WH Y G OOD I S GO O D ‘A wonderful addition to the literature on morality … that will force theologians, philosophers and social scientists to seriously consider the contributions natural science can make to moral discourse.’ Ralph Hood, University of Tennessee at Chattanooga ‘This book is thoroughly researched, engagingly written, and logically and persuasively argued I not know of any other book that attempts what Hinde has accomplished in this one.’ David Wulff, Wheaton College, Massachusetts What can science tell us about morality? It is often said that science – because it tells us about the way the world is and not how it ought to be – can have nothing to say about ethical matters; yet scientists increasingly tell us that evolutionary biology has much to tell us about our values This ground-breaking new book argues that only a multidisciplinary approach will enable us to understand morality The author draws on psychology, philosophy, biology and social anthropology to explore the origins of our moral systems He discusses the ethical views of different cultures and different eras, looking at attitudes towards infidelity, acts of revenge and human rights The result is not only a compelling insight into the history and development of the world’s moral systems: Robert Hinde argues that an understanding of morality’s origins can clarify and inform contemporary ethical debates over topics such as abortion and the treatment of terminally ill patients By using fascinating examples ranging from the nature of socio-political power to the moralities of Argentine football, Robert Hinde demonstrates that moral systems are derived from human nature in interaction with the social, cultural and physical experiences of individuals On this view of morality, moral codes are neither fixed nor freely unconstrained but a balancing act between what people and what they are supposed to The multidisciplinary nature of this book makes it accessible to anyone interested in the relation of ethics to biology, social science and the humanities Robert A Hinde is a Professor at St John’s College, Cambridge, a Fellow of the Royal Society and Foreign Associate of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA His most recent book, Why Gods Persist (Routledge, 1999), applied a similar multidisciplinary approach to the ubiquity of religious systems W HY G O O D I S GOOD The sources of morality Robert A Hinde London and New York First published 2002 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group This edition published in the Taylor and Francis e-Library, 2005 “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” © 2002 Robert A Hinde All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Hinde, Robert A Why good is good : the sources of morality / Robert Hinde p cm Includes bibliographical references and index Ethics I Title BJ1012 H54 2002 170–dc21 2001048669 ISBN 0-203-99431-0 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0–415–27752–3 (hbk) ISBN 0–415–27753–1 (pbk) TO THE FELLOWSHIP OF ST JOHN’S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE CONTENT S ix xiv Preface Acknowledgements Part I Setting the stage 1 What does morality include? The approach 12 Notes for a conceptual tool-kit 26 Continuity and change: consistencies and inconsistencies across contexts and cultures 30 Morality and the self-system 34 Part II Where moral precepts come from? 45 Acquisition of a ‘moral sense’ and moral