rigid Inflatable Boats (RIBs) 242–243 Rines, Robert H 256 ring nets 372 Ring of Fire 465, 465 definition of 58 and hadal zone 209 naming of 390 subduction zones and 390, 417, 437, 511 trenches and 540 and tsunamis 542 rin net 374 riparian wetlands 567 rip current 465–466 breakwaters and 68 causes of 273, 358 definition of 55 edge waves and 474 jetties and 255, 273 piers and 273, 466 and sediment transport 488 riprap 255 Risk Prediction Initiative 62 Rita, Hurricane 406 Ritter, William Emerson 476 river mouths, haloclines at 210 rivers discharge 556 nitrogen cycle and 376 salinity 471 tidal bores in 527 Robert E Hayes, RB 48 Roberts, Elliott B 123 Roberts Radio Current Meter 123, 398 rockfish bocaccio 369 commercially important species 200 striped bass 50, 159, 164, 285, 297, 308, 372, 375, 517, 571 rode 25–26, 475–476, 476 rogue waves 466–468, 467 Agulhas Current and 14, 32, 466 in Southern Ocean 503 Index   619 roll definition of 571 parametrically induced 541 Romanche Trench 41, 180 Ron Brown (ship) 356, 453 Ronco croaker 272 Roosevelt, Robert Barnwell 20 Roosevelt, Theodore 20 ROPOS 462 RoRo ships 106 Roseate Spoonbill 282 Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science 184, 258, 427 Rosette Sampler 353 Ross, James Clark 329 Rossby, Carl-Gustaf Arvid 21, 254, 344, 468 Rossby number 344 Rossby radius of deformation 260 Rossby waves 254–255, 468, 468–469 internal wave components 247 and offshore drilling 110 origin of 181, 254, 554 restoring force 563 Ross Sea 30, 32, 284 rotor current meters 124–125 rough water See rogue waves roughy 392 Round Island Coastal Preserve 311 ROV See Remotely Operated Vehicle ROV operator 469, 513, 537, 568 RSL See relative sea level rubidium, in radiometric dating 456, 456 ruffe, Eurasian 250 Rules of the Road 72, 74 runnels 474 running rigging 130 run-up 273 Russell, John Scott 496 Rutgers University 27, 274, 399 S sablefish 392 SABSOON See South Atlantic Bight Synoptic Offshore Observation Network sacrificial anodes 155, 574 safety dive safety 536 safety management 537 Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Intensity Scale 223, 224, 358 SAGE See Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment sago pondweed 36, 299 SAIL See Special Annotated Imagery Littoral (SAIL) studies sailfish 172, 216, 217, 505, 538 Sailing Directions 365, 496 Saint Helens, Mount 193 saithe 539 salinity 470–473 See also halocline; thermohaline circulation of Antarctic Bottom Water 32, 565 of Arctic Ocean 39 of Atlantic North Equatorial Current 379 of Atlantic Ocean 42, 418 of Brazil Current 68 brine rejection 39 calculation of, in Nansen cast 353 constancy of composition 104, 104–105, 105, 470, 472 and convection 111 definition of 470 and density 134, 135, 472, 525 and freezing point 472, 520 gradients and current 123 in estuaries 297 homeostasis 297, 314 of Indian Ocean 241 of lagoon 264, 472 as limiting factor 272 marine fish tolerances 296–297 measurement of acoustic tomography conductivitytemperature-depth probe (CTD) 103–105, 137, 396, 397 refractometer 460–461 salinometer 350, 395, 473–474 of Mediterranean Sea 333 of Mediterranean water 334–335 of ocean 471, 471 and oxygen levels 297 of Pacific Ocean 418 of Persian Gulf 424 and pressure 445, 446 of Red Sea 241, 458, 471 and refractive index of seawater 460 research on 402 and sound speed 497 source of 470 of South Atlantic Current 500 of Southern Ocean 502 of South Pacific Ocean 418 and specific heat 504, 520 in trenches 540, 541 variation in 210 salinity-temperature-depth probes 473 salinometer 350, 395, 473–474 salmon anadromous 25, 297 Atlantic 285, 420, 504 chinook 25, 326 coho 25, 285 Pacific 25, 357 parasites on 111–112 salt marshes bacteria in 48 barrier islands and 50 characteristics 567 marine birds and 291 marine macrophytes in 298 in Persian Gulf 424 salt meadow hay 50 Salton Sea 272 salt wedge estuary 164, 164, 165, 210, 472 Salvinia, giant 250 sambuqs 458 samson post 130 San Andreas Fault 279, 437, 495, 512, 538 sand See also beach importance to benthos 68 Udden Wentworth scale 56 sandbars 474–475 as beach protection 55 creation of 273 sand fleas (mole crabs) 60 sandpiper 291 sandstone 486 SAR See Search and Rescue sardine 440 Sargasso Sea characteristics of 207 ecosystem 171, 205 Gulf Stream and 123, 205 location 41, 207, 208 problems, present-day 207 seasonal pycnocline 448 seasonal thermocline 525 water color 385 water temperature 99, 111 Sargasso Sea Ocean/ Atmosphere Observatory (S202) 61–62 Sargassum fish 205, 207 Sargassum weed 205, 207 sargo 272 satellite(s) altimeters 17, 18, 268, 463 in bathymetry 52 current measurement from 123, 125, 399 data collection by 361 environmental 354 ERS-1 185–186 feature tracking 99 first (Sputnik) 363 Geosat 18 geostationary 188–189, 437–438 Global Positioning System and 192–193 image archives 427 image interpretation 34 Landsat 354, 438 lidar systems 269 in marine science 313 maritime commerce and 304 in meteorology 302 NASA 353–354 National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service 355, 357 in navigation 130, 362–364 backup systems 362, 364, 365– 366, 368 ocean temperature measurement from 9, 523 and optimal ship track planning 414 polar orbiting 302, 437– 438, 438 radar systems on 455 radiometers 397 receiving stations 438 in Search and Rescue 482 space weather and 382, 438 TOPEX/Poseidon 18, 354, 380 water level measurement from 445 wave measurement from 484 weather 91, 336–337, 