Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com PA L E O E C O L O G Y www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com PALEOECOLOGY Past, Present, and Future DAVID J BOTTJER www.Ebook777.com Thi edition firs published 2016 © 2016 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd Registered office: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK Editorial offices: 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK Th Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, USA For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are oft n claimed as trademarks All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author(s) have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specific lly disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bottjer, David J Paleoecology : past, present, and future / David J Bottjer pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-118-45586-9 (cloth)–ISBN 978-1-118-45584-5 (pbk.) Paleoecology Ecology Global environmental change I Title QE720.B66 2016 560′ 45–dc23 2015034607 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books Cover image should be “©Aneese/istockphoto” Set in 10/12pt MinionPro by SPi Global Private Limited, Chennai, India 2016 Contents Preface vii Overview Deep time and actualism in paleoecological reconstruction 10 Ecology, paleoecology, and evolutionary paleoecology 17 Taphonomy 33 Bioturbation and trace fossils 52 Microbial structures 64 Across the great divide: Precambrian to Phanerozoic paleoecology 76 Phanerozoic level-bottom marine environments 95 Reefs, shell beds, cold seeps, and hydrothermal vents 114 10 Pelagic ecosystems 128 11 Terrestrial ecosystems 139 12 Ecological change through time 153 13 Ecological consequences of mass extinctions 175 14 Conservation paleoecology 203 Index Color plate pages fall between pp and 42 217 Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Preface Thi book is intended for advanced undergraduates and beginning graduate students who will have had an undergraduate course in paleontology as geology or earth science majors or a class in ecology and evolution as biology majors It is also aimed at professionals who want to discover what modern paleoecology with an evolutionary and conservation paleoecology emphasis looks like It is not aimed to be encyclopedic in nature but rather as an introduction to many of the fascinating aspects of paleoecology The approach has been to broadly cover paleoecology, but the focus is deep-time marine paleoecology, as that is where my experience lies Paleoecology has typically been focused on the past, but its relevance to managing ecosystems in the future has become more and more apparent, and it is hoped that this text will stimulate further research in this fashion The structure of this book is to present an easy-to-read text, with more details in the figures and figure captions Thus, the text is meant to provide a broad overview, while the figu es and figu e captions provide added depth With this approach, my hope is that readers won’t get bogged down in a detailed text, but can find those details in the figures and captions Development of this book has been the product of my interactions with many people I thank my undergraduate mentor Bruce Saunders and my Ph.D advisor Don Hattin, as well as other graduate mentors Gary Lane, Bob Dodd, Dick Beerbower, Paul Enos, and Don Kissling At USC, I have been stimulated on a daily basis by colleagues Bob Douglas, Al Fischer, Donn Gorsline, Frank Corsetti, Will Berelson, and Josh West My collaborations with those from other institutions including Bill Ausich, David Jablonski, Luis Chiappe, Eric Davidson, Bill Schopf, and Junyuan Chen have been inordinately fruitful But my major collaborators over the years have been my graduate students, and I especially thank Chuck Savrda, Mary Droser, Jennifer Schubert, Kate Whidden, Kathy Campbell, Carol Tang, Reese Barrick, James Hagadorn, Adam Woods, Steve Schellenberg, Nicole Fraser, Nicole Bonuso, Sara Pruss, Steve Dornbos, Margaret Fraiser, Pedro Marenco, Katherine Marenco, Catherine Powers, Scott Mata, Rowan Martindale, Kathleen Ritterbush, Lydia Tackett, Carlie Pietsch, Liz Petsios, Jeff Th mpson, and Joyce Yager I am indebted to Patricia Kelley and Paul Taylor who provided thorough reviews of this book in manuscript form and Ian Francis and Kelvin Matthews of Wiley-Blackwell who have provided much encouragement and assistance in the publication process My parents John and Marilyn Bottjer have supported and encouraged me through all these years My wife Sarah Bottjer has been the essential person enabling me to pursue a life focused on paleoecology and paleobiology www.Ebook777.com Overview Introduction Paleoecology is the study of ancient ecology in its broadest sense It has been enormously successful in placing the history of life within an ecological context As part of that understanding, it has served as a vital tool for understanding the occurrence of many natural resources In all its sophisticated approaches, paleoecology has taught us much about the past history of life and Earth’s environments With this record of demonstrating the response of Earth’s biota to past environmental change, paleoecology now stands poised as a vital source of information on how Earth’s ecosystems will respond to the current episode of global environmental change History of study Th notion that certain objects that one finds in sedimentary rocks were once living organisms is one that humanity struggled with for a long time Leonardo da Vinci is generally credited with being the firs to write down observations on the biological reality of fossils through examination of marine fossils from the Apennine Mountains of Italy In reality, Leonardo also made some of the first paleoecological interpretations through understanding these fossils as the remains of once living organisms that had not been transported some great distance and hence were not deposited as part of a great flood The great utility of fossils to geologists was highlighted in the 19th century by the development of the geological timescale, and of course, aft r publication of “On the Origin of Species” by Darwin, evidence from the fossil record was some of the strongest available then for evolution For the past 