codes 47 Sources of moral precepts: relations with kin 61 Sources of moral precepts: relations with non-relatives 72 Sources of moral precepts: status, rights 95 10 Sources of moral precepts: sex- and gender-related issues 103 11 Sources of moral precepts: social and religious systems 128 12 Speculations concerning the emergence of moral systems 135 vii CONTENTS Part III Some practical and theoretical issues 151 13 Sources of conflict 153 14 Emphasis on biological bases is not biological determinism 171 15 Conclusion 177 193 211 232 238 Notes References Name index Subject index viii PREFACE It is not always easy to tell good from bad, or right from wrong We may have been brought up with fairly clear perceptions of the differences between them, but clear-cut solutions to real-life situations are not always apparent We have to decide between conflicting ‘oughts’, balance obligations against abstract values, and assess conflicting ‘rights’ Any one decision may have many consequences – on oneself, on others, on one’s family, even consequences on society as a whole What are the criteria by which right and wrong can be, should be, or are distinguished? Beyond that, is it just a matter of criteria rationally considered, or of what one feels about the issue, or both? Do all right actions share some distinguishing characteristics? And where the criteria come from? Such problems, having been the subject of debate for generations, are now becoming both increasingly difficult and increasingly acute for two reasons First, in the past, religions were the principal purveyors of moral codes, which in many societies were portrayed as bestowed by a transcendental being.1 Moral codes and social codes were closely interwoven, and an individual faced with a dilemma could usually obtain an answer, or at least advice, from a priest or other religious specialist In European societies at least, adherence to the moral code was encouraged by the churches in two ways First, directly, by the promise of divine reward or the threat of divine retribution in this life or another; second, and indirectly, by the gossip that even a slight departure from the churches’ definitions of ‘respectability’ would elicit.2 To-day, the more traditional churches are losing their power to influence individuals in the increasingly secular worlds of Europe and North America Such religious institutions as are in part replacing them focus either on beliefs unacceptable to many twenty-first-century minds, or on ritual and religious experience Many feel that the moral codes of the society in which they grew up lack both authority and sanctions And even leading members of some of the great world religions are suggesting that it is possible to live a moral life without religious faith,3 or to distinguish faith in a religious tradition from ‘spirituality’, defined as those qualities which bring happiness to others.4 This is not to underestimate the importance of ix REFERENCES Scheper-Hughes, N (1992) Death without weeping: the violence of everyday life in Brazil Berkeley CA: University of California Press —— (2000) ‘The global traffic in human organs’ Current Anthropology, 41, 191–211 Schlegel, A (1972) Male dominance and female autonomy New Haven CT: Human Relations Area Press Schluter, M (1994) ‘What is relationship justice?’ In J Burnside and N Baker (eds), Relational justice, pp 17–27 Winchester: Waterside Press Sedikides, C (1993) ‘Assessment, enhancement and verification determinants of the self-evaluation process’ Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 317–38 Segerstråle, U (2000) Defenders of the truth Oxford: Oxford University Press Seligman, M.E.P and Hager, J.L (1972) (eds) Biological boundaries of learning New York: Appleton Century Crofts Shepher, J (1983) Incest, the biosocial view New York: Academic Press Short, R (1979) ‘Sexual selection and its component parts, somatic and genital selection, as illustrated by man and the great apes’ Advances in the Study of Behaviour, 9, 131–58 Shrauger, J.S (1975) ‘Responses to evaluation as a function of initial self-perception’ Psychological Bulletin, 82, 581–96 Shrauger, J.S and Schoeneman, T.J (1979) ‘Symbolic interactionist view of selfconcept: through the looking glass darkly’ Psychological Bulletin, 86, 549–73 Shweder, R.A (2000).‘ What about “Female genital mutilation”? 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selfish traits’ Journal of Consciousness Studies, 7, 253–6 231 NAME INDEX The references cited in the text are given numbers, which refer to the notes The page numbers in this index refer to the text page on which the numbers appear Abbot, M 113 Abelson, R.P 41 Adams, H 145 Adler, A Aiello, L 136 Ainsworth, M.D.S 52 Alexander, R.D xi, 14, 76, 80, 83 Allen-Arave, W 92 Anderson, J.G 66 Angleitner, A 113 Antill, J.K 110 Archetti, E.P 9, 131, 194 Ardener, S 106, 113 Asch, S 84 Astuti, R 103 Attanucci, J 109 Auhagen, A.E 8, 84, 91, 200 Axelrod, R 81 Backman, C.W 39 Baddeley, J 109 Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J 58 Ballou, J.D 124 Bambrough, R 32, 98, 196 Bandura, A 97,101, 155, 158, 210 Banks, C 101 Baron-Cohen, S 50 Bateson, P 125 Batson, C.D 76 Bauman, Z 20, 97, 128, 156, 183 Baumeister, R.F 196 Beauchamp, T.L 167 Beckerman, S 105 Benedict, R 164 Bennett, L 167 Berger, P.L 49 Berlin, I 98, 153 Berlinguer, G 210 Berscheid, E 74 Bersoff, D.M 31 Best, D.L 111–12 Betzig, L 69, 97, 134 Bevc, I 126, 159 Bittles, A.H 94–5, 125 Black, D 137, 138 Blackmore, C 76, 202 Blair, R.J Blakemore, C 174 Blasi, A 34, 48 Blehar, M.C 52 Bliege Bird, R.L 96 Block, J 110–11 Blumstein, P 118 Blundell, M.W 138 Blurton Jones, N 64, 91, 92 Bodenhorn, B 67 Boehm, C 15, 83, 85, 136–7, 200 Borgerhoff Mulder, M 69, 97, 134 van der Bosch, L 125 Bottéro, J 208 Bourne, E.J 159, 196 Bowlby, J 40, 49, 89 Boyd, R xi, 14, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 129, 137, 140–3 Boyer, P 184 Bray, F 65, 67, 117 Bremner, J 125 232 NAME INDEX Bretherton, I 40 Brill, A 159 Brown, J.R 51, 54 Brown, P.F 96, 149 Bruner, J 196 Buchmayer, S 199 Burgess, R.L 199 Buss, D 66, 106, 107, 109, 113, 120, 207 Buunk, B.P 74 Byrne, R.W 50 Call, J 4, 50 Candland, D.K 16 Caplan, P 120 Cara, F 86 Carrithers, M 38 Carsten, J 67, 115 Caspi, A 58 Castle, J 49, 56 Chapais, B 96 Cheney, D.L 79 Chodorow, N 103 Clayton, S.D 86 Colby, A 30, 48, 158 Coleman, D.A 32, 117 Collins, J 114, 206 Coney, N.S 109 Cosmides, L 85, 86, 194 Count, E.W 20 Cronin, H 81, 210 Cronk, L 18 Crook, J.H 105, 133 Crowley, M 109 Cummins, D.D 86, 98 Cutting, A.L 8, 56 Dalai Lama ix, 200 Daly, M 66, 69 Damon, W 30, 47, 48, 51, 52, 54, 158, 165 Daood, C 86 Darley, J.M 155, 157 Davidson, P 4, 34 Davies, C x, 32 Davies, L 49, 56 Dawkins, R x, 62, 81, 202 Demetriou, H 8, 56 Dennett, D 171 Dentan, R.K 14 Dickemann, M 108 Dinnerstein, D 103 Dion, K.K and K.L 31 Dishion, T.J 58 Dixson, A.F 103, 113, 121–2 Doan, K.A 164 