354, 438, 523 Satellite Probatoire d’Observation de la Terre (SPOT) 438 saturation diving 139, 141, 143, 144 Saudi Arabia, aquaculture in 35–36 SAV See submerged aquatic vegetation Savonius, Sigurd J 124, 475 Savonius rotor current meter 124, 398, 475 sawfish 370 scalar quantities 550 scallops 48, 64, 285 Scanning Hydrographic Operational Airborne LIDAR Survey (SHOALS) 11 Scaphopoda 345 scarps 181 scattering 475 scatterometers, radar 302, 337, 455 scaup 290, 573 schooling, of fish 116 Schriever, Bernard A 192 SCICEX See Scientific Ice Expeditions Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (SCOR) 192, 257 Scientific Ice Expeditions (SCICEX) 38, 210–211 620  Index scientists See also specific types chief 304 environmental 160–161 training and education 87 scope 25–26, 475–476, 476 SCOR See Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research Scorpio (ROV) 513 scoter 573 Scotian Shelf 314 Scott Community College 286 Scripps, Edward W 476 Scripps, Ellen B 476 Scripps Institution of Oceanography (SIO) 476–477 history 400 research by 184, 187, 209, 258, 434 research vessels 48 staff 63, 98, 345, 402, 428 training programs 187 scuba 477 development of 140 open v closed system 139, 143 sea, definition of 518 sea anchors (drogues) 28 sea bass 285, 369 SeaBee (Offshore Sea-Barge) 106 sea birds See marine birds seabream 285, 424, 458 sea breeze See land and sea breeze sea-breeze front 267 sea butterflies 53 seacatfish 424 sea clutter 47 SEACOOS See South East Atlantic Coastal Ocean Observation System sea cucumbers 151, 209, 210, 313, 459 Sea Empress (ship) 321 seafloor See also abyssal hills; abyssal plain; abyssal zone; sediment; trench (seafloor) benthic zone 2, 151 major features 312 mapping of 2, 53, 226– 229, 266, 498–500 natural resources, Exclusive Economic Zone and 269 oceanographic instruments for study of 396–397 research 49 Seafloor Characterization and Mapping Pods (SCAMP) 38 seafloor spreading 477 See also mid-ocean spreading ridges; plate tectonics abyssal hills and in Arctic Ocean 38 and barrier reefs 51 discovery of 436 and fracture zones 180, 180, 181, 435 history of concept 58 and hydrothermal vents 230 seamounts and 312 Seafood Choices Alliance 517 Seafood Watch 517 SEAFRAME See Sea Level Fine Resolution Acoustic Measuring Equipment seagrapes 285 sea grass 298, 458, 477, 477–478, 478 sea ice 478–480, 479 Antarctic 30, 31 Arctic 38–39, 355 forecasting of 354, 361 glaciers and 191 research in 479 types 478–480 seakeeping 218, 343 seal(s) Caribbean monk 158 crabeater 30, 565 diet of 296 elephant 30 harbor 301 leopard 30, 33, 296 species of 300, 300 Weddell 30, 565 SEALAB II 403 sea level 480–481 See also water level fluctuations factors affecting 480 fluctuation in local 186 Neogene period 113–114, 119 and shoreline change 56–57 ice age and 512 mean (MSL) 329–330 bathymetry and 52 datum and 128 definition of 480 geoid and 185, 186 rise in and barrier islands 51 and coastal erosion 94 and coral reefs 120 global warming and 94, 95, 329, 481, 556 Sea Level Fine Resolution Acoustic Measuring Equipment (SEAFRAME) 529 sea lice 111–112, 420 sea lion 300 seamounts 387, 480–481 in Atlantic 41 guyot 206–207 location of 186 origin 312 sea nettles 575 sea oats 510 Sea of Cortez 284 Sea of Japan 284, 314, 480–482 Sea of Marmara 415 Sea of Okhotsk 284, 314 sea otter 300, 300–301 Search and Rescue (SAR) 482–483 deep-sea 513, 513 sea robins 59 Seasat 455 seashells, calcium carbonate and 276 seashore lupine 510 sea snake 314, 316–317, 316–317 Seasonal Area Management (SAM) East Marine Reserve 311 seasonal currents 123 seasons, Earth orbit and 341 Sea Star (ship) 320 seastars 112 sea state 483–485 and hull design 218 Table 3700 (World Meteorological Organization) 483, 484, 561 sea surface topography, currents and 18, 444–446, 455, 463 sea-truth data 397, 409 sea urchin 447 Sea-viewing Wide Field-ofview Sensor (SeaWiFS) 99, 257, 370–371 sea walnut 63 seawater See also density, of seawater; salinity; temperature (water) chemical composition of constancy of 104, 104–105, 105, 470, 472 research on 184 color, cause of 34 equations of state 135, 472 light attenuation in 34, 44–45, 270–271, 426–427 light wavelengths absorbed by 34, 44, 270, 271 nitrogen compounds in 376–377 oceanographic instruments for study of 395–396 properties, temperaturedependent 520 radio wave attenuation in 454 refractive index of 460 sound attenuation in 44–45 sound speed in 44–45, 448, 497, 507, 524, 551–552 specific heat of 504, 520 temperature of 520–521, 521 sea wave 181 seaweed aquaculture 285 as food 16 macrophytes 299 SeaWiFS See Sea-Viewing Wide Field-of-View Sensor Seawolf class submarines 100 sebkhas 423 Secchi, Pietro Angelo 271, 485 Secchi depth 271, 485 Secchi disk 45, 271, 395, 426, 485, 485, 545 Secondary (S) waves 408, 490, 490–491 sediment 485–487 See also Deep Sea Drilling Project; ooze analysis of 196 in Bay of Bengal 54 and beach composition 55–56 buildup, on ocean floor 339 calcite compensation depth and 75 composition 2–3 in continental rise 108 contour currents and 110 dating of 180, 455–456 definition of 485 in deltas 133–134 depth 2, 436 dredging 145–146 entrainment 210, 473, 487, 492 glaciers and 191 global distribution of 413 in Gulf of Mexico 203 life in 59, 60 lysocline and 276 in ocean basis 390 plankton and 430, 486 pollutant spills and 321 redox discontinuity layer 60 research on 265, 401 sampling of 49, 67, 67, 195–196, 196, 396, 431–433, 432, 511, 