Habitat population dynamics and metal levels in conlonial waterbirds

Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Habitat, Population Dynamics, and Metal Levels in Colonial Waterbirds A FOOD CHAIN APPROACH www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Marine Science Series The CRC Marine Science Series is dedicated to providing state-of-the-art coverage of important topics in marine biology, marine chemistry, marine geology, and physical oceanography The series includes volumes that focus on the synthesis of recent advances in marine science CRC MARINE SCIENCE SERIES Downloaded by [University of Minnesota, Duluth] at 08:23 27 July 2016 SerieS editor Michael J Kennish, Ph.D PUBLISHED TITLES Acoustic Fish Reconnaissance, I.L Kalikhman and K.I Yudanov Artificial Reef Evaluation with Application to Natural Marine Habitats, William Seaman, Jr The Biology of Sea Turtles, Volume I, Peter L Lutz and John A Musick Chemical Oceanography, Third Edition, Frank J Millero Coastal Ecosystem Processes, Daniel M Alongi Coastal Lagoons: Critical Habitats of Environmental Change, 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APPROACH JOANNA BURGER MICHAEL GOCHFELD Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business Downloaded by [University of Minnesota, Duluth] at 08:23 27 July 2016 CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S Government works Version Date: 20160603 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4822-5114-2 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint Except as permitted under U.S Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400 CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Dedication Downloaded by [University of Minnesota, Duluth] at 08:23 27 July 2016 We dedicate this book to Fred Lesser, who was completely devoted to helping us study the birds of Barnegat Bay for 40 years, to all our students who provide hope for the future study and conservation of colonial waterbirds, and to the international team of shorebird biologists who migrate to Delaware Bay each year to help unravel the biology of shorebirds Fred Lesser in the field with an Egret Chick www.Ebook777.com Downloaded by [University of Minnesota, Duluth] at 08:23 27 July 2016 And to the students who are carrying on the research and conservation work with colonial birds From left to right in top row: Brian Palestis, Joanna Burger, Steve Garber Front row: Taryn Pittfield, Nellie Tsipoura, Susan Elbin, Carl Safina, Sheila Shukla, Christian Jeitner The international team of shorebird biologists Downloaded by [University of Minnesota, Duluth] at 08:23 27 July 2016 Downloaded by [University of Minnesota, Duluth] at 08:23 27 July 2016 Contents Foreword .xvii Preface by Joanna Burger xix Preface by Michael Gochfeld xxi Acknowledgments xxiii Authors xxvii Downloaded by [University of Minnesota, Duluth] at 08:23 27 July 2016 Part I Introduction to Barnegat Bay and Northeast Estuaries Chapter Introduction .3 Objectives of This Book .8 Biomonitoring and Bioindicators 10 Using Colonial Waterbirds as Bioindicators and Sentinels 17 Habitat Diversity and Changes 21 Environmental Contaminants 24 Human Dimensions 25 Barnegat Bay as a Microcosm 27 How People and Biota Use the Bay 27 How People Have Changed the Ecosystem of the Bay 29 How the Physical and Biological Aspects of the Bay Have Influenced People 30 How People Perceive the Bay and Want to See Changes 35 How Perceptions Influence Management and Public Policy 35 Summary and Conclusions 37 Chapter Barnegat Bay and Other Northeast Estuaries 39 Introduction 39 National Estuary Program 39 Water Quality Index 40 Sediment Quality Index 45 Quality Index Comparisons 45 Ecoregions 46 Barnegat Bay Ecosystem 46 Massachusetts Bays and Boston Harbor 53 Buzzards Bay and Nearby Waters 54 Long Island Sound and Peconic Bay 55 New York–New Jersey Harbor 59 Pollution Prevention and Industrial Ecology in the New