200 years, stratigraphic and paleontologic work has defined the occurrence of the major fossil groups that make up the record, and this general outline can be seen in Fig 1.1, which shows Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic characteristic marine (ocean) skeletonized fossils Paleoecology as originally practiced is the use of biological information found in sedimentary rocks to help determine ancient paleoenvironments Phanerozoic sedimentary rocks are found to have in situ marine fossils that we know were deposited in ancient oceans Devonian and younger sedimentary strata that have remains of plants can be interpreted as deposited in terrestrial environments For example, Fig 1.2 shows the distribution within environments of various different fossil groups that have a substantial fossil record One can see that these data are very valuable for understanding the past and past environments So this information makes it easy to determine depositional environments Paleoecology: Past, Present and Future, First Edition David J Bottjer © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Published 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd David J Bottjer Ma 50 Era Period Cenozoic Neogene Some typical fossil groups Paleogene Ec Ga Bi Cretaceous 100 Os 150 Mesozoic Gy Ga An Jurassic St Ma 200 Triassic Ga De Bi 250 Permian 300 Rh Carboniferous Se Cr 350 St Paleozoic Devonian 400 Silurian Ce Bi 450 Se Ordovician Rh An Ga 500 Cambrian Tr Figure 1.1 Th Phanerozoic timescale with distribution of characteristic skeletonized marine fossils Occurrence of fossils through the stratigraphic record has largely been determined through mapping efforts around the globe to characterize the surface geology of the continents These fossil distributions have been continuously refin d through the use of fossils to build the relative timescale and defin tion of Eras, Periods, and other time intervals Key to classes: An, Anthozoa; Bi, Bivalvia; Ce, In Tr Mo Cephalopoda; Cr, Crinoidea; De, Demospongiae; Ec, Echinoidea; Ga, Gastropoda; Gy, Gymnolaemata; In, “Inarticulata” (Linguliformea and Craniformea); Ma, Malacostraca; Mo, Monoplacophora; Os, Osteichthyes; Rh, “Articulata” (Rhynchonelliformea); Se, Stenolaemata; St, Stelleroidea; Tr, Trilobita From McKinney (2007) Reproduced with permission from Columbia University Press Overview Biostratigraphy Terrestrial Freshwater Brackish Marine Cyanobacteria Dinoflagellates Silicoflagellates Diatoms Calcareous nannoplankton Calcareous algae Acritarchs Bolboforma Foraminiferans Radiolarians Calpionellids Plants Fungi ‘Ediacarians’ ‘Small shelly fossils’ Sponges Archaeocyathans Stromatoporoids Corals Brachiopods Bryozoans Bivalves Gastropods Ammonoids Belemnites Tentaculitids Trilobites Ostracods Insects Crinoids Echinoids Graptolites Chitinozoans Fish Amphibians of Phanerozoic sedimentary rocks, particularly in combination with physical sedimentary structures and geochemical indicators Much work on paleoecology has been spurred by the petroleum industry and the need to understand ancient environments from drill cores and cuttings as well as outcrops This need has led to much activity on microfossils, which can yield many specimens from a small piece of rock And, through microfossils, information can be gained not only on ancient environments but also for ancient age determinations In the 1960s and 1970s, the study of fossil communities, or paleocommunities, blossomed To many, the results from this research activity seemed to show that animals in the past lived the way they today But, as this information has accumulated, it became clear that ecology changes through time, due to both evolution as well as environmental change The synthesis of this realization has come to be known as evolutionary paleoecology Evolutionary paleoecology has become a group of research programs that focus on the environmental and ecological context for long-term macroevolutionary change as seen from the fossil record For example, Fig 1.3 displays the tiering history for benthic suspension-feeding organisms in shallow marine environments below wave base since their early evolution in the Ediacaran, synthesized in work done with William Ausich Tiering is the distribution of organisms above and below the seafloor, and this diagram shows how the distribution has changed through time and therefore how organisms have evolved their ability to inhabit three-dimensional space This diagram is the latest of several showing tiering, and its development in the early 1980s was part of the early history of evolutionary paleoecology Reptiles and birds Mammals Figure 1.2 Environmental distribution of selected groups of fossils This information largely comes from studies on the distribution of these organisms in modern environments, but also includes data on facies associations and functional morphology, particularly for the extinct groups From Jones (2006) Reproduced with permission from Cambridge University Press Paleoecology and the future Earth’s ancient ecology is a fascinating subject for study, but there is more to be gained from this study as a benefit to present society We are entering a time of widespread environmental change, in large David J Bottjer Distance from sediment–water interface (cm) Proterozoic Paleozoic Mesozoic Cenozoic 100 ? 50 ? ? ? V C O S D C P TR JR K –50 –100 Figure 1.3 Tiering history among marine soft-substrata suspension-feeding communities from the late Precambrian through the Phanerozoic Zero on the vertical axis indicates the sediment–water interface; the heaviest lines indicate maximum levels of epifaunal or infaunal tiering; other lines are tier subdivisions Solid lines represent data, and dotted lines are inferred levels The e characteristic tiering levels were determined for infaunal tiers by examination of the trace fossil record, particularly the characteristic depth of penetration below the seafl or of individual trace fossils Data on shallow infaunal tiers also came from functional morphology studies of skeletonized body fossils Paleocommunity and functional morphology studies of epifaunal body fossils comprise the data for epifaunal tiering trends Tiering data from the late Precambrian is from studies of the Ediacara biota Thi tiering history has been updated as more data have