Narube animal forest the ecology of benthic

Sergio Rossi Lorenzo Bramanti Andrea Gori Covadonga Orejas Editors Marine Animal Forests The Ecology of Benthic Biodiversity Hotspots Marine Animal Forests Sergio Rossi • Lorenzo Bramanti Andrea Gori • Covadonga Orejas Editors Marine Animal Forests The Ecology of Benthic Biodiversity Hotspots With 343 Figures and 48 Tables Editors Sergio Rossi Institut de Ciència i Tecnologia Ambientals Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona Bellaterra, Spain Andrea Gori Departament d’Ecologia Universitat de Barcelona Barcelona, Spain Lorenzo Bramanti Sorbonne Universités UPMC Univ Paris 06, CNRS Laboratoire d’Ecogéochimie des Environnements Benthiques (LECOB) Observatoire Océanologique Banyuls/Mer, France Department of Biology California State University Northridge Northridge, CA, USA Covadonga Orejas Instituto Espol de Oceanografía Centro Oceanográfico de Baleares Palma, Mallorca, Spain ISBN 978-3-319-21011-7 ISBN 978-3-319-21012-4 (eBook) ISBN 978-3-319-21013-1 (print and electronic bundle) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-21012-4 Library of Congress Control Number: 2017941515 # Springer International Publishing AG 2017 This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Dedicated to Sergio Rossi: To my father Fernando, for understanding my devotion on marine biology, and to my mother Placida, for unconditional support Lorenzo Bramanti: In memory of Prof U Formentini (zio Ubaldo) who has been an inspiration and a guide Andrea Gori: To my mother Flavia and my father Stefano, for their unconditional love and support Covadonga Orejas: To my parents, Teresa and Enrique, for their love and unconditional support throughout my career, although this support often means accepting physical remoteness and uncertainty Marine Animal Forests: Foreword This volume is a multiauthored compilation of established and recent knowledge on a particular kind of marine epifaunal communities and ecosystems Having this in mind, readers might be struck by the unusual term “forest” used in this context Most people connect this term with assemblages of trees on land, with tall trunks and a majestic canopy of branches and leaves as in the case of mahogany trees, oaks, beeches, or sequoias, often with a second canopy of younger trees and bushes underneath There are also other types of complex architecture of lower tiering in the terrestrial vegetation such as cactus forests, shrubs, savannas, and meadows They all have in common a three-dimensional structure, their way of energy assimilation, and a function of ecosystem services for other biota Transferring this image to the marine realm, one would think first of another type of vegetation: the gigantic kelp forests, which reach similar size, shape, and threedimensionality and have similar functions for their associated biota On the faunal side, the largest architecture is performed by scleractinian corals, gorgonians, and sponges Just as on land, there are many other structures of minor tiering but similar architectural complexity and related functions on the ocean floor, both on the floral and the faunal side Some of them such as seagrass meadows and mussel banks are fairly well studied, whereas others, particularly in deep or remote regions of the oceans, have remained undetected or have received attention only recently due to the development of new techniques and facilities, often provided by increased international cooperation For convenience and as a unifying concept, all complex epifaunal shapes and constructions in the sea are assembled under the term “animal forests” in this book, although many coral reefs and gorgonian “forests” resemble shrubland rather than trees, some large scleractinian reefs rather appear like buildings, sponges not reach tree size and the big ones are not branched, and most of the smaller members of three-dimensional zoobenthic communities are comparable to herbs at best “Marine animal forests” (MAF) as understood in this compilation are composed of many epi-zoobenthic taxa and comprise as a common trait their three-dimensional architecture tiering from a few centimeters to tens of meters; if the fossil parts of some coral reefs are included, the height of these structures may even reach hundreds of meters They occur in all oceans, from the tropics to the poles and from shallow water to the deep sea Zoobenthic communities with a marked tiering are very old; they date back to the Palaeozoic when stalked crinoids (“sea lilies”) dominated the vii viii Marine Animal Forests: Foreword ocean floors Irrespective of whether these ecosystems and communities indeed bear major structural analogies to their terrestrial vegetational counterparts and to three-dimensional plant architecture in the ocean, they definitely reveal analogies in many functions There are, however, decisive differences in many characters not only between land and sea as well as between animal and plant architects, but also among the various ecosystems and communities presented in this book For example, as a consequence of very different media (air and water), terrestrial vegetation and MAF differ in energy flow and dispersal opportunities Tropical reef corals host unicellular primary producers and depend, like kelp and terrestrial vegetation, on sunlight, whereas the Mediterranean coralligenous depends like other MAF systems on the input of allochthonous organic matter A wealth of old and recent information on MAF systems has accumulated, which makes a joint presentation and a distinction of common traits and differences worthwhile In the first chapter, an overview of these findings is presented The areas from where the information was derived extend over a wide geographical range of seascapes, including tropical shallow-water coral reefs, shallow communities in the Mediterranean and in Mesoamerica, mesophotic coral communities on the continental slope, bathyal cold-water “coral gardens” on Azores seamounts of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and other cold-water ecosystems in the deep sea as well as in northern and southern cold-temperate and polar regions Structuring ecosystem engineers comprise the entire variety of hermatypic and soft corals, notably gorgonians, other