Drais, R.L 199 Driver, G.R 141 Duke, J 167 Dunbar, R 136, 207 Dunn, J 8, 49, 50, 51, 54, 56 Eagly, A.H 104, 109 Eccles, J.S 112 Edel, A and M 9, 31, 158, 194 Edelstein, W 42, 48, 50, 87 Einon, D 207 Eisenberg, N 47, 49, 50, 51, 109, 209 Eisenstadt, S.N 90 Ekman, P 87 Elder, G.H 58 Elias, N 96, 208 Essock-Vitale, S.M 69 Euripides 130 Evans, St B.T 86 Evans-Pritchard, E.E 138 Ewing, K.P 163 Fabes, R.A 47, 49, 50, 51, 109, 209 Fallers, L 147 Feldman, M.W 64 Finkenauer, C 84, 200 Finlayson, S 28 Flack, J.C 21 Flinn, M.V 16 Foa, U.G and E.B 75, 90, 20 Foley, R 18 Fortes, M 38, 163 Frank, R.H 20, 80, 87, 88, 96, 138, 200 Friedl, E 115 Friesen, W.V 87 Fromson, M.E 101 Frith, U 50 Fuller, C.J 125 Gambetta, D 157 Garcia, J 16 Gardner, P.M 137 Geertz, C 17, 20, 38 Gensler, H.J 200 Gilbert, D.T 38 Gilligan, C 7, 56, 57, 109, 204 Gillon, R 210 Gingrich, A 106 233 NAME INDEX Gintis, H 76 Girotto, V 86 Gluckman, M 108 Goffman, E 163 Goodnow, J.J 51, 198 Goody, E 20, 49, 67–8, 113, 117, 118 Goody, J 125, 126, 144 Gould, R.G 207 Grand, J.C 125 Grusec, J.E 51, 198 Gurven, M 92, 208 Gustafson, J.M 4, 167 Güth, S and W 194 Hsu, E 105, 117, 119, 125, 204 Humphrey, C 58–9, 117 Humphrey, N 83, 93, 208 Hurtado, M 92, 105, 204, 206, 208 Van IJzendoorn, M.H 58 Ingold, T 194 Irons, W xi, 14, 69, 80, 87 Jacobson-Widding, A 8, 9, 38, 99 James, W 114, 132–3, 137 Johnson, M.H 167 Haas, J 20 Hager, J.L 16, 197 Hamilton, W.D 62, 81, 82 Haney, C 101 Harcourt, A.H 79 Hardin, G 16 Hare, B 4, 50 Harré, R 87 Harris, P.L 50 Hart, H.A.L 146 Haste, H 37, 109 Hauert, C.L 81 Hawkes, K 92, 121 Hay, D.F 49, 56 Heal, J 200, 201 Heelas, P 35, 196 Helmreich, R.L 104 Helwig, C.C 8, 159–60 Henderson, S.H 66 Hennig, K.H 30 Henrich, J 85 Herman, G 208 Hetherington, E.M 66 Hill, K 92, 105, 204, 206, 208 Hinde, R.A ix, x, 16, 73, 84, 88, 123, 131, 177, 179, 194, 195, 197, 200, 205, 206 Hirschon, R 114, 116 Hixon, J.G 38 Hodges, J 89 Hoffman, M.L 47, 49, 50, 51 Hogg, M.A 129 Holloway, R ix, 4, 210 Holy, L 115 Hopkins, K 125 Horenczyk, G 85 Houston, D.A 164 Howell, S 9, 13, 194 Hrdy, S 64, 113, 206 Kagan, J 20, 47, 51, 53, 198 Kaplan, H 66, 92 Keeler, W 115 Keller, M 42, 48, 87 Kelley, H.H Kelly, R.L 92, 137 Kerrigan, J 75, 138 Killen, M 47, 50, 52, 55, 159 King, L.A 205 Knack, S 88 Knauft, B.M 20 Kniffen, K.M 81, 82 Ko, D 108 Kochanska, G 51 Koelling, R.A 16 Kohlberg, L 52, 109 Kreitman, N 114, 206 Kumm, J 64 Kummer, H 21, 126 Küng, H 77 Kuschel, K.-J 77 Lack, D 81 Lakoff, D 168 Laland, K 64 Lancaster, J.B 66 van Lange, P.A.M 111 Latané, B 155, 157 Leach, E 125 Lee, J 8, 37, 47, 52, 57 Lerner, M 86, 165 Leslie, A.M 50 Lévi-Strauss, C 124 Lewis, G 207 Lienhardt, G 35, 196 Littlejohn, S.W 43, 167 Loewe, M 132 Lorenz, K 16 234 NAME INDEX Low, B.S 113, 114 Luckman, T 49 Lupfer, M.B 164 Lysenko, T.D 156 Maccoby, E 52 MacDonald, K.B 56 Mackey, W.C 109 Magnusson, D 110 Maguire, M 51, 54 Mahapatra, M 163 Malinowski, B 16, 77 Marler, P 16 Martin, C.L 120 Martin, J.A 52 Matsuk, M.K 30 Mauss, M 77–8 May, R.M 81 McClelland, D.C 112 McClosky, M 159 McDermott, J.P 117 McGuire, M.T 69 McLeod, K.C.D 65 Mealey, L 56, 113 Megarry, R 146, 147 Melhuus, M 106–7 Menon, U 116 Midgley, M 9, 175 Miles, J.C 141 Milgram, S 97 Miller, B.D 114 Miller, J.G 31, 163 Milsom, S.F.C 146 Montada, L 4, 87 Moore, G.E 26 Moore, H.L 113, 114, 206 Moore, J 21 Morris, C 34 Munholland, K.A 40 Munn, P 50, 56 Murdock, G.P 15, 118 Neel, J.V 94–5 Neisser, U 16, 196 Nelson, B 114, 206 Nesse, R 15, 