become available From Ausich and Bottjer (2001) Reproduced with permission from John Wiley & Sons part due to disruption of the carbon cycle (Fig 1.4) through burning of lithospheric coal and petroleum and subsequent transfer of carbon in the form of carbon dioxide from the lithosphere into the atmosphere This increase in greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere is causing rapid increased warming of the atmosphere and the ocean (Fig 1.5) Increased warming of the ocean can lead to reduced ocean circulation which causes decreased oxygen content in ocean water and hence the growth of ocean systems characterized by reduced to no oxygen content, called “dead zones” (Fig 1.6) Increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide cause decreases in the concentration of the carbonate ion in ocean water, termed ocean acidific tion, which makes it more difficult for many organisms such as corals to produce their calcium carbonate skeletons (Fig 1.7) As is discussed in later chapters, the fossil record contains evidence for a wide variety of past environmental changes, some of which are strikingly similar to current anthropogenically created changes Thus, Earth has run the experiment in the past of what happens when there is an episode of geologically sudden global warming, termed a hyperthermal Th ecological changes that occurred during these ancient episodes can be studied to help provide data which can help manage our future interval of environmental change This approach has been broadly developed under the new fiel of conservation paleobiology In particular, one major aspect of conservation paleobiology is conservation paleoecology, which focuses on providing data from the past to manage future ecological changes Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Overview Earth’s carbon cycle Atmosphere carbon store Biosphere carbon store Fossil f emiss Diffusion Photosynthesis Respiration and decomposition Biomass Deforestation Aquatic biomass Soil organic matter Coil, oil and gas Limestone and dolomite Ocean carbon store Marine deposits Lithosphere carbon store Figure 1.4 Schematic of modern carbon cycle including anthropogenic influence Combustion of lithospheric carbon such as coal and oil is the modern cause of global warming, and a similar mechanism involving igneous intrusions through sedimentary rocks rich in carbon has been the cause of rapid global warming episodes, or hyperthermals, in the past From the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation website: http://www.dec.ny.gov/energy/76572.html (See insert for color representation.) 16 16 World ocean yearly HC, 0–700 m Present paper Levitus et al (2005) Heat content (1022J) 12 12 8 4 0 –4 –4 Trend: 0.40 x 1022 J/yr –8 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 –8 2005 Year Figure 1.5 Increase in ocean heat content since 1955 shown as a time series of yearly ocean heat content in joules (J) for the 0–700 m layer Each yearly estimate is plotted at the midpoint of the year, with the reference period from 1957 to 1990 From Levitus et al (2009) Reproduced with permission from John Wiley & Sons www.Ebook777.com Figure 13.3 ←−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− Figure 13.3 Sea surface temperature trends from the Late Permian into the Middle Triassic These have been determined from oxygen isotopes of conodont apatite from the Nanpanjiang Basin of southern China and are compared with carbon isotopes of associated carbonates (see also Fig 13.2) The estimated sea surface temperatures (SST) for this Permian-Triassic equatorial area are also compared with modern SST Note near-synchronous perturbations in the records for both carbon and oxygen isotopes Oxygen isotopes indicate a signific nt warming through the Permian-Triassic boundary transition, two thermal maxima in the late Griesbachian and late Smithian, cooling in the early Spathian followed by temperature stabilization, and further cooling and stabilization into the Middle Triassic In the key location of data points of different colors is indicated; differently shaped icons show the different conodont taxa which were sampled for data points; and conodonts which lived at different water depths show offsets in estimated temperatures Scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis of conodont surfaces shows microreticulation and no sign of recrystallization, indicating a primary signal was obtained, as exemplifie by the conodont surface SEM At temperatures greater than 35 ∘ C photorespiration predominates over photosynthesis, and above 40 ∘ C most plants perish; leaf icons represent marine and terrestrial C3 plants The occurrence of the end-Permian mass extinction (PT Event Horizon) occurs earlier than the biostratigraphically define Permian-Triassic boundary (PT Boundary) (see Fig 13.9) Aeg = Aegean; Bit = Bithynian; for conodont zonations see original reference for abbreviations Standards for isotope measurements: VSMOW = Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water; VPDB = Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite From Sun et al (2012) Reproduced with permission from the American Association for the Advancement of Science Figure 13.5 Lower Triassic (Spathian) wrinkle structures associated with unidirectional scour marks (scoopshaped impressions) on a bedding plane of the Virgin Limestone Member (Moenkopi Formation) This bedding plane, found near Overton in the Muddy Mountains, Nevada (USA), forms the top of a calcareous siltstone Wrinkle structures have crest heights of 1–2 mm, and associated sedimentary features include ripple marks and cross-bedding Additional information can be found in Pruss et al (2004) Photograph by Scott A Mata Reproduced with permission (a) Late Permian (b) End-Permian event (c) Early Triassic (d) Middle Triassic Figure 13.11 Interpretive reconstructions of terrestrial–marine teleconnections from the Late Permian into the Middle Triassic (a) Early stage Siberian Traps volcanism with minimal environmental effects during the Late Permian (b) Main stage eruptions with attendant environmental effects during the latest Permian (c) Late stage eruptions with lessening environmental effects during Early Triassic (d) Post-eruption recovery of terrestrial and marine ecosystems in the Middle