cnidarians, sponges, bryozoans, polychaetes, and other taxa which emerge from the seafloor This elevation signifies improved access to food particles, less siltation and overgrowth, avoidance of shading, improved light conditions, better dispersal of offspring, and (for cnidarians) protection of the fragile polyps MAF ecosystems are of paramount importance for hydrodynamic and biogeochemical cycles, food webs, and sedimentation levels Tropical reef corals export nitrogen and organic matter into the surrounding environment and produce and cement carbonate Many suspension feeders act as carbon sinks, retaining part of the organic matter involved in pelagic-benthic coupling in their long-lived structures They adapt to changes in seston availability by increased food intake during phytoplankton blooms and consumption of stored food at times of low seston presence Bivalve filter feeders in shallow waters increase the seston flux due to mixing caused by the exhalant jets from their siphons There are many more interactions between suspension feeders and their environment presented in this volume, which have to be omitted here for reasons of space As a unifying concept, both in the ocean and on land complex structures of key species (“engineers”) usually support high species diversity and density, sometimes also biomass, of associated fauna These engineers shape their environment, increase habitat heterogeneity, create a multitude of niches and cryptic habitats, and provide food, shelter, and reproductive facilities for an associated mobile fauna On land, arthropods, birds, reptiles, and mammals are the main users; in the ocean, this fauna consists of a huge variety of invertebrates, many fish, and some other vertebrates Marine Animal Forests: Foreword ix However, vertical exchange is much more pronounced in the sea: planktonic invertebrates and suprabenthos undergo diel vertical migrations into and out of MAF Many invertebrates and fish use the “second floor” in these communities as “watchtowers” for improved outlook, greater food availability, and better dispersal of eggs and larvae All these properties and services contribute to the ecosystem services provided by MAF to their associated fauna and the entire marine ecosystem Another important part of these services are those granted to man Without going into much detail (all these services are mentioned exhaustively in this book) some of the principal human activities using MAF ecosystems include, e.g., fishing (fish, invertebrates, turtles), collecting (precious corals, other corals and seashells, fish and invertebrates for aquaria, species for pharmaceutic and medical use, construction materials), and tourism (diving, sightseeing) They involve occupation and income for many coastal populations and are the basis for many goods, trades, and commercial activities worldwide Both facets of the ecosystem services provided by MAF represent enormous values, as is stated by one of the authors of this book, although some managers seem to consider only that part which is of direct use to humans A second unifying property between terrestrial forest, kelp, and marine animal forest ecosystems is that all of them are exposed to natural perturbations and threatened by human impacts and global climate change (which after all is a human impact as well) Natural disturbances (e.g., hurricanes, floods, occasional warming caused by El Niño) are an innate property of ecosystems, and, as long as they are not frequent or chronic, most ecosystems tend to recover from their effects fairly well As for forest fires in some terrestrial ecosystems, the medium term effects of some major perturbations on marine ecosystems can even be positive, but continuous disturbance will lead to biodiversity degradation, destruction of complex ecosystem structures, simplification of functions, and loss of ecosystem services In recent times, anthropogenic impacts have increased enormously: destructive fishing practices, other forms of harmful or exaggerated harvesting, inconsiderate aquaculture, contamination, pollution, eutrophication, oil and gas exploitation, mining, urbanization, and increased use of coastal areas are posing severe threats to many MAF ecosystems Simultaneously, global warming is proceeding, increasing the sea level, seawater acidity, iceberg scour and the frequency of hurricanes, and worsening the bleaching effects caused by El Niño In these days, a compilation of review chapters highlighting the richness and vulnerability of animal structures in the sea is a timely and badly needed venture This book contains the experience and joint knowledge of a large number of marine scientists who have been involved in one way or another in the exploration, investigation, or conservation of marine epifaunal communities Their take home message in this volume is: Let us take special care of these ecosystems! Not only to save their commercial services to man, to continue exploiting fish, seafood, and precious corals in the future There is yet another, innate wealth in these ecosystems: Like terrestrial complex systems, above all tropical rain forests, they are part of nature’s x Marine Animal Forests: Foreword evolutionary and genetic heritage which makes man’s life worthwhile and enjoyable These ecosystems have taken a very long time to develop from the stalked crinoid assemblages in the Palaeozoic to present times If we not take precautions, they might disappear in a few decades, just as some of the kelp forests and coldwater coral reefs which were destroyed by trawling Probably, not forever – ecosystems tend to recover if they are given sufficient time – but as part of man’s vital environment Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Germany Wolf E Arntz Acknowledgments This book has been one of the main targets of the Sergio Rossi Project ANIMAL FOREST HEALTH (Marie Curie International Outgoing Fellowship Grant Agreement Number 327845) This project inspired the followed line of the manuscript The main idea was to make a book gathering different views of these complex ecosystems, trying to unify in one idea the benthic ecosytems in which suspension feeders are dominant Furthermore, this book takes us across latitudes and from coastline to abyssal environments It shows