553 sedimentation process, monitoring of 486 seismic reflection profiling 244 settlement of 492 stratigraphy 510–511 and turbidity currents 108, 109 types 390 Udden-Wentworth Scale 486, 486 in Yellow Sea 572 sedimentary rock 485–486, 510–511 sediment transport 487, 487–488, 494, 528 seerfish 458 seiche 243, 488–489, 489, 564 seines 371, 373, 374 seismic reflection profiling in geological oceanography 187 in mantle research 570 in oil exploration 408 technology 244 uses 396 seismic waves 489–491, 490 seismograph 489–490, 544 Index   621 seismometer 489–490 selective tidal stream transport 79 semaphore 326–327 semi-demersal species, capture of 372 semi-displacement hull 65 Sensor Insertion System (SIS) 170 Sensor Microwave Imager 438 Sepioida 81–82 See also cuttlefish set net 374 settlement 491–492 severe seas See rogue waves sewage, as pollutant 306, 307, 376 sextant 330, 331, 362, 365– 367, 492–493, 493 shackle 493–494 shad 24–25, 50, 111, 171, 278, 297, 424, 573 shale 486 shallow-water waves 197 Shark Population Assessment Group 438 sharks Atlantic sharpnose 438 basking 176 blacktip 217 blacktip reef 458 blue 215, 217, 372 characteristics 171 classification of 89–90, 171 finetooth 438 fisheries management of 438–439 grey nurse 370 hammerhead 438 Mako 176 nurse 215 in Red Sea 458, 459, 459 reef 117 sandbar 217, 438 whale 111, 176, 433 Shatt al-Arab River 423, 424 shear 494–495 definition of 174 estimation of 472 and turbulence 547 shearing stresses, in plate tectonics 495 shear margins 495 shear strength 494 shear vorticity 495 shearwater 288, 289, 289–291 shear waves See secondary (S) waves shellfish, aquaculture 36 shellfish poisoning 433 Shepard, Francis P 98 Shinkai (submersible) 513 ship See also boat(s) and Archimedes’ principle 174 classification, by ABS 19 combatant ships 99–101, 366 combat logistic ships 100 container ship 106–107 cutters 72, 126, 236–237, 421 definition of 65 drill ship 187, 408–409 factory ship 199, 323– 326, 539 lightship 93, 125, 367 mine warfare ships 100, 122 mooring for 347–348 trawler 539 trim 541–542 ship builders 323 ship chronometer 331, 362 ship design ABS standards 19, 101 model basins and 343 resonant frequencies and 451 ship drift 398 shipping See also optimal ship track planning; ports and harbors containers 105, 105–106 container ship 106–107 support systems for 304 shipping channels, maintenance dredging 145–146 ship’s routing 495–496 See also optimal ship track planning shipyards 323 shoal grass 299, 458 shoaling waves 197, 243, 359, 360, 369, 560 SHOALS (Scanning Hydrographic Operational Airborne LIDAR Survey) 11 shore, definition of 98 shorebirds 288, 290, 291 shoreface See inshore zone shoreline, definition of 97 shore protection See also beach protection breakwaters 68–69, 69 coastal engineers and 94 coastal erosion 94–96, 95 shrimp aquaculture 35, 35–36, 285 barrier islands and 50 in bayous 567 benthic 151 classification of 295 commercial importance 40, 292–294 grass 87 larval stage 575 near hydrothermal vents 230 red 53, 151 in Red Sea 458 research on 295 snapping 18 species 292–294, 294, 295 vent 313 shrimp boat 539 shrouds 130 Siberian High 254 sidereal day 331 sidereal time 331 signals fog 367 signal flags 326–327 sound 367 significant wave height 484 Sigsbee Abyssal Plain 202 Sigsbee Deep 202 Silent Spring (Carson) 160 silicates 384 siliceous ooze 390, 412, 486 silicon cycle 384, 385 sill 285 siltstone 486 Silurian period 12 simple harmonic wave 563 Simulating Waves Nearshore (SWAN) 198, 561 singular spectrum analysis (SSA) 534, 536 SIO See Scripps Institution of Oceanography siphonophores 53, 575 Sirocco 334 SIS See Sensor Insertion System skates 89–90, 171, 369, 504 skimmer trawl 374 skipjack 452 skunk cabbage 566 Skylab 18, 463 slack water 532 slugs 345 Small Waterplane Area Twin Hull (SWATH) technology 218, 449 smooth-scale rattail snails 48, 345 snake, sea 314, 316–317, 316–317 snakehead fishes 166, 249, 251 snapper 282, 424, 458, 460 Snell’s Laws 47 Snel van Royen, Willebrord 47 Snodgrass, Frank 429 snook 282, 298 snow blindness (photokeratitis) 15 SO See Southern Oscillation sodium, in seawater 104, 104–105, 105, 470, 472 sodium chloride 427 SOFAR See SOund Fixing and RAnging (SOFAR) floats SO GLOBEC See United States Southern Ocean Global Ocean Ecosystems Dynamics solar day 275, 331 solar flares, nowcasting 382 sole 200 solid Earth sciences 21 solitary wave 496–497 solstice summer 341 winter 341 Somali Coastal Current 314 Somali Current 240, 347, 501 sonar 497–499, 498 See also deep scattering layer backscatter and 47 cetacean 299 depth measurement with 136, 227 in marine archaeology 37 operation of 136 research on 361 side-scan 228, 396, 449, 498 types and uses 449, 498 sonic anemometer 29 SOSUS See SOund SUrveillance System Soufrière Scott’s Head Marine Reserve 311 sound See also sonar acoustical oceanography 18–19 acoustic bathymetry 52 (See also depth finder; fathometer) acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) 5–8, 6–8, 70, 123, 125, 398– 399, 463 acousticians 498 acoustic rain gauges 19 acoustic release 8–9, 71 acoustic tide gauges 529 acoustic tomography 9–10, 399, 463 ambient noise 18–19 attenuation in seawater 44–45 man-made, marine mammals and 10, 429 propagation in water, research on 361 in remote sensing 463 seismic reflection profiling in geological oceanography 187 in mantle research 570 in oil exploration 408 technology 244 uses 396 speed in air 44, 497, 562 