Triassic From Algeo et al (2011) Reproduced with permission from Elsevier Figure 13.14 Contoured Permian–Triassic time–environment (T–E) diagram of marine stenolaemate bryozoans Each dot represents a data point, either for an assemblage with the greatest bryozoan generic richness in each T–E bin, or for absence of bryozoans validated by the taphonomic control group (rhynchonelliform brachiopods) Note that bryozoan generic richness began to decrease in offshore environments in the Middle Permian, and this pattern of generic decrease continued into the Late Permian in more onshore environments Th end-Permian mass extinction then marked a geologically sudden extinction across all environments Bryozoan generic richness was then very low until the Late Triassic when it began to increase in slope mound, reef, bioherm and middle shelf environments From Bottjer et al (2008) Reproduced with permission from the Geological Society of America Fish Cooling event III Modern equatorial SST range (annual mean) Cooling event II Late Smithian thermal maximum Cooling event I PT event horizon Figure 13.15 Early Triassic diversity of major marine groups and temperature trends Thi shows an inverse relationship – peak diversity corresponds to cool climate conditions around the Dienerian–Smithian boundary, early Spathian, and early Anisian (named cooling events I–III), whereas low diversity in Griesbachian and Smithian correlates with peak temperatures Fish and marine reptiles only show the general presence of taxa; no quantitative diversity data are available Floral data show the loss of equatorial conifer-dominated forests above the Permian–Triassic (PT) boundary, with the earlier reappearance of this forest type at high latitudes For estimated temperature (Fig 13.3), vertically trending gray band represents the fi st-order seawater temperature trend (upper water column, ∼70 m water depth), whereas the solid line indicated by “SST record?” represents possible sea surface temperatures derived from shallow water conodont taxa Same stratigraphic scheme as in Fig 13.3 From Sun et al (2012) Reproduced with permission from the American Association for the Advancement of Science (See insert for color representation.) Figure 13.16 A characteristic Early Triassic (Induan) benthic assemblage consisting of the bivalves Claraia and Unionites on a bedding plane from the Lower Siusi Member of the Werfen Formation, northern Italy Claraia, 2–4 cm in greatest dimension, has concentric growth lines and Unionites has a smoother more triangular shell For life habits of Claraia and Unionites see Fig 13.17 From the type location of the Siusi Member due south of the town of Siusi in the Dolomites of Alto Adige (South Tyrol) Photograph by Richard Twitchett Reproduced with permission Figure 13.21 Smithian restriction of tetrapods, marine reptiles and fish to polar regions Tetrapods indicated by gray symbols, fis and marine reptiles indicated by black symbols From Sun et al (2012) Reproduced with permission of the American Association for the Advancement of Science Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Figure 13.23 Paleobiogeographic distribution of Early Triassic bryozoans These are indicated by stars, note concentration at north polar region From Bottjer et al (2008) Reproduced with permission of the Geological Society of America Figure 14.2 Development of non-analogue terrestrial communities Thi is a summary pollen diagram from Appleman Lake, Indiana (US) for the period 8000–17000 years ago, when there was a global transition from glacial to interglacial conditions Only the major tree pollen types are shown Pollen assemblages with non-analogue modern pollen assemblages occur within 13,700–11,900 years ago (gray-shaded area) The percentage of spores of the dung fungus Sporomiella, a record of mega-faunal presence, and number of charcoal particles, a record of fire frequency and extent, are also shown From Willis et al (2010) Reproduced with permission from Elsevier www.Ebook777.com 4 Figure 14.5 Pangea and the areal distribution of CAMP volcanism Thi also shows the location of major localities where CAMP and the Triassic–Jurassic mass extinction have been studied (1) St Audrie’s Bay; (2) Newark basin; (3) Hartford basin; (4) Kennecott Point; (5) Val Adrara; (6) Moroccan CAMP sections From Whiteside et al (2010) Reproduced with permission from the National Academy of Sciences (a) Figure 14.6 Th end-Triassic extinction and extinction severity for organisms with an affinity for carbonate environments (a) Phanerozoic biodiversity, note that the end-Triassic extinction represents perhaps the most severe Phanerozoic biodiversity crisis for the Modern Evolutionary Fauna (b) Extinction rates through the Middle and Late Triassic to the Early Middle Jurassic Extinction rates of reef genera and level-bottom (non-reef) genera that have an affinity for carbonate substrates are compared with the overall extinction rates of benthic invertebrate taxa Note how Rhaetian (R) extinction rates are much higher for both carbonate level bottom faunas and reef faunas than the overall extinction rate and background levels Extinction rates are binned by stage and therefore plotted at the midpoint of each age interval From Greene et al (2012) Reproduced with permission from Elsevier (b) CAMP (a) (b) Figure 14.8 Reduction of carbonate deposition during the end-Triassic mass extinction Thi is illustrated through examination of global lithological changes in Triassic–Jurassic boundary sections (a) Early Jurassic paleogeographic reconstruction with the hypothesized extent of CAMP flood basalts (dashed outline) and the approximate paleolocation of Triassic–Jurassic boundary sites plotted Squares represent shallow-water (shelf) sections while stars represent deep-water (basinal) sections Dark brown indicates a potential carbonate hiatus across the boundary, light brown indicates predominantly siliciclastic sections, and white indicates either a section with potentially continuous carbonate deposition across the boundary or a section without reliable microstratigraphic data (b) Idealized stratigraphic columns of each section type (carbonate hiatus, siliciclastic, and potentially continuous carbonate) 1, Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, Canada; 2, Williston