the ecological significance of megabenthic communities and the vital importance of understanding the complex interconnections between water masses in the oceans of the world This holistic approach to understanding deep-sea North Atlantic ecosystems is at the heart of the European ATLAS project ATLAS includes several authors who have contributed to this book It has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement No 678760 This output reflects only the authors’ views, and the European Union cannot be held responsible for any use that may be made of the information contained therein We are especially grateful with those persons who were referees of different chapters of this book: Jacopo Aguzzi, Franziska Althaus, Lorenzo Álvarez-Filip, Lorenzo Angeletti, Dominic Andradi-Brown, Rosana Arizmendi, Sophie ArnaudHaond, Eva Aylagas, Yehuda Benayahu, Carlo Nike Bianchi, Paul Brickle, Pål BuhlMortensen, Pol Capdevila, Marina Carreiro-Silva, Carlo Cerrano, Martina Coppari, Federica Costantini, Christina de Almeida, Jean-Claude Dauvin, Andrew Davies, Boris Dorschel, Jean-Claude Duchêne, Gal Eyal, Christine Ferrier-Pagés, Gabriel Genzano, Sebastian Hennige, José Manuel Hidalgo, Hilmar Hinz, Enrique Isla, Carlos Jiménez, Eric Jordán-Dahlgren, Ramón André López-Pérez, Ignasi Montero, Américo Montiel, Chiara Paoli, Despina Papacharambous, Jake Rice, J Murray Roberts, Naira Rodríguez-Ezpeleta, Carlos San Vicente, Juan Armando Sánchez, Giovanni Santangelo, Nadine Schubert, Marcelo Soares, Marcos Tatián, Marco Taviani, Alexis Terrón, Ruth Thurstan, Georgios Tsounis, Juan Vilata, Rhian Waller, Ernesto Weil, Claudia Wienberg, Christiane Xerez-Barroso, and many other anonymous reviewers that significantly improved the book xi 1352 Landscape connectivity, 1330 ecology, 1261 transformation, 974 Lanice conchilega, 1185 La Parguera, Puerto Rico, 1133 Lapidary medicine, 676 Lapidary tradition, 676 Large hydroids, 413 Large-scale anthropogenic transformation, 308 drivers, 641 Larvae, 572, 576, 580–583, 585, 588, 1212 Larval development, 584, 588 Larval dispersal, 543, 579, 1063–1065, 1073 Larval duration, 583 Larval stages, 644 Larva settlement, 585, 588 Laser induced fluorescence, 797 Last glacial, 718 Lateral transport, 743 Latitudinal and depth gradients, 90 Latitudinal gradient, 271 Latitudinal shift, 721 Laws, 1192 Lecithotrophic larvae, 577, 580, 581, 584, 585, 587 Lecithotrophic species, 580 Leptogorgia, 117, 120, 123, 129 Leptometra sp., 1186 Leray fragment, 455 Leslie matrix, 533, 539 Lesser Antilles, 55, 61, 63, 65 Leucothrix mucor, 1153 Library preparation, 458, 464 Life history tables, 539 span, 538 strategies, 552, 557, 560 Light, 890, 891, 897–898, 1097, 1100 exposure, 355 shading, 619 Ligurean sea, 1123 Limiting factors, 323, 330, 332, 336, 340 Limits to acceptable impact, 981 Linear growth, 599 Lionfish, 61 Lipid compounds, 750 content, 225 Little Ice Age, 358 Live vs dead VME indicator species, 1179 Index Livelihoods, 1228 alternatives, 1229 Living biomass, 616 Living space, 1282–1283 Lobophyton, 1130 Lobsters, 1188 Localized depletion, 1030, 1032, 1036 Localized extinction, 1030 Local stressors, 561 Logging, 337 Log-law, 800, 801 Longevity, 1243 Longline(s), 337 fishing, 228 Long-lived biota, 517 Long-lived organisms, 14 Long living animals, 620 Long living species, 14 Long term monitoring, 22, 1248, 1263 Lophelia CWC reefs, 645 Lophelia pertusa, 702, 706–707, 1068 reefs, 1172 Lophogastrids, 493 Lophophore, 802, 803 Lost fishing gears, 1168 LoVe Ocean Observatory, 250 Low-energy pumps, 788 Low larval dispersal, 350 Low marine lithification, 639 Low nutrient–high chlorophyll (LNHC), 386 Low nutrient–low chlorophyll (LNLC), 378 Low salinity layer, 279 Lytocarpia miriophyllum, 403 M Macaronesian archipelagos, 643 Machine-learning algorithms, 251 Macro animal forests, 1192 Macroalgae, 262, 263, 371 Macro-carnivores, 198 Macrocystis pyrifera, 263 Macrohabitats, 242 Macrozoobenthic species, 650 Madrepora M carolina, 703 M oculata, 702, 706–707, 709 Magellan, 263, 270–271 Region, 269 Magic, 661, 665, 675, 676, 679, 685, 693 Magic-apotropaic, 675 properties, 682 Index Magnoliophyta, 370 Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act, 1180 Maintenance costs, 833 Maldives, 1036, 1244 Malpelo, 117, 122, 134 Management, 230, 1216 approaches, 1154 and conservation, 544 plans, 1171 Mangroves, 386, 1212, 1214, 1225 destruction, 95 Manned submersibles, 208, 209 Mapping, 322, 338–339 Marine animal forests, 476, 508, 991–993 bacteria, 1120 benthic habitat, 708 benthos, 468 biodiversity assessment, 447, 1192 biological corridors, 1232 cetaceans, 247 conservation, 1172, 1191 diseases, 1111 dumping, 1191 ecosystems, 1121 environment, 97, 99 fisheries, 950, 952, 956, 960 genetic resources, 248 protection, 1171 spatial planning, 983, 1228 Marine historical ecology, 950, 958–959 animal forests, management of, 950 benthic community, 950, 952 contemporary measurements, 950 coral reef communities, 954 fishing activities and coastal development, 950 fossil record, 954 limitations of, 959–960 restoration goals, 954–958 sediment cores and isotopic dating methods, 952 species and communities, 950 Marine protected areas (MPAs), 103, 248, 281, 363, 1155, 1171, 1228 Marine Stewardship Council (MSC), 1054 Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD), 1167, 1181, 1191 Maritime traffic, 1191 Mark and recapture techniques, 599 1353 Mass die-off, 307 mortalities, 228–229, 1122, 1123 transfer limitation, 848, 1098 Massive, 641 forms, 84 round morphotypes, 637 Material availability, 1292 Matrix, 533 Maturation, 833 period, 579 time, 834 Mature stage, 1257 Maturity level, 833 Mauritanian margins, 715, 723, 724 Maximal habitat individual size, 834 Mechanical damage, 1227 Mechanistic-based models, 829 Medicine, 693 Mediterranean, 1121, 1167 coastal systems, 353 Outflow Water, 724 Sea, 208, 370, 377, 378, 380, 391, 715, 721, 1068, 1070, 1173 Megabenthic biodiversity, 18 Megabenthic communities, Mega-benthic suspension feeders, Megahabitat, 708 Melanin, 1153 Melanization, 1132 Melanosomes, 1154 Membranipora membranacea, 790, 803 Menorca Channel, 220 Mesoamerican reefs, 632, 1219 Mesoderm, 435 Mesogleal cells, 1136 Mesoparticles, 737 Mesophotic coral ecosystems (MCEs), 49 azooxanthellate benthic taxa, 