195 Nisan, M 42, 156, 159, 161 Noam, G.G 84 Nowak, M.A 81 Nucci, L.P 8, 37, 47, 50, 52, 55, 57 Nunner-Winkler, C 56 Obermeyer, C.M 108 O’Connell, J.F 92 Oláh, A 110 O’Neill, P 69 Ortner, S.B 103, 113, 117, 120, 206 Orzech, C 132 Osmaston, H 133 Over, D.E 86 Oyama, S 15 Packer, C 79 Parrott, W.G 87 Patterson, G.R 58 Pearce, W.B 43, 166 Peplau, L.A 110 Pervin, L.A 28 Petrinovich, L 69 Piaget, J 54 Pitt-Rivers, J 38, 90 Pitts, R.C 30 Poole, F.J.P 103 Poole, R Porter, E Portes, A 196 Prins, K.S 74 Provost, C 118 Pugwash 156 Pusey, A.E 79 Ralls, K 124 Rapport, N 130 Rawls, J 4, 209 Reeve, H.K 201 Reiss, D 66 Rheingold, H 49 Richerson, P.J xi, 14, 80, 81, 82, 83, 86, 129, 137, 140–3 Ridley, M 80 Robins, R.W 110–11 Roccas, S 85 Roth, M.T 141, 204 Rowanchilde, R 108 Rublack, U ix, 66, 96–8, 105, 107, 117, 132, 144 Ruble, D.N 120 Russell, B 155 Sager, L.G 163 Sahlins, M.D 125 Saltman, M 146–9 Sarat, A 166 235 NAME INDEX Schank, R.C 41 Scheper-Hughes, N 65, 210 Schiefele, U 112 Schlegel, A 107 Schluter, M 32 Schoeneman, T.J 39 Schuster, H.G 81 Schwartz, P 85, 118 Sedikides, C 38 Segerstrale, U 156 Seligman, M.E.P 16, 197 Seyfarth, R.M 79 Shepher, J 126 Short, R 121–2 Shouldice, A 110 Shrauger, J.S 38, 39 Shweder, R.A 108, 159, 163, 196 Sigmund, K 81 Silk, J.B 67, 68 Silverman, I 126, 159 Skyrms, B 81 Slade, R.M 101 Smart, N 77, 130, 132 Smetana, J.G 8, 52, 53, 159 Smith, E.A 96 Smuts, B 195, 201 Sober, E 20, 82, 199, 201 Soltis, J 81 Spence, J.T 104 Sperber, D 86 Spiro, M 115, 118, 196, 206 Steele, C.M 40 Stein-Seriussi, A 38 Stern, D 197 Stevenson-Hinde, J 16, 110, 197, 200 Stimson, C.A 49, 56 Strathern, M 67, 103, 104, 113, 114, 117 Strawson, P 5, 77 Strayer, J 50 Swann, W.B 38 Sykes, S 130 Symons, D 80 Szreter, S 32, 97 Tajfel, H 38, 39, 128 Tangney, J.P 87–8 Teiser, S.F 32, 133 Templeton, A 124 Temrin, H 199 Thibaut, J.W Thompson, R.A 89 Thornhill, R 126 Thorpe, W.H 16 Tierney, B 144 Tisak, M.S Tizard, B 89 Tomasello, M 4, 50 Tooby, J 85, 86, 194 Triandis, H 31 Trivers, R 62, 63, 85, 88, 16 Troop, J 114, 206 Tuck, R 203 Turiel, E 8, 47, 55, 163–4, 204 Turke, P 69, 97, 134 Turner, R.H 38, 39, 128 Underwood, B 101 Vining, D.R 97 de Vries, M.W 201 Vygotsky, L.S 52 deWaal, F 21, 79 Wade, W 146, 147 Wainryb, C 164 Walker, A.D.M Walker, L.J 5, 30, 109, 110 Wall, S 52 Wallace, G Walster, E and G.W 74 Warnock, G Warnock, M 5, 100, 160, 168, 172–6 Waters, E 52 Weber, M 31 Weeks, K.P 164 Westermarck, E 126 Whitehead, H 103, 120 Whiten, A 50 Wigfield, A 112 Wilkinson, G.S 79 Williams, B Williams, G.C 88 Williams, J.E 111–12 Wilson, D.S 20, 82, 199, 201 Wilson, E.O xi, 21 Wilson, M 66, 69 WLUML 142 Wolf, A.P 126 Wolf, E.S 47 Woodburn, J 91, 136 Wren, T.E Wright, P.H and K.D 117 236 NAME INDEX Wright, R 80 Van Yperen, N.W 74 Yang, L.-S 77 Yates, R.D.S 48, 65 Youniss, J 4, 34 48, 54, 55 Zahavi, A 92, 96 Zak, P.J 89 Zimbardo, P 101 237 SUBJEC T INDEX abortion 160,169 Aché (of Amazonia) 91, 105, 108 adaptability of humans 140, 185, 201 adoption 66–8 AIDS 167, 206 altruism (defined) 195 Anglo-Saxon law 144–7 animal behaviour and human morality 21 anthropology approach to morality 8–9 Argentinian football 9, 131 arranged marriages 187 attachment 51–2, 88 authoritative parenting 52 authority 52–3, 57–8, 96–9, 126, 157–8 autonomy 52, 57–8, 99–102, 159–62, 163, 178, 186, 189 Babylon 141 Bari (of Amazonia) 105 bats 79 Berti 114 biological and social sciences 20–3, 104, 120–2, 124–6, 177 biology of gender differences 65, 106, 