Lake, British Columbia, Canada; 3, New York Canyon, Nevada, USA; 4, Chilingote, Utcubamba Valley, Peru; 5, St Audrie’s Bay, England; 6, Asturias, northern Spain; 7, Mingolsheim core, Germany; 8, Northern Calcareous Alps, Austria; 9, Csovar section, northern Hungary; 10, Tatra Mountains (Carpathians), Slovakia; 11, Tolmin Basin (Southern Alps), Slovenia; 12, Lombardian Basin (Southern Alps), Italy; 13, Budva Basin (Dinarides), Montenegro; 14, Southern Apennines, Italy; 15, Northern and Central Apennines, Italy; 16, Germig, Tibet; 17, Southwest Japan From Greene et al (2012) Reproduced with permission from Elsevier Index Note: Page numbers in italics refer to Figures; those in bold to Tables; Page numbers with an asterisk (eg 24*) indicate color representation AAT see average annual temperature (AAT) Acanthostega, 139 Acropora A cervicornis, 202, 203–4 A palmata, 202, 203–4 actualism, 14, 24, 76 agrichnia, 52, 53 agronomic revolution, 83, 85 Albertosaurus libratus, 144, 144 amber, 46 ammonites habitats of, 134, 134 planispiral ammonoids, paleoecology of, 134, 135* shapes and hypothetical life modes, 134, 136 angiosperms, 29, 147–8, 150 Anomalocaris, 81–2 Anomoepus, 59, 61 archaeocyaths, 116, 118*, 169 Archaeopteryx, 39, 42, 146, 149 Archean Strelley Pool Formation, 76, 77* asteroid, 10, 14, 175 Asteroxylon, 139, 140 Atlantic cod, 202, 203–4 Auca Mahuevo, in Patagonia, 144–6, 147, 148 autecology, 17 Avalon Assemblage, White Sea, 81, 82 average annual temperature (AAT), 26, 27 Axel Heiberg Island, Arctic Canada, 150, 151 bacterial sealing, 42, 42, 44, 44 Bambachian megaguilds, 157, 165, 199 bedding plane bioturbation index, 57, 58 belemnite battlefields 135, 136, 137 biofilms, 42, 64, 65 bioirrigation, 36 biostratinomy, 36, 36 bioturbation, 52, 64 early Cambrian Chengjiang biota, China, 42, 43, 84, 87 ichnodiversity, 210, 212 reworked remains, 36, 36 and trace fossils see trace fossils and bioturbation bivalves chemosymbiotic lucinid, 25, 26, 105 end-Permian mass extinction, 177, 183, 190* Lower Miocene Ugly Hill seep deposit, 124, 125* microborings, 58–9 rudist, 117, 121, 123 tellinacean, 162, 170 bonebeds biotic mechanisms, 141, 144 defin tion, 141 dinosaur bones see dinosaurs formation of, 144 paleoecological evidence, 141 physical mechanisms, 141 Brontopodus, 59, 60 Burgessochaeta, 86, 88* Burgess Shale infauna, 86, 88* calcite compensation depth (CCD), 130, 131 Cambrian explosion, 10, 42, 81–2, 86, 157 Cambrian Fauna agronomic revolution, 83, 85 Anomalocaris, 81–2 atmospheric oxygen levels, increases in, 82, 84* average ichnofabric index, 82–3, 85 bioturbated seafl ors, 83 Burgess Shale infauna, 86, 88* Cambrian substrate revolution, 83, 87 Chengjiang biota, in China, 84, 87 Cloudina, 81, 83 Paleoecology: Past, Present and Future, First Edition David J Bottjer © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Published 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Dickinsonia, 81, 84* echinoderms see echinoderms Grypania, 81, 84* microbial mat-dominated seafloors, 83 mollusc evolution, 86, 88, 89*, 91 organism size, increase in, 81–2, 84* trilobites, 81 wrinkle structure distribution, 83, 86 Cambrorhytium, 84, 87 CAMP see Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP) carbon cycle, 4, 5*, 131, 175 Carboniferous forests, 15*, 16, 139–41, 142*, 142–3 Carbon-Oxygen-Phosphorus-SulfurEvolution (COPSE) model, 14, 16 Caririchnium, 59, 61 catastrophism, 14 Cenozoic mammal trackways, 63 Cenozoic reefs, 122*, 123 Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP), 208*, 210 Centrosaurus, 144, 144 cephalopods, 2, 58, 99, 133, 133 Ceratopsipes, 59, 61 Charniodiscus spinosus, 45, 46* cheilostome bryozoans, 159, 162, 169 chemosymbiotic bacteria, 25, 26, 104 Choia, 84, 87 Chondrites, 57, 57* chronometric scale, 11*, 12 chronostratigraphic timescale, 11*, 12 Claraia, 177, 190*, 191, 195 Climate Leaf Analysis Multivariate Program (CLAMP), 27 Cloudina, 81, 83 coal, 5, 16, 140, 142* coccolithophores, 128, 130, 131, 170 cold seep deposits, 124, 125* Collembolon, 140 conical stromatolites, 67, 69*, 77 conodonts, 29, 128, 129 conservation paleobiology, 218 Index conservation paleoecology, ancient hyperthermal events see hyperthermal events exotic species, migrations of, 206, 207–8 marine ecosystems, shifting baselines in, 202, 203–4 nonanalog pollen assemblages, 204, 204–5*, 207 overfishing, effects of, 7, 8, 202, 203–4 Coprinisphaera ichnofacies, 59 crabs, 153, 154 Cretan ocean, 170, 172, 172* crinoids Lower Mississippian Maynes Creek Formation, 41, 43* onshore–offshore evolutionary pattern, 159, 168 Crumillospongia, 84, 87 cryptobiotic crust, 64, 139 cubic spline curve fitting, 12, 12* Darwin, dead zones, 4, 6*, death masks, 44, 44 deep-sea ichnofabric, 56, 56 deep time geological timescale see geological timescale Phanerozoic marine evolutionary faunas see Phanerozoic marine evolutionary faunas radioactivity, 10 radiometric age dating, 10 degraded reefs, 115, 116 deposit-feeding, 19* detrended correspondence analysis (DCA), 97 Devonian freshwater ecosystems, 139 diatoms, 46, 47, 172, 203–4 Dickinsonia, 44, 44, 80, 80, 81, 84* Dinomischus, 84, 87, 88 dinosaurs Auca Mahuevo, in Patagonia, 144–6, 147, 148 Dinosaur Park Formation, 144, 144 end of Cretaceous, 175 environmental and ecological scenarios, 146 Gigantoraptor erlianensis, 144, 145* ornithischia, trackways of, 59, 61 Protoceratops nest in Mongolia, 144, 146 saurischians, trackways of, 59, 60 sauropod and theropod trackways, 59, 62* social behavior, 59, 62* tracks and trackways, 146, 148 Diplodocus, 59, 60 domal stromatolites, 64, 65 domichnia, 52, 53 Doushantuo Formation, China, 78–9, 79 dragonflies 15*, 16 early animals cladistic methodology, 78 Ediacara biota fossils see Ediacara biota fossils phylum, crown and stem group, 78 sponges, Doushantuo microfossils, 78–9, 79 early Cambrian Chengjiang biota, in China, 42, 43, 84, 87 Early Cretaceous Jehol Biota, 21, 23* EARTHTIME project, 12 echinoderms, 91 early and Middle Cambrian, 89, 92 evolution of, 88–9, 90* Late Cambrian through Carboniferous, 89, 92 Phanerozoic-style soft substrates, 89, 91* Proterozoic-style substrates, 89, 91* stylophorans, 89–90, 92 ecologic reef, 115, 116 ecology autecology, 17 defin tion, 17 Earth’s environments, categorization of, 17, 18 functional morphology see functional morphology