193–194 benthic macroalgae, 191–193 coral reef fishes, 194 implications for biodiversity, 185–199 phototrophic taxa, 187 symbiont biodiversity, 190–191 Mesophotic ecosystems, 99 Mesophotic reefs, 87 Messy eating, 735 Metabarcoding, 448, 454 marker, 455, 460, 463 pipeline, 462 Metabolic costs, 836, 837 Metabolic demand, 849 Metabolic maintenance, 844 1354 Metabolic pathways, 19–20 Metabolic processes, 1091 Metabolic rates, 837, 848 Metabolic thresholds, 14 Metabolism, 832 Metadata, 246–247, 718–720, 725 Meta-ecosystems, 1210 Metagenomics, 1079 Metamorphic coral, 680, 687 Metamorphic transgressions, 667 Metamorphosed larvae, 350 Metaphylogeography, 470 Metapopulation, 21, 63, 65, 543 Methodologies, growth colony size, 599 radiogenic isotopes, 600 sclerochemistry, 599 sclerochronological analysis, 599 Microalgae, 740 Microbial species, 1174 Microbiota, 119, 132 Microclimate, 357 Micro-electrode sensors, 521 Micro environment, 619 Microhabitats, 645, 1193 Microniches, 326 Microparticles, 737 Micro-tidal systems, 347 Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 633, 642, 708–709 Middle Ages, 661, 676 Migratory animals, 247 Millepora, 85, 1251 Mimetic ectoparasites, 120 Mingulay Reef complex, 646 Miniature terrestrial forests, 531 Minimal abundance, 465 Minimum sampling size, 450 Mining, 99, 1003, 1168 Mismatch repair gene, 1069 Mitochondrial DNA, 1069 Mitochondrial enrichment, 469 Mitochondrial metagenomics, 469 Mixed larvae, 577 Mixotrophic, 20, 857, 872 corals, 629 Mixotrophs, 889, 896–897, 906, 1255 Mobile benthic species, 1186 ephemeral animal forests, 1186 habitats, 1186–1188 Mode of reproduction, 577, 581 Modeling, 340, 791, 796, 800, 803, 807, 1191 coral growth (see Coral growth) Index Modiolus modiolus beds, 1172 Modular invertebrates, 578 Modular organisms, growth body size, 597 clonal/individual, 597 ecosystem engineers, 598 life-histories, 598 life span, 597 population dynamics, 598 population structure, 598 shape, 597 translocation of energy, 598 Molecular analyses, 1135 Molecular operational taxonomic units (MOTUs), 462, 470 Molecular phylogenies, 464 Molecular sampling effort, 467 Mollusca, 577, 816 Mollusks, 87, 572, 578, 1167, 1179, 1181, 1183 Monacanthus tuckeri, 121 Monami, 516 Moneron Island, 1173 Monetary valuation, 1298 Monitoring programs, 1155 Monitoring surveys, 566 Monoglycerides, 750 Monospecific/monohabitat, 1191 forests, Monotypic, 1265 Montastraea, 32, 45 Moroccan margin, 715, 723 Morpho-functional approach, 262–263 Morphofunctional groups (MFG), 43, 55, 58, 59 Morphogenesis models, 618–620 Morphological plasticity, 619 Morphotypes, 129 Mortality, 539, 557, 573, 582, 588, 589, 1123, 1247 events, 532, 541 Motile fauna, 491 Move-on’ rules, 1179 MSFD See Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) Mucilaginous substances, 742 Mucopolysaccharides, 843 Mucus, 823, 835, 843 Mud deserts, 628 volcanoes, 710, 1175 Muddy and sandy bottoms, 1168 Multi-focal purple spots (MFPS), 1140 Multiplexing, 454–458 Index Multiserial colonies, 398 Muricea, 117, 119, 120, 128, 129, 131 M fruticosa, 122 Muriceopsis, 1128 Museums, 253 Mussel, 824, 1171, 1183 beds, 816, 1167 carrying capacity, 800 Mussismilia, 85 Mutualism/mutualistic, 328 endosymbiosis, 187 Mya arenaria, 804, 807 Myriapora truncata, 1183 Mythology, 658, 665 Mytilids, 257 aquaculture, 305 banks, 285 Mytilus M edulis, 771, 790, 791, 798, 807, 1172 M galloprovincialis, 774 N 15N, 225 Nano-and picoplankton, 746 Nanoparticles, 737 National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans, 1173 National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas, 1172 Natural capital, 1272, 1298 Natural disturbance regimes, 973 Natural heritage See Biodiversity Natural history, 664 Natural medicines availability, 1289–1291 Near bottom seston, water layer, 859 Nearest neighbor, 535 Necrotic, 1140 Negative binomial distribution, 465 Negative density dependence, 543 Negative feedback loops, 1233 Negative interactions, 573 Neglected taxa, 468 Nekton, 820 Nematostella vectensis, 433 Nemertea, 576 Neogoniolithon brassica-florida, 347 Neolithic, 661, 692 archaeological sites, 660 pathways, 661 settlement, 661 1355 Neopontonides, 120 Nepheloid layers, 329, 331, 706, 744, 746 Nereis diversicolor, 790, 791, 795, 796, 804, 806, 807 Net deposition and dissolution, 363 Networks of MPAs, 1079 New Zealand Wildlife Act (1953) 1170 Next generation sequencing (NGS), 1078 Nile delta cold hydrocarbon seeps, 1178 Niskin bottles, 746 Nitrogen, 748 content, 747 Non-biotic attributes, 1260 Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), 1054 Non-taxonomic categories, 1252 Non-transmissible diseases, 1115 North Atlantic, 702–704 North Coastal Brazilian Current, 78 North-East Atlantic, 633, 1178 Ocean, 1173 North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC), 1175 North Pacific, 1173 North Pacific Fisheries Commission (NPFC), 1178 North Sea, 1185 North-west Atlantic, 1173 Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO), 1175 Norwegian shelf, 645, 706, 714 No-take zones, 1171, 1230 Nova Scotia, 646 Numerical modeling, 800 Numerical simulation, 611 Nursery, 1283 habitat, 353 Nutrients, 1097, 1100, 1211 enrichment, 359 Nutritional condition, 21, 870 Nutritive value, 752 O Obiclean, 460 Obitaxonomy, 464 OBITOOLS, 459, 460 Objectives, 967 Observational studies, 1044 Observatories, 250 Observe-and-hide strategy, 328 Ocean acidification, 14, 22, 128–129, 280, 361, 590, 1084, 1111, 1168, 1214 1356 Ocean forests, 968, 970, 973, 978, 981, 983, 984 Oceanic islands, 79, 91, 93 Oceanographic boundary conditions, 705–707 Ocean pH, 361 Ocean warming, 1010 Octocorallia, 113, 1071, 1111, 1174 See also Octocorals Octocoral(s), 582, 584, 835, 1137 age determination, 608 Octocoral animal forests artificial substrates, 608 assemblages and diversity, 113 asymptotic growth pattern, 609 branching order, 608 branching patterns, 609 carbonate (CaCO3) skeleton, 606 Caribbean octocoral communities, 114 Eastern Pacific octocoral communities, 115–119 effects of storms, 125 evolutionary biology, 129–132 global warming, 125–127 gorgonian animal forests demography, 122–125 invasive species, 127–128 invertebrates, 120 microorganisms, 119 ocean acidification, 128–129 reef fish, 120–122 Octocoral diseases acidification (OA), 907 aspergillosis (ASP), 1130–1135 autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition, 902–906, 913 black band disease(BBD) vs red band disease(RBD), 1136–1137 black necrotic syndrome(BNS), 1140 climate change, 906–913 distribution, 889–891 energy allocation, reproduction, 913 experimental trials, 609 fishing pressure, 606 fungal-protozoan syndrome(FPS) vs Octocoral Vibrio syndrome(OVS), 1137–1140 gorgonian labyrinthulomycosis(LAB) vs multifocal purple spots(MFPS), 1140–1142 growth anomalies (GAN), 1135–1136 growth on apexes, 608 growth rate, 608–609 Index growth ring counting, 606 modular growth, 609 mortality disturbances, 1139 OMS method, 606, 608 orders and species, 888–889 overharvested, 606 polyp morphology effects, 897–901 ROV, 606 Symbiodinium, 889 symbiont acquisition and specificity, 893–896 temperature-induced bleaching (BLE), 1128–1130 tree-like structure, 605 wasting syndromes, 1142–1143 Octocoral Vibrio syndrome (OVS), 1139 Oculina varicosa, 703 Offshore oil and gas production, 1191 Oil exploitation, 1168 and gas, activities, 99, 1168 production, 1004 Oligotag, 455 Oligotrophic conditions, 189 Oligotrophic environment, 77 Oligotrophy, 378 Oligotypic, 1265 Ωaragonite, 128 Ωcalcite, 128 Oocytes, 578 Open-ocean, 1173 Operculum, 350 Ophiactis, 120 Ophiotela, 120, 121 Ophiotrix, 120 Ophiuroids, 1186 Opportunistic pathogen, 1132 Optimal flow, 836 Optimal foraging theory, 868 Optimal size, 828 Optimum polyp size, 840 Option value, 1297 Oral-aboral (OA) axis, 436 Orange cup corals, 97 Orbicella, 33, 61 Organic(s) carbon, 747, 1225 loads, 358 matter, 246 matrix, 1093, 1094 particulates, 819 Index Organic matrix staining (OMS) method, 539, 606, 608 Ornamentals, 1027 Ornaments, 661, 663, 676, 680, 682, 685, 687, 693 availability, 1291 Oscillations, 543 Oscillatoria submembranaceae, 1137 Oscillatory flow, 821 OSPAR See Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR) Ostrea edulis beds, 1172 Other octocoral disease conditions (OTH), 1147–1150 Overexploited population, 538 Overfishing, 60, 65 Overgrazing barrens, 1188 Overharvested populations, 543 Oxycirrhites, 120, 121 Oxygen consumption, 844 Oysters, 1183 concretions, 1167 dredging, 1167 reefs, 1180 P Pachygrapsus, 353 Pacific, 573 Pacifigorgia, 117, 119, 123, 124, 130, 131, 134 P adamsi, 1127 Paired-end sequencing libraries, 459 Palaeolithic, 692 archaeological record, 659 shelters, 660 Paleoclimatic archives, 610 Palythoa, 1252 Panmixia, 123 Panulirus argus, 1233 Paper parks, 1171 Paramuricea clavata, 531, 1139 Parasitism, 327, 328 Parazoanthus axinellae, 767 Parthenogenesis, 576 Participatory governance, 971 Particle capture, 847 feeding and selection, 755 flux, 740 interception, 835 1357 sizes, 836 transport, 842 Particle image velocimetry (PIV), 519, 799 Particle tracking velocimetry (PTV), 799 Particulate materials, 1211 Particulate matter, 791, 808 Particulate organic matter (POM), 737, 740, 745, 746, 748 Passive suspension feeders, 745, 815, 821, 822, 825 Patchiness, 799, 808 Patchy regions, 799 Pathologies, 1121 pCO2, 128 PCR, 454–458 PCR-free methods, 458, 469 Pelagic-benthic coupling, 339 Pelagic larval duration (PLD), 581, 586, 588, 1071 Penicillum, 1139 Pennatulaceans, 584, 1168 Pentapora fascialis, 1183 Peracarida, 476 Peracarid(s), 489 Peracarid crustaceans, 476 Perennial, 372 hydroid forests, 403 Periodic mortality event, 541 Perturbations, 47, 57, 59, 60 Petroleum exploration, 1233 pH variability, 1100 Pharmacists, 658 Phase shifts, 372, 551, 889, 906, 911, 912, 1222, 1242, 1317, 1324 Phenotypic plasticity, 114, 129, 131, 132 Pheronema spp., 1168 Philippines, 1036 Phormidium corallyticum, 1137 Phospholipids, 750 Photic zone, 186, 192 Photosynthesis, 18, 189, 193, 510, 734, 745, 889, 894, 899, 902–906, 1084, 1095 endosymbionts, 838 productivity, 872 Phototrophic taxa, 187–190 Phyllogorgia dilatata, 1127 Phyllogorgia wasting syndrome (PWS), 1147 Phylogenetic assignment, 464 Phylopatric colonies, 398 1358 Phylopatric distribution, 123, 132 Phyloseq, 468 Physical and chemical gradients, 279 Physical barrier, 640 Physical complexity, 356 Physical factors, 555 Physiological boundary, 186 Physiological performance, 361 Phytodetritus, 742 Phytoplankton, 820, 864 blooms, 865, 866, 870 down-mixing of, 798 productivity, 869 profiles of, 791 residence time of, 804 transport of, 799 Pink spiny lobster (Palinurus mauritanicus), 1188 Pinnigorgia spp., 1140 Pioneer, 334 species, 1257 Pipelines, 466 Place-based, 968 Plankton, 130 Planktonic invertebrates, 638 Planktonic larvae, 580 Planktotrophic larvae, 577, 579, 580, 584–585, 590 Planktotrophy, 580, 583 Planning policies, 1232 Plant-animal relationships, 260 Plantation/planted forests See Tree plantations Planulae larvae, 893, 894 Planula-larva, 1114 Plastic debris, 1168 Plasticity, 114, 129, 131, 132, 328 Plate-like morphotypes, 641 Plates growth forms, 262 Platyhelminthes, 576 Pleistocene Caribbean coral communities, 958 Plexaurella, 114, 116, 120, 125, 129, 130, 1128 P homomalla, 1114 P kuna, 124 P nutans, 1147 Plexauridae, 114, 122 Pocillopora, 1244 Pockmarks, 485 Poecilogonic larvae, 577 Point diversity, 378 Polar regions, 648 Political will, 1174, 1235 Political will, lack, 1191 Pollution, 229, 355, 975, 1168 Index Polychaetes, 355, 578, 816, 1167, 1171, 1181, 1183 fields, 299–300 reefs, 1167 Polygamy, 191 Polyps, 431, 839 activity, 899–901 addition rate, 599 behavior, 899–901 morphology, 897–901 sizes, 824, 897–899, 902 Polytrophs, 1255 Polytypic, 1265 Pomatoceros triqueter, 775 Population connectivity, 350 depletions, 1030 dynamics, 16, 531, 598, 613, 618 filtration rates, 791, 794, 796, 804, 806 genetics, 1066, 1321, 1323 metagenomics, 470 regulation, 557 sex ratio, 533 size-structure, 533 structures, 223, 532, 535, 539, 582, 598 Porcupine Seabight, 706, 714, 717, 718, 721 Porifera, 80–84, 576, 1070 Porites, 45, 1255 Poritidae, 1244 Positive interactions, 573–574 Post-settlement mortality, 555 processes, 551, 553, 557–559 Precious corals, 13, 21, 1028, 1030, 1032, 1033 Predators/predations/predatory, 238–240, 320, 327, 336, 338, 339, 573, 1150 Predictable/predictions, 323, 332, 334, 339 Pre-settlement processes, 557 Prevalence, 1120 Primary builders, 1258, 1260 Primary producers/production/productivity, 7, 320, 324, 328, 331, 336, 583, 584, 705, 724, 741, 861, 864, 