SOund Fixing and RAnging (SOFAR) floats 124, 151 sounding 2, 169, 499 See also depth finder; fathometer sound in the sea 499 attenuation of 44–45 speed of 44–45, 448, 497, 507, 524, 551–552, 562 sound signals 367 SOund SUrveillance System (SOSUS) 9–10 source, of waves 563 South America, continental shelf 41 South American Plate 279 South Atlantic Bight Synoptic Offshore Observation Network (SABSOON) 205, 409 South Atlantic Central Water 42 622  Index South Atlantic Current (SAC) 499–500 associated currents 67 and South Atlantic gyre 41, 500 South Atlantic Fishery Management Council 278 South Atlantic Ocean definition of 41 gyre 41, 57, 67, 208, 499, 500 South Brazil Shelf 314 South China Sea 284 as Large Marine Ecosystem 314 oil production platforms in 412 South East Atlantic Coastal Ocean Observation System (SEACOOS) 205, 403 Southeast Australian Shelf 314 Southeast Coastal Ocean Observations Regional Association 393 Southeast Trade Winds 41, 42 South East U.S Atlantic Coastal Ocean Observing System 327 Southeast U.S Continental Shelf 314 South Equatorial Current 122, 500–502, 501 associated currents 13– 14, 42, 58, 67, 162, 201, 206, 208, 418 monsoon and 240, 347 and South Atlantic gyre 41, 499 Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System 393 Southern Ocean 502–503 iceberg in 30, 33, 236, 502, 565 nutrient cycles 384 productivity 150, 177 Southern Oscillation (SO) 156–157, 267, 418 See also El-Niño Southern Oscillation Southern Oscillation Index 536 South Indian Current 500 South Pacific Central Water 418 South Pacific Current 500–501 South Pacific Ocean boundary 417 gyre 208, 418, 425, 500–501 salinity 418 South Sandwich Trench 502 Southwest Australian Shelf 314 Southwest Monsoon Current 162, 240, 347, 501 Soviet tropical hydrophysical test range experiment 380 Soviet Union icebreakers 237 Sputnik satellite 363 Soya Warm Current 482 space exploration, Applied Physics Laboratory and 363 space sciences, subjects of study 21 Space Station, International 53 space weather, and satellites 382, 438 Spalding, Mark D 463 spar buoy 503 spearfish 217, 372, 505 spear fishing 270 Special Annotated Imagery Littoral (SAIL) studies 361 Special Sensor Gamma/X-Ray Detector 438 Special Sensor Magnetometer 438 Special Tactical Oceanographic Information Charts (STOICs) 361 specific gravity 503 specific heat 504 spectral models 383 spectroscopy 268 Spectrum Series ROVs 462 speed of ship, measurement 129–130 Sperry, Elmer A 102 spilling surf 369, 515, 515 sponge 575 spoonbill 291 sport fish 504–505 SPOT See Satellite Probatoire d’Observation de la Terre spot (fish) 87, 375 SPR See Strategic Petroleum Reserve spreading centers 339, 437, 538 Sprigg, Reginald C 179 spur-and-groove system 51– 52, 114, 119 Sputnik (satellite) 363 squalls 358 squid California/Market 132, 372 characteristics 81, 82 classification of 80, 81, 345 commercial importance 82 deep-sea 53 food for 132 giant 35, 53, 82, 150, 299, 345 vampire 81, 82–83, 415 SSA See singular spectrum analysis stable isotope analyses 420 staff gauge See wave staff standard deviation 506 Standard Missile program 364 Standard Seawater Service 474 standing wave 505–506, 564 See also seiche Star (deep-sea submersible) 395 star grass 299 State University of New York Maritime College 296 static stability, of water column 448 statistics 506–507 See also time series analysis stays 130 stenohaline fish 297 stenothermal organisms 507–508 stilling well 529 stock definition of 438 year class strength 571–572 stock assessment 438–439, 508–509, 537 STOICs See Special Tactical Oceanographic Information Charts Stokes, George G 382, 547 Stokes’ wave 496 Stommel, Henry Melson 62, 176, 205 Stommel, RV 61 storekeepers 452 stork 290, 291 storm anchor 26 storms See also hurricane(s) cyclone 54, 126, 223, 418, 509 frontal theory of 178 nor’easters 50–51, 126, 358–359 and rogue waves 466–467 and swells 518 types and characteristics 358–359 typhoons 126, 223, 358, 418 wave generating areas 359 storm surge 54, 55, 123, 179, 223, 509, 509–510 storm water runoff 306 Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) 407 stratigraphy 510–511 stratocumulus clouds 92 Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment (SAGE) 354 stratus clouds 91, 92 Strindberg, Nils 351 striped bass (rockfish) 50, 159, 164, 285, 297, 308, 372, 375, 517, 571 structural mechanics 360, 392 structures, offshore, ABS standards 19 Strutt, John W 475 sturgeon 171, 278, 297, 369, 504 S202 See Sargasso Sea Ocean/ Atmosphere Observatory (S202) SUAVE See System Used to Assess Vented Emissions Subantarctic Water 418 subarctic waters, temperature and salinity structure 15 subduction 339, 502 subduction zone 279, 434, 435, 511–512, 512, 541 See also Ring of Fire seamounts at 480 seismic activity at 390, 417, 436–437, 465, 540, 542 trenches at 107, 465, 511, 540 sublittoral zone 313 submarine canyons 108, 109, 512 See also trench (seafloor) submarines See also antisubmarine warfare detection of 361 military 100 and ocean condition nowcasting 382 research 100 sonar and 497 submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) 512–513 See also marine macrophytes aquaculture 36 in Chesapeake Bay 87 decline in 513 marine birds and 288 maximum depth of distribution 328 pollution and 307 in Red Sea 458 turbidity and 171 submersibles 513, 513–515, 514 See also Autonomous Underwater Vehicles; Remotely Operated Vehicle deep-sea submersibles 45, 140, 395, 514 deployment 