keystone species, 17 marine food web, 17, 19* and paleoecology see paleoecology Ediacara biota fossils, 91 Avalon Assemblage, 81, 82 biogenic sedimentary structure, 44, 45 Dickinsonia, 44, 44 from Ediacara Hills, South Australia, 80, 80 frond-shaped organisms, 80 Funisia dorothea, 81, 81 microbial mats, 42, 44, 44 Mistaken Point Formation, 45, 46* Nama Assemblage, 81, 82 shoreline and shelf environments, 79, 79–80 White Sea Assemblage, 81, 82 Ediacara Hills, South Australia, 80, 80 Edmontosaurus, 59, 61 edrioasteroids early and Middle Cambrian, 89, 92 evolution of, 88, 90* Phanerozoic-style soft substrates, 89, 91* Proterozoic-style substrates, 89, 91* end-Cretaceous mass extinction, 175 cyclostome and cheilostome colonies, 183, 197 extraterrestrial impact, 182 pelagic communities, recovery variability of, 183, 198 end-Permian mass extinction, 117, 156 age relationships, 177, 184 ammonoids and conodonts, 180, 182, 196 anachronistic facies, 176, 181 benthic paleocommunities, 177, 190* biotic crisis, 175 bivalves, 177, 183, 190* bryozoans, 180, 194* carbon isotopes, Nanpanjiang Basin, 175, 177 Early Triassic habitable Zone, 180, 194 ecological recovery model, 180, 195 foraminifera, size reduction of, 177, 192 geometric mean size, benthic invertebrates, 177, 191 ichnofabric index, 177, 187 low oxygen conditions, 177, 187 metazoan reef building, restriction of, 177, 182 microbialite-dominated reef abundance, 176, 179 ocean acidific tion, 177, 182, 185 oxygen minimum zone, 177, 186 sea surface temperature, 175, 178, 179 self-mobile and nonmobile organisms, 177, 187 Siberian trap eruptions, 175, 176 sponges, 177, 184 stenolaemate bryozoans, 177, 188* stromatolites, 176, 181 temporal recovery, regional patterns of, 180, 193 tetrapods, marine reptiles, and fish restriction of, 180, 193* wrinkle structures, 176, 180* eocrinoids early and Middle Cambrian, 89, 92 evolution of, 88–9, 90* Phanerozoic-style soft substrates, 89, 91* Proterozoic-style substrates, 89, 91* estuaries, 7, 8, 202, 203–4 Eumorphotis, 177, 191 evolutionary paleoecology benthic suspension-feeding organisms, tiering history, 3, Index Phanerozoic marine evolutionary faunas see Phanerozoic marine evolutionary faunas Phanerozoic vertebrate and plant species, 29, 30 predation traces, 57 Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, 30 exaerobic biofacies, 104–5 exceptional fossil preservation see lagerstätten extracellular polymeric substance (EPS), 64, 68 fishi g, 7, 8, 202, 203–4 Florissant lagerstätten fossils, 45, 47 fodinichnia, 52, 53 fossil-lagerstätten see lagerstätten functional morphology ichthyosaurs, 20–1 morphodynamics, 21, 23, 24 plesiosaurs, 21, 22* pterosaurs, 20, 21* scallops, 18, 20, 20 Yanornis, 21, 23* Funisia dorothea, 81, 81 gastropods, 2, 58, 124, 154, 159, 160, 191 GEOCARB III model, 15, 16 GEOCARBSULF model, 14, 16 geological timescale, 1, 13* Cambrian explosion, 10 chronometric scale, 11*, 12 chronostratigraphic timescale, 11*, 12 EARTHTIME project, 12 historical timescale, 10 methods for Phanerozoic, 12, 12* Steno’s laws of superposition, 12 Gigantoraptor erlianensis, 144, 145* global warming, 4, 5, 207, 208 Glossopteris, 38* Grallator, 59, 60 great Ordovician biodiversific tion event (GOBE), 154, 157 Grypania, 81, 84* Hallucigenia, 84, 87 helicoplacoids early and Middle Cambrian, 89, 92 evolution of, 88, 90* Phanerozoic-style soft substrates, 89, 91* Proterozoic-style substrates, 89, 91* Heterocrania, 139, 140 Holy Cross Mountains, 129, 132 hot springs, 46, 140 House Range in Utah, 105, 107 humpback whale breeding, Ecuador, 137, 137 hydrothermal vent deposits, 124, 126, 126 hyperthermal events CAMP, areal distribution of, 208*, 210 carbonate deposition, reduction of, 210, 211–2* coral and coral reef gap, duration of, 209–10, 210* end-Permian mass extinction, 208 ichnodiversity, 210, 212 insect damage types, PETM, 207, 208 organic-walled green algal phytoplankton, 210, 213 Pangea, 208, 208*, 210 Triassic–Jurassic mass extinction, 208*, 209*, 210 hypoxic system, 4, ichnofabric index, 99, 100, 101, 177, 187 Cambrian and Ordovician, bioturbation, 82–3, 85 deep-sea ichnofabric, 56, 56 ichnofabric index 6, 56, 56 ichnogram, 57, 58 Skolithos and Ophiomorpha, 56, 56 Upper Cretaceous chalk, 56–7, 57* vertical sequence analysis, 57, 58 ichnofacies marine, 53–5, 55* in terrestrial environments, 59, 59 ichnogram, 57, 58 ichthyosaurs, 20–1, 133 Ichthyostega, 139 insects, 34, 146, 207, 208 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 8, 8* isocrinid crinoids, 159, 168 Jurassic Posidonia Shale, 41, 105, 108, 109, 110 kelp forests, 7, 8, 202, 203–4 keystone species, 17 Kimberella, 80, 80, 82, 88 lagerstätten concentration lagerstätten, 40 conservation lagerstätten, 40, 42, 47 defin tion, 39–40 early metazoan animals, 40 Ediacara biota organisms see Ediacara biota fossils microbial sealing, 42, 44, 44 219 obrution, 41–2, 43* stagnation, 40–1 traps, 46–7 volcanic eruptions see volcanic eruptions large igneous provinces (LIPs), 170, 172, 172*, 175 Lepidocarus, 140 Lingularia, 177, 191 Linnaean nomenclature, 52 locally weighted regression (LOESS), 15, 16 Louisella, 86, 88* Lower Cambrian reefs, 116, 119 Lower Devonian Rhynie chert, 46, 139, 140 low-oxygen environments biofacies schemes, 104, 106, 109, 110 burrow size, 101, 105 Elrathia, 105, 107 Jurassic Posidonia Shale, 105, 108, 109 seawater oxygen content with depth, 101, 104 trace fossil model, 109, 111, 112 macrofossils, pelagic ecosystems ammonites see ammonites belemnites, 135, 136, 137 humpback whale breeding, 137, 137 marine reptiles, 133, 133 mammals, 63, 206, 207–8 marine environments categorization of, 17, 18 preservation see preservation, taphonomy shifti g baselines in, 202, 203–4 trace fossils and bioturbation see trace fossils and bioturbation marine reptiles Jurassic Posidonia Shale, 41 pelagic ecosystems, 133, 133 marsupials, 206, 207–8 mass extinctions biodiversity crises, 175 causes, 175 ecological crises, 175 ecological-severity rankings, 184, 199 end of Cretaceous see end-Cretaceous mass extinction end of the Permian see end-Permian mass extinction Neritan and Cretan oceans, 170, 172, 172* paleoecological levels, defin tion and signals, 183–4, 199 reefs, 169 taxonomic-severity rankings, 184, 199 220 Index Megalosauripus, 59, 60 Mermia ichnofacies, 59 Mesozoic marine