873, 879 Primer, 454–458 Primer-bias, 469 Pristine state, 589 Production functions, 1274, 1284 Productivity, 11, 864 of fisheries, 1228 Prohibition of bottom trawling, 1178 Project population trends over time, 536 Propagules, 573, 576, 580, 588 Prophylactic, use, 682, 693 Index Prostaglandins, 1114 Protandrous species, 577 Protection, 1168, 1173 Proteins, 749 Protogynous species, 577 Protons, 1094, 1098 concentrations, 1084 Protozoa, 1139 Provisioning services, 1285, 1288–1292 Pseudodiploria strigosa, 48 Pseudofeces, 755, 843 Pseudoplexaura, 114, 115, 119, 129, 1128 P flagellosa, 1136 Pseudopterogorgia P acerosa, 1137 P americana, 1147 P elizabethae, 1114 Pseudopterosins, 1114 Pteria, 120 Pterogorgia, 129, 131, 1128 Pulse-like, 868 Pulses, 746, 866, 872 Pumping, 823 rates, 825 Punta Santa Ana epilithic animal forest, 263–264 rocky reef, 266 Putative pathogens, 1120 R Radiocarbon dating, 954 Radiogenic isotopes, 600 Rafting, 581, 586, 587 Rainfall, 98 Rainforests of the sea, 1026 Ramets, 576, 583, 588 Reaction kinetic limitation, 848 Reclustering, 462 Recolonization, 324, 334, 335, 552, 588–589 Recovery, 562–563, 984, 1046, 1133, 1225, 1243 of commercial stocks, 1185 potential, 1045, 1048, 1052 trajectories, 1045 trend, 543 Recreation, 1293 Recreational fishing, 362 Recruitment, 533, 535, 539, 544, 573, 576, 582, 588, 755, 1133, 1244 corals, 1075 high turnover, 560 inter-annual and seasonal variability, 556 1359 level, 544 local populations, dynamics of, 551 maintenance, 556 opportunistic species, 560 post-settlement events, regulation processes and life strategies, 557–561 and post-settlement mortality, 552 rate, 532, 543 recovery and resilience, 561–566 recruitment-limitation relationships, 559 self-vs allorecruitment, 557 spatial patterns, 555–556 stochastic variations, 552 stock-recruitment relationships, 559 successful recruitment, 556 temporal changes, 556 Red band disease (RBD), 1123, 1137 Red coral, 532 Red coralline algae, 347 See also Octocorals Red hydrocorals, 1173 Red Sea, 355, 573 Reduced siphon-opening, 807 Reduced valve gape, 798 Reduction of chlorophyll, 794 Redundancy, 43, 47, 57, 58, 60, 63 Reef(s), 79 biodiversity, 1324, 1330, 1332 builders, 81 complexity, 640 framework, 1260 matrix, 640 rehabilitation, 1332 resilience, 1315 restoration, 364, 1315, 1317, 1321, 1324, 1325, 1327, 1328, 1330, 1332 structures, 600 Reef-associated fishes, 637 Reef-building species, 346 Reefscape, 1261 Re-filtration, 798, 807 Refuge, 240, 1181, 1186 Refugia, 187, 198, 1067 Refugium, 1283 Regeneration, 577 of nutrients, 638 Regime shifts, 589 Regional conventions, 1193 Regional fisheries management organizations (RFMOs), 1174, 1175, 1179, 1180 Regional fishery management councils, 1180 Regions of interest (ROIs), 767, 774 Regressive stage, 1257 1360 Regulating services, 1285, 1287–1288 Regulation, 557–559, 561, 563 functions, 1274 Regulatory framework, 1235 Religion, 658 Remineralisation, 333 Remotely operated vehicles (ROVs), 100, 208, 209, 250, 488, 606, 876, 1047 Renaissance, 680, 682 Replacement cost, 1299 method, 357 Replenishment capacities, 561 Reproduction, 538, 833 buffer, 833 mode, 585 strategies, 560 Reproductive and survivorship strategies and tactics, 1281 Reproductive costs, 827 Reproductive ecology, 20 Reproductive maturation, 849 Reproductive output, 533, 535, 544, 859 Reproductive strategies, 15 marine invertebrates, 574–581, 589 Residency, 248 Resilience, 15, 21, 43, 58, 60, 561–562, 565, 566, 588–590, 1032, 1242, 1279, 1321, 1323, 1324, 1327 Resilient complex structures, 11 Resistance, 1242, 1277 mechanisms, 1132 Resource acquisition, 614, 615 Resource distribution, 579–580, 582 Respiration, 1095 rates, 848 Respiration ratios (P/R), 900, 902–905 Restoration, 1225 Restriction site-associated DNA sequencing, 251 Restrictions on destructive gear types, 1175 Resuspension/resuspended, 330, 331, 335, 738, 744 Retention of VME indicator species in fishing gear, 1179 Retention rates, 1179 Revealed preference approaches, 1298 Reynolds number, 517, 821 RFMOs See Regional fisheries management organizations (RFMOs) Rhizaxinella, 1168 Rhizomes, 191 Rhodolith beds, 100 Index Rhodomonas salina, 795, 796 Ribbon corals, 131 Ribosomal internal transcribed spacers (ITS), 1068 Riftia pachyptila, 1185 Rights-based access, 1229 Rio Sustainable Development 1992, 975 Rising temperatures, 361 Risk assessment, 970 Rivers, 87, 1211 outflows, 229 Robotics and engineering, 250–251 Rocas Atoll, 82 Rockall Bank, 646, 706, 713, 714 Rock typology, 351 Rocky reef, 266–268 Rocky shores, 75 Ross Sea, 651 R-selected, 1252 Rubisco, 1093 S Sabellaria spinulosa reefs, 1172 Sabellarid, 1185 Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago, 83 Salmonid farming, 304 Salt-crystallisation, 357 Sampling, 452–453 effort, 451 Sand, 628 Sandstone reefs, 75 Santa Maria di Leuca, 710, 1178 São Paulo, 87 Sapropel, 724 Sarcophyton, 1130 Sargassum spp., 370, 380, 381, 383, 391 Saturation coefficient, 832 Scale in space and time, 981 Scallop dredging, 1046 Scandinavian fjords, 587 Scaridae, 1254 Scenarios, 541 Scientific research, 1294 Scleractinia, 32, 48, 50, 61, 117, 128, 129, 370, 383, 584, 1027, 1067–1069, 1071, 1178 corals, 550, 552, 560, 1183 (see also Coldwater corals (CWCs)) stony corals, 1170 Sclerites, 114, 129, 606, 898, 911, 912, 1136 Sclerochemistry, 599 Index Sclerochronological methods, 599 Scope for growth, 825 Screening, 251 SCUBA diving, 16 Scyphozoa, 576 Sea anemones, 430–431, 436, 438, 441, 835, 839 Sea cucumbers (holothurians), 1188 Sea fans, 113, 114, 117, 119, 120, 123, 127, 133, 1123 Seafloor, 317, 324, 329, 331, 333, 335, 337, 340 drill rig, 721 modifier, 710–711 Seagrass, 378, 1223 Sea-ice, 320, 324, 333, 335, 336 Sea level change, 357 Sea level rise, 360, 1214 Seamounts, 7, 94, 218, 643, 708–709, 1048, 1049, 1172, 1173, 1175, 1178 structures, 484 Sea of Okhotsk, 1173 Sea pens, 645, 1167, 1168, 1172, 1175 Seascape(s), 263, 1210, 1261 ecology, 268 genetics, 1078 transformations, 974 Seasonal, 754 Seasonality, 583, 589 Sea squirts, 1185 Sea urchin grounds, 1188 Seawater pH, 1094 Seaweeds, 370, 1086 forests, 371, 372, 374, 380–382 Secondary constructors, 1258 Secondary metabolites, 20, 412, 1132 Secrete, 747 Sediment, 713, 1089 Sedimentary records, 714 Sedimentation, 305, 636, 1050, 1053, 