568 uses 400, 539 subsurface navigation 368 Suess, Eduard 420 Suez Canal 457 Sulawesi Sea 284 sulfate-reducing bacteria 58 sulfur, in seawater 104, 104– 105, 105, 385, 470, 472 Sulu-Celebes Sea 314 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake 359, 491, 544 Sumilon Marine Reserve 311 summer solstice 341 Summit Venture (ship) 212 Sun sunspot cycle, and climate 90 and tides 531 Sunda Trench 313 sundials 331 sunfish 205, 414 sunlight See also photosynthesis attenuation in water 34, 44–45, 270–271, 485 as limiting factor 272 reflected (See albedo) refraction, under water 270–271 wavelengths absorbed by seawater 34, 44, 270, 271 Sunshine Skyway Bridge 212 Index   623 superposition principle 245, 563 supertankers, and rogue waves 466–467 supralittoral zone 313 surf 515, 515–516 shoaling of 197, 243, 359, 360, 369, 560 surfing 181, 359, 515–516 types 55, 359, 369 surface gravity waves 77 surface roughness 516 surface trawls 374 surface warfare 516, 516 surface warfare officers (SWOs) 516 surf beat 243 surfing 181, 359, 515–516 surf zone 98, 273 surging surf 369, 515, 515 surimi 326 Surtsey 194, 339 Survey of the Coast 329, 356 sushi 216 suspension feeders 59 Sustainable Seas Expeditions 143 sustainable yield 63, 329, 517–518 Sverdrup (unit) 14, 264 Sverdrup, Harald U 14, 264, 400, 428 Sverdrup-Munk method 179, 428 swamp See mangrove swamp swamp gas 566 SWAN (Simulating Waves Nearshore) 198, 561 swan, mute 250 swash zone 273, 288 SWATH See Small Waterplane Area Twin HuIl (SWATH) technology SWATH (Mine Hunter ship) 122 S-waves See secondary (S) waves swell 181, 196, 197, 359, 518–519, 562 Swift boats (Fast Patrol Craft) 421 swim bladders 171 “swinging ship” 103 swivel 518, 519 swordfish 108, 205, 215, 216, 217, 357, 372, 538 SWOs See surface warfare officers symbiosis chemosynthetic bacteria 60 in coral reef fish 117 lichens 16 zooxanthellae and 16, 112–115, 119, 272, 575 Synodontidae 116 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) 47, 125, 381, 455 System Used to Assess Vented Emissions (SUAVE) 232 T Table 3700 (sea states) 483, 484, 561 tabletop See guyot Tacoma Narrows Bridge 451 tagging programs in biological research 62 in fisheries management 25, 200–201 for marine mammals 498 taiga 38 Tambora eruption 359 tangle net 374 TAO See Tropical Atmosphere Ocean (TAO) buoys tarpon 282, 298, 504 Tasman Sea 284 tautog 59, 249 taxonomy, binomial nomenclature 81 Taylor, Albert Hoyt 399 t-distribution 506 teal 290, 424 tectonic plates See plate tectonics TEDs See Turtle Excluder Devices Tel Nami Project 287 temperature (water) 520– 524 See also thermohaline circulation air-sea differential 523 of Antarctic Bottom Water 565 and current 520 and density 134, 135, 520, 525 eurythermal species 508 factors influencing 297 and fishing 523, 524 and fish spawning 172 isotherms 253 as limiting factor 272, 297 measurement of 9, 103– 104, 353, 396, 397, 463, 523, 524–525 and oxygen levels 297 potential 522–523 and pressure 443, 445, 446 research on 402 of seawater 520–521, 521 and sound speed 497, 507, 524 stenothermal species 507–508 in trenches 540, 541 temperature, global See global warming temperature-salinity (T-S) diagram 313, 333, 335 water masses on 556–557 water types on 558 temperature-salinity structure, and current 66 See also thermohaline circulation terminal moraine 191 terns 288, 290, 291 TERRA satellite 354 territorial sea 168, 269, 524, 539 terrorism environmental 160 mine-laying 450 and shipping inspections 106 Tethys Sea 240, 332, 420 Teuthoida 82 See also squid Texas A&M University 390 Texas Maritime College 296 Tharp, Marie 266, 436 therma infrared cameras, in Search and Rescue 482–483 thermal pollution, from power plants 308 thermistor 524–525 thermistor chains 397 thermocline 525 definition of 214, 520–521 nitrogen compounds and 376 and nutrient regeneration 385 in Pacific 418 and pressure gradients 447 pycnocline and 525 salinometers and 473 solitary waves and 496 and sound speed 497 and water density 447 thermohaline characteristics, and pressure gradient force 445, 446 thermohaline circulation (deep winter convection) 32, 520, 525–527 Antarctic Convergence and 34 and coral reefs 114, 119 and current 123, 135 in estuaries 165 global 526 global warming and 520, 526 North Atlantic Deep Water and 472 Thermohaline Conveyor Belt 472 thermometer airborne radiation (ART) 414 reversing 353, 397 Thingstad, Frede 338 thintail thresher 217 thiobiota 60 Thomas dropnet system 374 Thomas G Thompson, R/V 243 Thomson, Sir Charles Wyville 2, 280 thornyhead 415 Thunder Bay National Marine Sanctuary 318 Tiburon 462 Ticonderoga (AEGIS) class 100 tidal benchmark 129 tidal bores 496, 526, 527 tidal currents 122–123, 211– 213, 225, 527, 532 tidal datum 552 tidal flats, behind barrier islands 50 tidal friction 429 tidal inlets See coastal inlets tidal power plants 527–528, 528 tidal prism 70 tidal waves as forced wave 181 v tsunami 544 tide(s) 528–533 amphidromic point 24, 261 in Bay of Bengal 54 in Chesapeake Bay 87 and coral reefs 114, 119 and current 122–123 datums 128 deep ocean 260–261 diurnal 531–532 equilibrium tide model 531 factors influencing 212, 442–443 in Gulf of Mexico 203 internal wave components 247 lunar day and 275 measurement of 52, 529, 533, 534, 558–559, 564–565 in Mediterranean Sea 334 in Persian Gulf 423 prediction of 211–213, 442, 531, 534–535, 552–553, 558 Q-factor and 451 in Red Sea 457 research on 402, 528–531 semidiurnal 531 