reptiles ichthyosaurs, 20–1 plesiosaurs, 21, 22* Mesozoic Marine Revolution, 157–9, 167 Metasequoia forests, 148, 150, 151 microbial fabrics, 116, 117, 120* microbially induced sedimentary structures (MISS) baffl g and trapping, 72, 72 binding, 72, 72 biostabilization, 71, 72 growth, 71–2, 72 modern shoreline environments, 72, 73 from Nhlazatse Section, South Africa, 77, 78* wrinkle structures see wrinkle structures microbial mat, 42, 44, 44 microbial sealing, 42, 44, 44 microbial structures biofilms, 64, 65 metazoans, 74 MISS see microbially induced sedimentary structures (MISS) oolites, 74 stromatolites see stromatolites microborings, 58–9 microfossils, pelagic ecosystems coccolithophores, 128, 130, 131 conodonts, 128, 129 Miocene Monterey Formation of California, 109, 112 MISS see microbially induced sedimentary structures (MISS) Mistaken Point Formation, 45, 46* mobile animals, 146–7, 149 molluscs and Cambrian substrate revolution, 86, 88, 89*, 91 scallops, 18, 20, 20 morphodynamics, 21, 23, 24 mud mounds, 115, 116, 171, 179 Nama Assemblage, 81, 82 Nanpanjiang Basin, China, 175, 177, 179* naturalism, 14 Neoproterozoic macrofossils, 76 Neritan ocean, 170, 172, 172* Niobrara Formation of Colorado, 109, 112 Noonday Dolomite, 67–8, 70* Nymphalucina occidentalis, 25, 25–6 ocean acidific tion, 4, 6*, 177, 182, 185, 210 ocean heat content, 4, Odontogriphus, 86, 88, 89* OMZ see oxygen minimum zone (OMZ) oolites, 74 Ophiomorpha ichnofabrics, 52, 56, 56 orbital tuning, 12, 12* Ordovician food web, 98, 99 ornithischian dinosaurs, 59, 61 Otozoum narrow-gauge, 59, 60 Otozoum wide-gauge, 59, 60 Ottoia, 86, 88* overfishi g, anthropogenic effects of, 7, oxygen minimum zone (OMZ), 177, 186 oysters, 202, 203–4 Paleocene–Eocene The mal Maximum (PETM), 207, 208 paleoclimate, 31 CLAMP, 27 foraminifera shells, 18O and 16O, 27, 27, 29 smooth-margined leaves, AAT, 26, 27 stomatal index, 26–7 paleoecology atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration, changes in, 8, 8* benthic suspension-feeding organisms, tiering history, 3, carbon cycle, 4, 5* characteristic skeletonized marine fossils, 1, conservation paleobiology, conservation paleoecology see conservation paleoecology dead zones, 4, 6* deep time see deep time defin tion, evolutionary paleoecology see evolutionary paleoecology fossil groups, environmental distribution of, 1, global warming/hyperthermal, microfossils, ocean acidific tion, 4, 6* ocean heat content, 4, overfishi g, anthropogenic effects of, 7, paleoclimate see paleoclimate paleocommunities, study of, paleoenvironmental reconstruction, models for see paleoenvironmental reconstruction pelagic ecosystems see pelagic ecosystems petroleum industry, taphonomy see taphonomy paleoenvironmental reconstruction, 23–4, 31 new discoveries, 24 reef carbonates, 24–5 Tepee Buttes, 25, 25–6 Pangea, 208, 208* Parabrontopodus, 59, 60 pelagic ecosystems ammonites see ammonites belemnites, 135, 136, 137 coccolithophores, 128, 130, 131 conodonts, 128, 129 humpback whale breeding, 137, 137 integrated studies, 131, 131–3 marine reptiles, 133, 133 Pennsylvanian coal swamp forest, 140, 142* Permian assemblage, 38, 38* PETM see Paleocene–Eocene The mal Maximum (PETM) petroleum industry, petroleum seep, 47 Phanerozoic level-bottom marine environments cluster analysis, 97, 97–8 deeper subtidal environments, 101, 102, 103 food web, 98, 98 fossil assemblages, 97 living and fossil biota, 95, 96 low-oxygen environments see low-oxygen environments nearshore sandstones, 99, 100 Ordovician paleocommunity assemblage, 98, 99 PCA and DCA, 97 rock/unlithifie sediment, 95, 97 Silurian brachiopod assemblages, 98 transportation processes, 97 Phanerozoic marine evolutionary faunas aperture-modifie gastropods, 153, 154 Bambachian megaguilds, ecospace utilization, 157, 165 benthic assemblages, ecological dominance in, 156, 161–2 bioerosion, 153 bioturbating organisms, 153 Bush cube, ecospace utilization, 31, 31, 157, 166* calcium carbonate skeletons, 169–70 Cambrian and Ordovician assemblages, 154, 156* carbonate skeletons, GOBE, 154, 157 cheilostome bryozoans, 159, 162, 169 encrusting communities, 162 hard substrate nonreef communities, 162 Index inarticulate brachiopods, 154, 155 isocrinid crinoids, onshore–offshore evolutionary pattern, 159, 168 Mesozoic Marine Revolution, 157–9, 167 microbial reefs and mounds, 169, 171* Middle Triassic shell beds, 156–7, 164 Neritan and Cretan oceans, mass extinctions, 170, 172, 172* Paleozoic Fauna, 154, 156, 159 Phanerozoic biodiversity curve, 30, 30 phytoplankton, Mesozoic evolution of, 172, 173* reef-building animals, evolution of, 168–9, 171* Sepkoski curve, 28, 30 shelf-depth paleogene benthic communities, 156, 160 shell beds, Lower and Middle Ordovician, 154, 156, 158 shell bed thickness trends, 156, 163 shell-crushing behavior, 153, 154 tellinacean bivalves, 162, 170 trilobites, 154, 155, 156* Phanerozoic sedimentary rocks, 1, photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), 86 Phyllotheca, 38* plants, preservation of, 38, 38*, 39*, 40 Pleistocene La Brea Tar Pits, 47, 144 plesiosaurs, 21, 22*, 133, 133 pollen assemblages, 38, 204, 204–5*, 207 Polycotylus latippinus, 21, 22* Pompeii, 45 Post-Paleozoic nearshore sandstones, 99, 101 Post-Paleozoic terrestrial ecosystems angiosperms, 147–8, 150 bonebeds see bonebeds Metasequoia forests, 148, 150, 151 mobile animals, 146–7, 149 Precambrian stromatolite reefs, 116, 118* Precambrian to phanerozoic paleoecology Cambrian Fauna see Cambrian Fauna early animal evolution see early animals MISS, 77, 78* stromatolite morphologies, 76, 77* predation aperture-modifie gastropods, 153, 154 encrusting communities, 162 hard substrate nonreef communities, 162 Mesozoic Marine Revolution, 157–9, 162, 167 shell-crushing behavior, 153, 154 traces, 57–8 preservation, taphonomy bioirrigation, 36 biological destruction, 34 bioturbation and biostratinomy, 36, 36 chemical destruction, 34–5 death in unusual circumstances, 34 delayed burial, 34 diagenetic (rock-forming) processes, 34 exceptional preservation see lagerstätten infaunal and epifaunal organisms, 34 marine macrofauna, Phanerozoic frequency, 36, 37 mechanical destruction, 34 organic remains, 34, 35 reworked remains, 36 sediment–water interface, 35–6 shells, TAZ, 35, 36, 37 terrestrial plants, 38, 38*, 39*, 40 