1168, 1220 sediment cores, 718 Sediment plume, 1050 Sediment transport, 352 Seed, 329 Seep and vent communities, 1174 Selective agents, 1153 Self-organization, 799 Self-recruitment, corals, 1070 Semelparity, 578 Semelparous, 577 Senescence, 576 Sensitive habitats (SH), 1172, 1178, 1180, 1181 1361 Sensitivity analyses, 563 Sequence variability, 457 Sequencing errors, 460 Serpula vermicularis, 1185 Services, 60 Sessile, 753 animals, 23 epifauna, 491 protozoans, 1174, 1175 suspension feeders, Seston, 791, 796, 800, 808, 858, 861, 863, 864, 866, 868, 869, 879 Settlement, Dendropoma, 356 Settlement tiles, 555 Settling velocity, 737 Sewage discharges, 229 Sewage pollution, 1221 Sexual reproduction, 576–579, 582, 586 SH See Sensitive habitats (SH) Shallow communities, 582 Shallow shelf seas, 1046 Sharks, 236, 251, 252, 1186 Sheet growth forms, 267 Shelf edge, 217–218 Shelf seas, 1045, 1047, 1051 Shelf-slope areas, 645 Shell morphologies, 353 Shelters, 574 Shifting baselines syndrome, 1168 Shifts in ecosystem function, 1167 Shore geomorphology, 346 Shore protection, 357 Shrimp farming, 95 Shrub/shrubland, 317, 322, 325, 328 Siderastrea, 85 Side-scan sonars, 103 Significant impacts, 978 Silviculture, 1315, 1317, 1319, 1321, 1325, 1327, 1328, 1330, 1331 Similarity threshold, 461 Simnia, 120 Simnialena, 120 Simplified communities, 11 Simulations, 533 Simulative models, 563 Single mortality event, 541 Single polyp growth dynamics, 618 Singleton sequences, 460 Sinkholes, 1218 Sinularia, 1130 Siphonaceous, 191 Sit-and-observe strategy, 328 1362 Sites of Community Importance, 363 16S mitochondrial ribosomal subunit (16S), 1073 Size age classes, 535 first reproduction, 532 increase, 597 and shape, 755 shift, 539 Size-structure, 535, 561 Skeletal growth, 838 Skeleton deposition, 617 Skimming flow, 515 Slash burning, 337 Sledges, 478–479 Slow growth, 15 Small-scale spatial genetic structure (SGS), 1070 Societal choice, 982 Socio-ecological system, 1217 Socio-economical system, 11 Soft-bodied organisms, 1259 Soft-bottoms, 1168, 1183 suprabenthic fauna, 477 Soft corals, 258, 270, 1251 Soft octocorals, 1114 Soft substrates, 1168 Soil, 323, 329, 330, 332 development, 1280 Solenosmilia variabilis, 703 Solitary scleractinian corals, 1183 Solomon Islands, 1036 Sorption, 736 South East Atlantic Fisheries Organization (SEAFO), 1175 South-Eastern Atlantic, 1173 Southern Indian Ocean, 1173 Southern Ocean, 584 benthos, 650 South Pacific Regional Marine Fisheries Organization (SPRMFO), 1178 South Shetland Islands, 262 Southwestern Atlantic ocean, 74 South-west Indian Ocean, 1173 Spatial closures, 1175 Spatial heterogeneity, 362, 519, 580, 582 Spatial management, 1052, 1054, 1056 Spatial segregation, 353 Spatial structure, benthic invertebrate, 585 Spatial transfer of matter, 1277 Spatial variation, 555 Spatiotemporal Distribution, 721–725 Index Spatio-temporal patterns, 554–557 Spawning, 573–574, 578, 590 areas, 1186 habitat, 241 nursery areas, 1181 Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW) protocol, 1171 Species dispersal, 644 Species diversity, 242, 249, 252, 980, 1324, 1328 Species restrictions, 1230 Species richness, 353, 637, 641, 1250 peracarids, 489 Species-specific, 706–707 Specific dynamic action, 823 Sphaerippe, 1142 Spiny lobster, 1233 Spiritual values, 1294 Sponges, 80, 82, 212, 217, 220, 228, 261, 572, 636, 753, 815, 824, 1070, 1167, 1171, 1173, 1175, 1179, 1181, 1183, 1188, 1192 aggregations, 1167, 1172, 1181, 1186 dominance, 1221 fileds, 298 grounds, 8, 10 loop, 82 spicule mats, 329 Stability, 585 Stable, 872 isotope composition, 225 isotopes, 872, 874 Staghorn morphotypes, 641 Stakeholders, 1155, 1232 engagement, 1054–1056 Standardised protocols, 253 Starvation level, 798 Stated preference measurements, 1298 Static fishing fishing methods, 1042 gear, 1049, 1050, 1053 Stationary conditions, 614 Steady canopy flow, 514 Steno-and eurybathic species, 644 Stenothermy, 377 Step-by-step aggregation, 462 Stepping-stone, 245 model, 1068 Stimulator, 724 Stock assessment, 1033 Stony corals, 630 Scleractinia, 1174 Index Store energy, 875 Storms, 743 Strait of Magellan, 263 Stratification, 792 Stressors, 551, 1215, 1222 Strong concentration gradients, 519 Strong sustainability, 1273 Strongylocentrotus spp., 1188 Structural complexity, 3, 346, 446, 450, 1257, 1327, 1328, 1330 Structural framework, 1028 Structuring, animal forests, 585–586 Stylasteridae, 1174, 1185 lace corals, 1170 Stylophora, 1251 Subantarctic shallows, 272 Sublittoral rocky walls, 266 Submarine canyons, 1172 Submarine coupled multi-filtration pump (SC-pump), 490 Submarine mountains, 628 Submerged animal forest, 630 Subphotic, 195 Substrate mineralogy, 351 Substrate type, 1191 Subtidal habitats, 814, 828 Subtropical reefs, 555 Successions, 372, 589 Successive cohorts, 560 Suez Canal, 356 Sunlight, 329, 336 Superstratal growth, 1260 Suppressor, 724 Suprabenthic communities, 477, 488 Suprabenthic sledge, 491 Suprabenthos, 479 in Atlantic Ocean, 480–489 in deep-sea animal forest, 494–496 distribution patterns, 493–494 in Mediterranean Sea, 489–491 in Pacific Ocean, 492–493 sampling, 478–479 in Southern Ocean, 491–492 Surface area to volume ratio (SAV), 897 Surface brooders, 123, 132, 582, 585 Surface extension, 599 Surrogate (indirect) market valuation methods, 1298 Surrogate physical variables, 1190 Susceptibility, 1130 Suspended particulate matter, 737 Suspension and filter feeders, 240 1363 Suspension feeders, 20, 324, 328, 330, 336, 378, 814, 856, 858, 860, 864–866, 869, 870, 872, 875, 879, 1255 See also Filter-feeding Sustainability, 1032, 1033, 1038, 1172, 1178, 1192, 1273 Sustainable, 1033, 1034, 1039 aquaculture, 1033 development, 966 SWARM, 462 Symbiodinium, 119, 126, 129, 188, 190, 191, 888–890, 894–896, 906, 1088, 1093, 1120 Symbiosis, 190, 326, 838–839, 888, 911, 1128 acquisition, 893–896 clades, 895 diversity, 895, 896, 906 specificity, 894 transmission, 895 types, 906, 913 Symbiotic corals, 5, 49 Symbiotic zooxanthellae, Sympatry, 113 System methodologies, 1300 System science, 1302 T Tajamar, 1224 Talismans, 685 Taxon, 490 Taxonomy, 18, 246, 248, 1114 assignment, 462–464, 470 expertise, 248 groups, 21 Taylor column, 706 Technical diving, 209 Telemetry, 247 Temperate and cold-water corals Corallium rubrum, 1070–1071 