108–9, 112–13, 118–20, 121–4 Blackfeet 137 break-only-with-regret rules 158 Buddhism 32, 132 Busoga 146–7 Calvinism 31 Canada 66 catechism 98 chaffinch 16 Chali 132–3 change in moral codes 30–3 chastity 106–9 cheater detection 86, 98 chimpanzees 21, 121 China 65, 105, 108, 116–17, 132, 163 circumcision 132 cognitive processes: in development 50–1, 182–3; supporting reciprocity 85–6 collectivism vs individualism 31, 37, 78, 161–4 compatibilism 171 commitment 88, 108–9 conflict: autonomy and rights 159–62 conformism 82–3, 84–5, 139 congruency 39–43, 191 conscience 36, 53–4 constraints on learning 16–17, 122 continuity in moral codes 32–3, 40–3, 189–92 contraception 64 conventions 3, 7–8, 91–2, 179 cultural differences 31–32, 38–9, 58–9, 143, 162–4; fair reciprocity 164–6; individual and society 157–9; medical procedures 160–1, 167–9; multiple consequences 155; pragmatic considerations 154–5; priorities 155–6; in religious systems 162; and science 156–7; in secular groups 162; virtue and morality 156–7; and world views 166–7 cultural group selection 81–5 culture, origins of 13–14, 135–50 deception 76, 87, 157 defence mechanisms 40 development 17, 47–60, 180 238 SUBJECT INDEX haram 106–7 hierarchical social structure 141 Hindu 9, 31, 116 historical development of moral codes 135–50, 181–2 Holocaust 20, 97, 128, 157, 181, 183, 186, 188 honesty 76, 88 honour 96, 106–9 human nature 14–16, 20–1, 49–50, 61 humility 96, 98–9, 141–2, 192 hunter-gatherers 85, 91–2, 95–6, 135–40 dietary provisions 8, 130, 132, 163, 186 Dinka 34 dissimulation 76, 87, 157 divorce 30 East Africa 120 egalitarianism 136–7 Egypt 125 emotion: and development 50–1, 182–3; supporting reciprocity 87–8 Endo 115–16 ethics euphemistic labelling 158, 210 exchange theories 73–7; and moral precepts 77 inbreeding 124–5 incest 10, 124–6, 142–3, 186 inclusive fitness (defined) 18, 80 individualist vs collectivist 31, 37, 78, 161–4 infanticide 64–6 intentionality 5, 7, 182 interdependence in relationships 73–4 interrelations between precepts 133–4 internal working models 40–1 Inupiat 67 is vs ought 123–4, 183–8 Islam 106–7, 114–15 fairness in reciprocity 74–6, 164–6 female domestic power 114–18 feminist philosophers 6–7 fertilization in vitro 168–9, 190 folk peace 139, 145 France 163 freedoms see autonomy freewill and determinism 171–6 friends 90–1 Ga 114 gender differences 6–7, 103–27; biological bases 106, 108, 118–20, 121–2; in moral orientation 109–11; in stereotypes 111–18; see also female domestic power; male socio-political power generosity 76, 91–2, 95–6 genetic influences on morality 49 genital modification 108 Germany 65–6, 96, 105, 107, 117, 132, 144 Golden Rule 42, 77, 93, 159, 178, 186, 190–2; see also reciprocity, evolution of Gonja 67 gorilla 121 gratitude 75–6 Greece 99, 130, 138, 145 group living 80–92, 128–33 groups: characteristics of 128–9; cultural devices for maintenance 129–30; and religion 130; and self-system 129 guilt 38, 87–8 Hadza 91–2 Hammurabi, code of 144 justice 4–11, 74; vs care 6–7, 109–12; see also fairness kibbutzim 148–50 kin selection 61–71; and reciprocal altruism 83–4 kinship metaphors 129 King’s peace 145 Kipsigis 148 Langkawi Island 67, 115 legal systems 146 levels of complexity 22–4 loyalty 88, 129 Mafia 157 male–female relations 65, 103–23 male socio-political power 112–14 meaning of life mediaeval law 146–8 medical procedures 160–1, 167–9 memorials 130 Mexico 107 Mongolia 58–9 239 SUBJECT INDEX reciprocal