vertebrate fossils, 38–9, 41 priapulid worms, 86, 88* principal component analysis (PCA), 97 Promyalina, 177, 190, 191 proportional zone scaling, 12, 12* Protocarus, 140 Protoceratops, 144, 146 pterosaurs, 15, 20, 21*, 59, 146 Quetzalcoatlus northropi, 20, 21* radiocyaths, 116, 119 radiometric age dating, 10 rangeomorphs, 45, 46*, 82 red phytoplankton, 172, 173* reefs archaeocyaths, 116, 118* carbonate rocks, 114 Cenozoic reefs, 122*, 123 degraded reefs, 115, 116 ecologic reef, 115, 116 end-Permian mass extinction, 117 environmental parameters, 121*, 123 fabric, 115–17 facies, 114, 115* Late Triassic, 117, 120* lower Cambrian reefs, 116, 119 mud mounds, 115, 116 overfishing, effects of, 7, 8, 202, 203–4 radiocyaths, 116 reef eclipse interval, 182 shallow-water environments, 114, 115* skeletal, 115–16, 117* stratigraphic reefs, 114–15, 116 stromatolite microbial reefs, 116, 118* stromatoporoid reefs, 116, 119 Upper Cretaceous rudist aggradation, 117, 121 221 Upper Triassic reef, 117, 121* zooxanthellate scleractinian, 25 Rhynia, 140 rudist bivalves, 117, 121, 123 saurischian dinosaurs, 59, 60 scaled composite standard analyses, 12, 12* scallops, 18, 20, 20 Scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis, 179 scleractinian corals, 210, 210* Scoyenia ichnofacies, 59 sea surface temperatures (SST), 175, 178–9* sediment–water interface (SWI), 35–6, 36 Selkirkia, 86, 88* shell beds, 123–4* Lower and Middle Ordovician, 154, 156, 158 Middle Triassic shell beds, 156–7, 164 thickness trends, 156, 163 shells bite marks on, 58 calcium carbonate skeletons, TAZ, 35, 36, 37 chemical destruction, 35 foraminifera, 18O and 16O, 27, 27, 29 mechanical destruction, 34 shifting baselines, in marine ecosystems, 202, 203–4 shipworms, 59 Siberian traps, 175, 176 Sigillaria, 141, 142* Sigri Pyroclastic Formation, 39* silicific tion, fossil forests, 38, 39* Silurian brachiopod assemblages, 98 Silurian reef, 116, 119 skeletal reefs, 115–17, 117* Skolithos ichnofabrics, 56, 56 Skolithos ichnofacies, 59, 99, 101, 101 small shelly fauna, 81, 83 soft tissue preservation see lagerstätten South Dakota, 46–7 sponges Doushantuo phosphatized microfossils, 78–9, 79 Vauxia, 88* Sporormiella, 204–5* Spriggina, 80, 80 Stegosaurus, 59, 61 stomatal index, 26–7 stratigraphic reefs, 114–15, 116 stromatolite microbial reefs, 116, 118* Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 222 Index stromatolites, 176, 181 Archean Strelley Pool Formation, 76, 77* calcium carbonate cements, 66, 68 columnar stromatolites, group of, 65, 66* conical, 67, 69* domal stromatolites, 64, 65 early Paleozoic marine carbonate rocks, 64 extracellular polymeric substance, 66, 68 macrobiology, 66, 67 microbial body fossils, growth of, 67, 68 microbial mats, growth of, 66–7, 68 micro, meso and macro scale, 66, 67 physical environmental influences, 66, 67 Precambrian marine carbonate rocks, 64 tubular/tube-forming stromatolites, 67–8, 69, 70* stromatoporoid reefs, 116, 119 stylophorans, 89–90, 92 SWI see sediment–water interface (SWI) Takakkawia, 84, 87 taphofacies defin tion, 48 and time averaging, 48–50 taphonomically active zone (TAZ), 35, 36 taphonomy, 35 animal and plant species, number of, 33–4 defin tion, 33 insects, 34 marine groups, 34 phases, 33 preservation see preservation, taphonomy taphofacies and time averaging, 48–50 tar, 47 Taxodioxylon, 39* tellinacean bivalves, 162, 170 Tepee Buttes, 25, 25–6 terrestrial ecosystems arthropods, 139, 140 Carboniferous tropical rain forest, 139–41, 142*, 142–3 Post-Paleozoic see Post-Paleozoic terrestrial ecosystems vascular plants, 139, 140, 140 vertebrates, 139, 141* terrestrial environments categorization of, 17, 18 exotic species, migrations of, 206, 207–8 nonanalog pollen assemblages, 204, 204–5*, 207 trace fossils and bioturbation see trace fossils and bioturbation Tetrapodosaurus, 59, 61 textured organic surfaces, 64 Thalassinoides, 57, 57* thrombolites, 64, 83, 119 tiering, 3, 4, 81, 82 Tiktaalik, 139, 141* time averaging continental and benthic marine settings, 49, 50 plant, vertebrate, and shelly invertebrate fossils, 48, 48 trace fossils and bioturbation bedding plane bioturbation index, 57, 58 Cenozoic mammal trackways, 63 dinosaurs, trackways of see dinosaurs distinct and indistinct biogenic structures, 55 ichnofabrics see ichnofabric index invertebrate behaviors, 52, 53 Linnaean nomenclature, 52 marine ichnofacies, 53–5, 55* in marine pelagic/hemipelagic mud, 52–3, 54 Mesozoic vertebrate trackways, 59, 63 microborings, 58–9 nonmarine ichnofacies, 59, 59 predation traces, 57–8 Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, 30 tree ferns, 141, 142* Tribrachidium, 80, 80 Triceratops, 59, 61 trilobites, 154, 155, 156* www.Ebook777.com Trizygia, 38* tube-forming stromatolite, 67–8, 69, 70* Tubiphytes, 182 Tyrannosaurus, 59, 60 uniformitarianism, 13–16* Unionites, 177, 190*, 191 Upper Cretaceous rudist aggradation, 117, 121 Upper Triassic reef, 117, 121* Vauxia, 88* vertical sequence analysis, 57, 58 volcanic eruptions Florissant lagerstätten fossils, 45–6, 47 fossil forests, silicification of, 38, 39* hot springs, Yellowstone National Park, 45 Lower Devonian Rhynie chert lagerstätten, 46 Pompeii, 45 Siberian traps, 175, 176 Sigri Pyroclastic Formation, 38, 39* silica-rich waters, diatoms, 46 Western Interior ammonites, 134, 134 whale barnacles, 137 White Sea Assemblage, 81, 82 Wiwaxia, 88, 89* wrinkle structures, 64, 65 formation and preservation, optimum conditions for, 71, 71 of lower Cambrian, 68, 70*, 71, 83, 86 lower intertidal and subtidal environments, 72, 73 Lower Triassic, 176, 180* morphologies, 72–3, 74 xenarthrans, 206, 207–8 Yanornis, 21, 23* Yellowstone National Park, United States, 46 Zoophycos, 57, 57* ... very valuable for understanding the past and past environments So this information makes it easy to determine depositional environments Paleoecology: Past, Present and Future, First Edition David... David J Paleoecology : past, present, and future / David J Bottjer pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-118-45586-9 (cloth)–ISBN 978-1-118-45584-5 (pbk.) Paleoecology. .. fascinating but not likely to be relevant to understanding and managing the environmental problems that society currently faces Paleoecology: Past, Present and Future, First Edition David J Bottjer © 2016