Desmophyllum dianthus, 1071–1073 genetic connectivity, in invertebrates, 1066–1067, 1070–1071 larval ecology, 1063–1065 population genetics, 1066 population structure and connectivityin gorgonians, 1069–1070 scleractinian corals, habitat and genetic connectivity, 1067–1069 Temperate reef, 362 Temperature, 541, 849, 901, 906–911, 1095, 1191, 1213 1364 Temporal dynamics, 1133 Temporary habitats, 1186 Tentacles, 835, 839 Tentoria, 1168 Terrestrial communities, Terrestrial ecosystems, 8, 11, 16 Terrestrial forests, 3, 7, 12 THAA See Total hydrolysable amino acids (THAA) Thenea, 1168 Thermal anomaly, 1111, 1127 Thermal optima, 1096 Thermal tolerance, 706, 707 Threatened species, 1170, 1173 Threats, 1168, 1173 Three dimensions, 628, 1262 colonies, 89 elevation matrix, 777 framework, 353 gorgonian octocorals, 1114 structure, 326, 328, 335, 340 structures, 8, 9, 15 variability, 740 Tissue growth, 838 Tonga, 1036 Top-down control, 1222 Topography, 744 complexity, 633, 1327 features, 6, 1174, 1181, 1190 Total and available amino acids, 749 Total hydrolysable amino acid (THAA), 747, 753 Total organic matter, 747 Total protein (TPRT), 747, 749 Total reproductive output, 834 Tourism, fisheries, coastal protection, 1304 Tourist access, 362 Towed fishing gears, 1042, 1046, 1047, 1049, 1050 Traceability, 468 Trade, 1170 Trammel net, 228 Transcriptome analyses, 1079 Transformations, 1234 Transformity, 1301 Transition matrix, 533, 539 Translocation of energy, 598 Transmissibility disease, 1143 Transmission, 190 disease, 1142 Transport, 1212 Travel cost, 1299 Index Trawling, 12, 337, 991–992 bottom, 994 Trawl track, 1180 Treeline, 317, 323, 330 Tree plantations, 1315, 1317, 1326 Trenches, 1175 Trichoderma, 1139 Tridacna, 1252 Triglycerides, 750 Tritonia hamnerorum, 1150 Trophic connections, 874 Trophic crisis, 754, 864 Trophic ecology, 19, 921, 923–927 Trophic guilds, 197, 262, 639 Trophic levels, 872, 874 Trophic organization, 1256 Trophic positions, 872, 874 Trophic scales, 619 Trophic shading, 614, 615 Trophic strategies, 1256 Trophodynamics, 1281 Tropical America, octocoral animal forests See Octocoral animal forests Tropical coral reefs, 5, 1168, 1243 Tropical Eastern Pacific (TEP), 113, 115, 117, 118, 120, 122, 124, 127, 128, 131, 133, 134, 1127 Tropical ecosystems, 87, 98 Tropical rain forests, 322, 330 Tropical seascapes, 1211–1213 Tropical West Atlantic, 84 Trumpetfish, 121 Tubastrea micranthus, 1252 Tube anemones (Ceriantharia), 1168 Tube-dwelling animal forests, 1185 Tubular shells, 349 Tumors, 1135 Tunicata, 1070 Turbidity, 192 Turbinaria spp., 383, 387, 391 Turbulent momentum transfer, 518 U Uchime, 460 UCLUST, 461 Ultra-oligotrophic, 743 Unattached morphotypes, 641 UNCED, 975 Uncertainties, 967 UNCLOS See United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) Index Understorey, 389 Underwater canyons, 1173 cartography, 1051 observatories, 249, 250 tourism, 272 UNEP-WCMC, 702, 703, 706 UNGA resolutions See United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) Resolutions UniFrac, 468 Unifying theory, 23 Uniserial colonies, 398 Unitary organisms, 597 United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 1171, 1173 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), 1172, 1178 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 1171 United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) Resolutions, 1174, 1179 United States (U.S.), 1033, 1035 Universal primers, 469 Unsupervised machine learning, 461 Upper continental slope, 218 Upper layer, 1262 Upwelling, 127 Urban development, 358 Urban expansion, 1224 Urbanization, 94 Urochordata, 817 USEARCH, 461 U.S Endangered Species Act, 1035 User-side approach, 1302 V Vagile, 753 Valleys, 628 Valuation, 1272, 1273, 1285, 1287, 1292, 1296, 1297 Value, 1296–1298 of ecosystems, 1191 Valve-gape, 807 Valvometry, 774 Vegetation, 1226 Vegetative propagation, 124, 125 Veleronia, 120 Vermetid(s), 347, 817, 1293 reefs, 1276, 1281, 1282 rims, 355 1365 Vermetid-coralline aggregations, 347 Vertical distribution, 890 Vertical transport, 743 Vertical zonation, 242 Vessel monitoring systems (VMS), 1046, 1051, 1052 Vibrio, 1123 V coralliityticus, 1139 V parahaemolyticus, 1153 Vicariant event, deep red coral, 1076 Video recording, 763 Virulence, 1121 Viscous sublayer, 802–803 VMEs See Vulnerable marine ecosystems (VMEs) Volcanic and seismic activity, 306 Volume of oocytes, 226 Votive offerings, 665 VSEARCH, 460 Vulnerability, 1218 Vulnerable marine ecosystems (VMEs), 246, 643, 1043, 1172, 1174 area closures, 1180 encounter locations, 1180 encounter protocols, 1179 fished vs unfished areas, 1179 indicator species, 1175, 1178, 1179 lists of, 1174, 1175 management measures, 1175 protection of, 1174, 1178 threshold, 1180 W Warming, 336, 338, 361, 1096 Waste treatment, 1288 Water flow, 821, 900–901 Framework and Habitat Directive, 1052 motion, 1098–1099, 1100 quality, 1154, 1220 and sanitation regulations, 1232 Wave, 517 energy, 357 patterns, 78 Wave-cut notch, 348 Weak sustainability, 1273 Weddell Sea, 651 Well-being, 1272, 1273, 1286 West Antarctic Peninsula, 651 1366 Western Mediterranean, 582 Western South Pacific, 1173 Wetlands, 1224 White band disease (WBD), 1122 White volcano sponges, 651 Wider Caribbean and Western Mid-Atlantic, 1173 Wnt gene, 434, 436 World Heritage Area, 1035 World Ocean Atlas, 706 World Parks Congress, 1171 X Xenia, 127 Xenophiophora, 1185 Xenophyophores, 1174 Index Y Yolk, 578 Younger Dryas, 718 Young stage, 1257 Yucatán Peninsula, 1216 Z Zoanthids, 835, 1128 Zoobenthos filter-feeding See Filter-feeding Zoochlorellae, 838, 839, 1255 Zoophytes, 1255 Zooplanktivore, 197 Zooplankton, 820 Zooxanthellae, 47, 50, 57, 58, 117, 119, 129, 186, 187, 193, 838, 839, 1255 ... communities and their ecological importance The animal forests are probably one of the most widely distributed ecosystems on the planet, due to the wide spectra of environments they occupy, from the shallow... Effects of Anthropogenic Impacts on the Animal Forests Perspectives and Challenges of Future Research 5.1 Distribution of the Animal Forests of the. .. sea” and have attracted the interest of scientists all over the world However, during the last decades, many other animal forests have been subjected to the attention of the scientific community;