altruism (defined) 83 reciprocity, evolution of 78–92 relations with kin 61–71; non-kin 72–94 relationships in development 51–3, 54–5, 58–9, 62–3 relativism vs absolutism 14, 23, 182, 187, 189 religion and science ix, 13, 177, 184–5 religious: sanctions 142, 144; specialists 132, 142; systems 131–3 reprisals 137–9, 145–6 reputation 75–6 restrictions on sexual partnership 125–6 revenge 137–9, 145–6 righteous indignation 76, 86, 129 rights 57–8, 99–102; and the law 99–100; see autonomy moral code 13; indignation 76, 86, 129; knowledge 9; precepts (defined) 13; principles (defined) 12; reasoning 55–6; sense 26–7, 185; thinking 9; vs social codes ix, 4, 157–9 moralistic aggression, 76, 86, 129 morals vs conventions, 3, 5, 7–8, 10, 179 morality and exchange theories 77 morality and religion xi–x, xii, 8, 10, 162 morality vs science x, 13, 14, 177–92 moral systems and legal systems 144–50 Moso 105, 117, 125 mother’s brother 69–70 Muslim 106–7, 114–15 ‘natural’ vs ‘right’ 17–19, 183 natural selection and morality 17–20 nature vs culture 14 nature vs nurture 15–16 Nayar 125 New Guinea 103, 113, 138 norms and group-living 84–5, 129; and reciprocity 91 Nuer 138 Pacific Islands 77 paid egg-sharing 167–8 Pakistan 142 pan-cultural psychological characteristics 16–18 parent–child conflict 9, 62–3 parents 49, 51–3, 58–9, 62–3, 140, 164 partner abuse 117 paying respect 99 personhood 38–9, 101–2, 103, 163 philosophy, approach to morality 4–7 politeness 76 polygamy 163 potlatch 77–8 precepts 13, 93–4, 179 principles 12, 93–4, 178 prosociality 14, 19–20, 27–9; to kin 61–7; tonon-kin72–94;andreciprocity74, 77 proximate vs ultimate selection 18, 63, 84, 97 psychological characteristics 12, 16–17, 20–1, 178; predispositions 16–17, 49–50; potential 12 psychology, approach to morality 7–8 public vs private morality 5–6 sciences, natural and social x, 20–3, 104, 120–2 self-actualization 4, 100–1; efficacy 97; enhancement 38; esteem 75, 129 self-system 34–43, 159–62, 180, 188–9, 190–1; cultural differences in 38–9; in development 48–51; groups and 129; resilience of 39–43 selfish assertiveness 19–20, 27–9 shame 38, 87–8 shared understandings 139, 144 sex 103–27 sexual freedom 106–9; relations 105–9 social capital 32, 195–6 social contract 74 social self 36, 128–9, 131; systems 128–33 status 18, 84, 91–2, 95–9, 112–14, 121, 133, 139–41 step-parents 66 stereotypes 104–5, 111–12 suffering 107 Sweden 107 Taiwan 69 Tallensi 163 Ten Commandments 13, 63, 135 terrorism 157 Thatcherism 31 theology, approach to morality 3–4 tit-for-tat 81 tragedy of the commons 100 trust 88, 89–90 240 SUBJECT INDEX Uduk 133 Uganda 147 utilitarianism 4, 155, 185 Venetian sumptuary laws 149 Vervet monkeys 79 Virgin of Guadalupe 107 virtues 4, 88 war 83 World Trade Center 157 world-view 10, 37, 166–7, 190–1 Zimbabwe 99 241 ... Hinde is a Professor at St John’s College, Cambridge, a Fellow of the Royal Society and Foreign Associate of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA His most recent book, Why Gods Persist (Routledge,... defining the limits of morality, an issue about which there has been surprising disagreement between academic disciplines Chapter provides a sketch of the general approach: this involves a brief discussion... discussion of what I mean by ‘human nature’ and by the ‘pan-cultural psychological characteristics’ which appear to provide the basis for morality Neither of these concepts imply the rigidity that is often