and stationary wave theory 506 and water level 556 Tide and Tidal Currents Tables 365 tide-gates harbor 441 tide gauge 52, 529, 533 tide houses 532, 533 tide staff 534 tide tables 126, 146, 212, 365, 442, 530, 534 time See also chronometer accurate, aboard ship 129 equation of 331 measure of 330–332 relativistic effects 330–332 time series 534 time series analysis 128, 507, 534–536 time zones 331 Titanic, RMS discovery of wreck 3, 45, 388, 568 sinking of 234, 239, 263, 354–355, 378, 441 toadfish 504 Togiak National Wildlife Refuge 311 tomography, acoustic 9–10, 399 Tonga Marine Reserve 311 TOPEX/Poseidon satellite 18, 354, 380, 409 624  Index topographic maps See also seafloor, mapping of aerial survey and 11 sea surface topography 18, 444, 446 tornadoes 223, 244, 494 Torrey Canyon (ship) 320 Torricelli, Evangelista 336 Tortugas Ecological Reserve 356 total allowable catch 329 tourism in Antarctica 31 on barrier islands 51 and coral reefs 120 submersible tours 513–514 towboats 569 tracers in chemical oceanography 184 in current measurement 124, 146–147 trade certifications 536–537 trade winds 41, 42, 379, 417, 418, 445 trammel net 374 transect 537–538 transform fault 339, 434, 437, 538 transform fault zones 480 transform plates 279 TRANSIT (Navy Navigation Satellite System) 130 transitional flow 151 Transit Satellite System 363 transpiration, in hydrological cycle 229 Transpolar Drift Stream 39 transponder 538–539 Transportation, U.S Department of (DOT) 105 transportation system, maritime 440 transverse wave 562 traps and pots 199 trawler 539 trawling benthic 59, 60, 101, 199, 372, 517 regulation of 375 trawls 372, 373–375 treaties and governance 539–540 trench (seafloor) 388, 540–541, 541 See also abyssopelagic zone; submarine canyons in Atlantic 41 characteristics 389–390 depth 2, formation 417 and fracture zones 180 geoid and 185 life in 151 origin plate subduction at 107, 465, 511, 540 seismic activity 359 water temperature in 522–523 trevally 458 Triaxys directional wave buoy 71–72 Tricolor (ship) 321 Trieste (bathyscaphe) 209, 210, 541 trilobites 510 trim 541–542 tritium in radiometric dating 456, 464 in water mass research 557 trochus 60 trophic levels See also food chains and webs and ecological efficiency 149–150, 176 Tropical Atmosphere Ocean (TAO) buoys 476 tropical cyclones 126, 358, 418 tropical depressions 358 tropical storms 358 tropicbird 290 troughs 540 trout brook 171 lake 166, 420 Pacific 25 speckled 372 spotted sea (weakfish) 282 steelhead 25, 285, 548 try net 374 T-S diagram See temperaturesalinity (T-S) diagram tsunami 542–544 causes of 543 earthquake 181, 243, 244, 280, 359, 436–437, 465, 482, 491, 511 landslide 243, 482, 542 meteor 243 turbidity current 109, 491, 546 volcano 243, 280, 465, 491, 542 and edge waves 152 Indonesia (2004) 359, 491, 544 as infragravity wave 243 meaning of word 359, 542 prediction of 244 research on 401 speed of 243, 542 warning systems 181, 243, 244, 359, 483, 491, 544 Tsunami Warning System (TWS) 359, 483, 491, 544 Tsushima Current 262, 481–482 tubeworms 48, 151, 230– 231 Tucker trawl 372, 375 tugboats 144, 236, 360, 544–545, 545, 569 tuna albacore 216, 217, 369 bigeye 216, 217 bluefin 215, 216, 217, 370, 414 dogtooth 458 as epipelagic 392 fisheries 108, 425 frigate l 424 longtail 424, 458 skipjack 171, 216, 217 yellowfin 173, 216, 217 tundra 38 turbidites 546 turbidity 34, 545–546 in Chesapeake Bay 88 human environmental impact on 171 measurement of 45, 268, 271, 395, 426, 485, 485, 545 and underwater visibility 270 turbidity currents (underwater landslides) 66, 108, 109, 488, 491, 512, 546, 546 turbidity meter 426 turbulence 546–547, 547 characteristics of 151 definition of 175 and fish spawning 172 research on 402 and sediment transport 487, 492 turbulent diffusion 137 Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs) 10, 101, 173, 217, 315, 357 turtle nets 375 turtles, sea 314–315, 315 common species of 316 diet of 298, 315 green 458 hawksbill 160, 458 loggerhead 10, 205, 422 in Red Sea region 458 TWS See Tsunami Warning System typhoons 126, 223, 358, 418 Tyrrhenian Basin 333 U Udden, Johan August 486 Udden Wentworth scale 56 ultra-gravity waves 195 ultraviolet radiation, and bacterioplankton 48 umbrella net 375 umbrella species 548 UN See United Nations undercurrent 66, 548 Undersea Research Group 140 undertow See rip current underwater storms 66 UNESCO 192 UNIFIED ASSISTANCE, Operation 337 United Nations (UN) Convention on the Law of the Sea 168, 216, 268–269 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 194 International Environmental Prize 140 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 192 United States Coast Pilot 365, 382, 414 United States Geological Survey (USGS) 168, 185, 202, 427, 438 United States Power Squadron 74, 126, 326, 542 United States Southern Ocean Global Ocean Ecosystems Dynamics (SO GLOBEC) 502 universal trawl 375 University-National Oceanographic Laboratory (UNOLS) 61 University of California 9–10, 187 University of Maryland, Center for Environmental Science at Horn Point 35, 88–89, 89 University of Rhode Island 258 University of Texas 258 University of Washington 258 UNOLS See UniversityNational Oceanographic Laboratory upland region, of barrier island 50 upwelling 549 California Current and 75, 76 Charleston Bump and 86 East Australia Current and 149 eastern boundary currents and 149 Guinea Dome 201 nitrogen cycle and 376 North Equatorial Current and 380 nutrient regeneration and 385 nutrients in 155, 177, 384, 440 Peru (Humboldt) Current and 156, 267, 418, 425, 426, 440, 549 Somali Current and 240 and water temperature 418 uranium, in radiometric dating 7456, 455, 456 Urea de Lima Underwater Archaeological Preserve 311 urine, nutrient regeneration and 385 U.S Naval Oceanographic Office, Digital Bathymetric Data Base (DBDB) 129 USGS See United States Geological Survey V Väisälä, Vilho 247 Vampyromorpha 82–83 See also squid, vampire Index   625 Van Dorn, William G 63 Van Dorn bottle 63 Vaquita 300 variance 506 Vatia Marine Reserve 311 vector 550–551 vector graphics 128 velocimeter 551–552 velocity shear 553 Vema, R/V 265 Vening Meinesz, Felix Andries 66 Venturi, Giovanni Battista 552 Venturi effect 552 Venturi tube 552 vernal (spring) equinox 341 vertical datum 552 very high frequency (VHF) radar 454 very long baseline interferometry (VLBI) 246 Vessel Traffic and Information Systems (VTIS) 211, 304, 496, 559 vestimentiferans 59–60 Vesuvius, Mount 193 vibracorer 553 Video Imaging System for Surf Zone Environmental Reconnaissance (VISSER) 273–274 Vine, Frederick John 339 viper fish 34, 335 Virginia class submarines 100 viruses and microbial loop 338 as pollutant 48 viscosity 553 and fluid dynamics 175 and hydrodynamics 226 visible light spectrum 270 VISSER See Video Imaging System for Surf Zone Environmental Reconnaissance Vista Bella (ship) 321 Vityaz expedition 209, 210 VLBI See very long baseline interferometry volcanic islands 41, 502, 511, 540 volcanoes See also Ring of Fire activity, prediction of 188, 244 and climate 193 formation of 220–221 plate tectonics and 193–194, 279, 359, 389, 390, 417, 434, 511, 540 seismic waves and 491 vorticity 175–176, 495, 553–554 See also eddy; meanders planetary 175 shear and 494, 553 Voyager and (spacecraft) 167 VTIS See Vessel Traffic and Information Systems W Wadati, Kiyoo 58 Wadati-Benioff zone See Benioff zone wading birds 288, 290, 291 wahoo 205, 372, 392, 424 wakame 285 Walfisch Ridge 32 Wallops Island National Wildlife Refuge 312 Walsh, Don 541 Walter Munk Award 402 WAM See Wave Action Model warfare See also amphibious warfare; military operations; mine warfare antisubmarine 361, 400 combatant ships 99–101 combat logistic ships 100 surface 516, 516 warm core rings 204 warm-water vent 555, 568 See also hydrothermal vents Washington, George 96 Wassaw National Wildlife Refuge 312 water See also seawater optical properties of 34 specific heat of 504 water chestnuts 249, 251, 298, 299, 401 water clocks 331 water column, definition of 556 water level fluctuations 555– 556 See also tide(s) causes 329 local 186 Metonic cycle and 329 Tsunami Warning System and 544 water mass 556–557 in Atlantic Ocean 42 dating of 456 formation of 135, 557 in Indian Ocean 241 in Pacific Ocean 418 tendency to remain distinct 34, 557 water type 558 watermilfoil, Eurasian 250 water pressure barocline component 445, 446 barotropic component 445, 446 factors affecting 445, 446 mapping of 445 in ocean 444–446 pressure gradients 445 water quality, and aphotic zone 34 water sampling See Nansen bottle; Niskin bottle waterspouts 357, 557–558, 558 water type 558 Wave Action Model (WAM) 198, 560–561 wave and tide gauge 558–559 wave buoy 395, 518, 559, 561 wave energy spectra 484 wavefronts 563 wavelength(s) 560, 560 absorbed by seawater 34, 44, 270, 271, 426–427 and albedo 15 definition of 563 of light 270 measurement of 560 of shoaling waves 359 wave period and 560 and wave speed 181, 196–197, 562 wavelet methods 534, 535–536 wave number 196 wave prediction 197–198, 428, 484–485, 560–562, 564 waves 562–564 See also seismic waves; surf; swell analysis of 195–198 capillary 77 and coral reefs 114, 119 dispersion relationship 560 edge 152, 243, 474 energy of 197 forced 177, 181 forecasting of 197–198, 428, 484–485, 560–562, 564 formation 562 free 180–182 generating areas 359 gravity 195–198, 196 impact on seafloor and beach 561 infragravity 195, 243–244 infrasonic 244 interference in 245–246 internal 246, 246–248, 247 characteristics 285, 472 measurement of 397 in Mediterranean Sea 334 research on 429, 524 Kelvin 163, 201, 247, 260–261, 468–469 measurement of 181, 483–484, 558–559, 564–565 models 198, 219, 247, 560–561, 563 ocean wind 195 period of 197, 560, 563 Poincaré 261 properties and terminology 562–564 refraction of 197, 273, 563 research on 273 rogue 466–468, 467 Agulhas Current and 14, 32, 466 in Southern Ocean 503 Rossby 468, 468–469 internal wave components 247 and offshore drilling 110 origin of 181, 554 restoring force 563 sea 181 shallow-water 197 shoaling 197, 243, 359, 360, 369, 560 solitary 496–497 speed, wavelength and 181, 196–197 standing 505–506, 564 (See also seiche) steepness 195, 561 superposition principle 245 surface gravity 77 tidal 181, 544 wind and 195, 503, 518, 563 wave shoals 560 wave spectrum 182, 564, 564 wave staff 564–565 wave tanks 343 WAVEWATCH III 518 wax myrtles 50 weakfish 282, 372, 375, 504 weapons, hypersonic 363–364 weather See also climate; meteorologists; meteorology in Atlantic Ocean 42 atmospheric pressure and 444 clouds and 91, 92–93 and current 442 global warming and 90 high/low pressure areas, and geostrophic flow 190–191 in Intertropical Convergence Zone 248–249 jet stream and 254 North Atlantic Current and 378 quick changes in 337 and tides 442 Weatherbird II, R/V 61, 62 weather forecasting certification for 12, 84 chaos theory and 85 clouds and 91, 92–93 computer modeling 178 data collection for 72, 93, 178 history 177–178 jet stream and 254 marine 179 meteorological measuring instruments 335–337, 336 role of 402, 444 satellites in 91, 336–337, 354, 438, 523 weather maps 444 Weather Radio (NOAA) 358 weather routing See optimal ship track planning Weddell, James 565 626  Index Weddell Sea 32, 284, 502, 565 Weddell Sea Bottom Water (WSBW) 565 Wegener, Alfred Lothar 390, 434–437 Wentworth, Chester K 486 West Australia Current 122, 149, 501 West Bering Sea 314 West-Central Australian Shelf 314 Western Boundary Current 99, 415 western boundary currents 176 Western Mediterranean Deep Water (WMDW) 335 Western Pacific Fishery Management Council 278–279 West Greenland Current 263 West Greenland Shelf 314 West Wind Drift 122, 501 wetlands 565–567, 566 See also mangrove swamp; salt marshes loss of 565 plants 565–566 protection of 567 soil 566 types 565, 566–567 Weymer, Bradley A 187, 404, 435 WGS84 See World Geodetic System 1984 whale(s) Antarctic bottlenose 53 baleen 176, 296, 433 Beluga 300 blue 33, 84, 176, 300, 575 bowhead 300 classification 84 communication by, manmade sound and 10, 429 Cuvier’s beaked 53 diet 111, 575 fin 203 finback 300 gray 300 humpback 30, 300, 565 minke 30, 565 orca (killer) 30, 33, 176, 296, 299, 300 right 300, 565 sei 300 sperm 35, 53, 82, 150, 299, 300 whale lice 420 whaling 357, 503, 575 wharf 452 Wheatstone bridge circuit 524 whelk, veined rapa 251 Whewell, William 24 white-band disease 115 white smokers 230 white tide 430, 433 whiting 372, 392 Whiting School of Engineering 363 WHOI See Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute widgeon grass 36, 87, 298, 299, 513 Wild Celery 513 Williams, Robert G 140, 153, 207, 231, 351, 429, 439, 529 WilPower drill platform 411 winch 567, 567–568 wind(s) See also monsoon; Southern Oscillation in Antarctica 259 in Atlantic Ocean 41–42 Beaufort wind scale 227, 421, 484, 484 causes of 267, 446, 504 and current 494, 495, 526 fetch 170 geostrophic 190 in Indian Ocean 240, 261 Intertropical Convergence Zone and 379 inversion 259 jet stream 254–255 katabatic 259–260, 354 Khamsin 334 land and sea breeze 266, 266–267 measurement of 270, 302, 337 in Mediterranean region 334 origin 213 in Pacific Ocean 417–418 and pollution 267 shear vorticity 495 Southern Hemisphere midlatitude westerlies 500 and storm surge 509–510 trade winds 41, 42, 379, 417, 418, 445 and turbulence 547 upper-level, and weather 254 upwellings and 549 and water pressure 445 and waves 195, 503, 518, 563 windlass 567–568 windowpane 200 WindSat 302 wind setup See storm surge wind shear 494–495 wind speed, measurement of 28, 28–29 winter solstice 341 Witwater, SS 320 WMDW See Western Mediterranean Deep Water WMO See World Meteorological Organization wolf-fish 200 Wood, Albert Beaumont Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (WHOI) 568–569 educational programs 568–569 fleet 568 history 400 Martha’s Vineyard Coastal Observatory 327 research 2, 110, 205, 258, 274, 398, 495, 568 ROVs 462 staff 62, 388, 470 submersibles 513 training programs 187, 303 Worcester, Peter 429 workboat(s) 568, 569, 569 World and Regional Data Centers 127 World Data Center A (Washington, DC) 353 World Data Center B (Moscow, Russia) 353 World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84) 128, 136 World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Table 3700 (sea states) 483, 484, 561 weather data disseminated by 178 World Ocean Circulation Experiment 102 World War I submarine warfare in 497 and weather forecasting 178 World War II Applied Physics Laboratory in 363 forecasting in 179, 400, 428 worms, segmented See annelids wrasses 116, 117 wreckfish 370 WSBW See Weddell Sea Bottom Water Wunsch, Carl 429 Wüst, Georg Adolf Otto 42, 110, 335, 557 X XBT See expendable bathythermograph xenolith 570 X-ray diffractometers 396 Y Yachats Marine Garden 312 Yale University, research by 184 Yasat drill platform 411 Yasat Marine Reserve, Al 310 yaw 571 year class strength 571–572 Yellow Sea 284, 314, 572 Yucatán Current 275 Yucatán Strait 275 Yucca Mountain nuclear waste disposal facility 307 Z Zanzibar weed 285 zebra mussel 166, 249, 251, 401, 573–574 Zekes Island Estuarine Reserve Dedicated Nature Preserve 312 Zhemchug (ship) 512 Zhemchug Canyon 512 zinc 574 characteristics and applications 574 sacrificial anodes 155, 574 Zodiac boat 242, 242 zoobenthos 59 zooplankton 574–575 See also krill Antarctic Convergence and 34 classification 574 copepods 59, 111–112, 191, 420, 574, 575 and deep scattering layer 132 definition of 433 epipelagic zone and 161 in food chain 117, 176, 575 and microbial loop 338 nitrogen cycle and 376 zooxanthellae and coral bleaching 113, 424–425 limiting factors 272 symbiosis in 16, 112, 113, 115, 119, 272, 424–425, 575–576 Zubr (hovercraft) 222 ... view of the interdisciplinary and often international nature of most major marine science projects, consistency in data reporting is a matter of major concern for marine scientists In this encyclopedia, ... fundamentals of marine navigation Viable programs in marine science expose students to all aspects of the ocean Instruction relates to the application of the classical scientific fields to the marine. .. environment Typical programs offer classes in introductory ocean- ography, coastal oceanography, marine biology, marine geology, marine chemistry, marine mammology, marine aquarium science, and provide