York–New Jersey Harbor 61 Delaware Bay Estuary 62 Chesapeake Bay 66 Summary and Conclusions 69 ix Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com x Contents Downloaded by [University of Minnesota, Duluth] at 08:23 27 July 2016 Chapter Species, Methods, and Approaches 71 Introduction 71 Ethical Issues in Field Studies 73 Conservation Status Definitions 73 Taxonomy and Nomenclature 73 Primary Species Descriptions 77 Great Egret (Egretta alba) 77 Snowy Egret (Egretta thula) 78 Black-Crowned Night-Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax) 78 Great Black-Backed Gull (Larus marinus) 79 Herring Gull (Larus argentatus smithsonianus) 80 Laughing Gull (Larus atricilla; Now Placed in Genus Leucophaeus) 80 Common Tern (Sterna hirundo) 81 Forster’s Tern (Sterna forsteri) 82 Roseate Tern (Sterna dougallii) 82 Black Skimmer (Rynchops niger) 82 Red Knot (Calidris canutus) 84 Secondary Species Descriptions 84 Brown Pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) .84 Double-Crested Cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus) 84 Little Blue Heron (Egretta caerulea) 85 Tricolored Heron (Egretta tricolor) 85 Glossy Ibis (Plegadis falcinellus) 85 Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) 85 Clapper Rail (Rallus longirostris) 87 American Oystercatcher (Haematopus palliatus) 88 Piping Plover (Charadrius melodus) 88 Willet (Tringa semipalmata) 88 Least Tern (Sternula antillarum) 89 Barnegat Bay Methods 89 Habitat Availability, Use, and Selection 91 Population Numbers 93 Collection of Data from Other Bays and Estuaries 94 Collection of Samples for Metal Analysis 95 Biomonitoring Metals in Eggs 97 Biomonitoring Metals in Feathers 97 Tissue Samples 98 Metal Analysis 98 Analysis of Eggs 100 Analysis of Feathers 101 Organs and Tissues 101 Statistical Analysis 101 Statistical Considerations 102 Summary and Conclusions 103 www.Ebook777.com Index Downloaded by [University of Minnesota, Duluth] at 08:30 27 July 2016 Doses defined, 11t lethal, 238–240, 239f, 240f Double-crested Cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus) conservation status, 74t descriptions, 84–85, 86f population trends, 194 Chesapeake Bay, 189t Massachusetts, 168 New York–New Jersey Harbor, 170f, 172, 173f salt marsh species in bays and estuaries, 76t vertical stratification, 132, 134 Double-crested Cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus), 464 Duck hunting, 32 E Eastern Long Island, metals in feathers of Herring Gull chicks, 369 Ecological ark, building, 466 Ecological Indicators for Nation, 15 Ecoregions, 46, 47f Ecosystem Barnegat Bay, 46, 47–53, 48f, 49f, 50f, 51f, 52f defined, 11t Ecotoxicologists, suggestions from, 446–448 Ecotoxicology, for birds, 229–244 causation of toxic effects, 241, 242–243, 243t event detection, 242–243, 243t exposure assessment and toxicokinetics, 234–237 fate and transport, 235–237, 235t, 236f inorganic compounds, 232 metals in environment, general principles affecting, 232–234, 233f mixtures, 234 no effect levels, effect levels, and lethal doses, 238–240, 239f, 240f pollutants, 232 sources, 233–234 tolerance, adaptation and evolution, 241, 241f toxic effects, toxicodynamics and, 237–241 toxicity, beneficial uses, 234 toxicity, mechanisms, 238 vulnerability and susceptibility, 240 organic compounds, 231–232, 231f overview, 229–231, 230f Eelgrass (Zostera marina), 118, 127 Effects levels, 419–420; see also Heavy metals in Herons/ Egrets/Night-Herons/Ibises cadmium, 269 heavy metals, 351–353 mercury, 261, 261t for selenium, 271–272 in wild birds and individual variation, 427–429 Eggs biomonitoring metals, 97 cadmium, 270 Common Terns, from Barnegat Bay locational differences, 348–349 551 metal levels, 354t–355t patterns, 315–317, 316f, 318f, 319f, 320f, 321t data collection, 89–91, 90f Forster’s Terns, from Barnegat Bay metal levels, 358t–359t patterns, 329, 330f, 331f of Great Black-backed Gulls, 363, 365t of Herring Gulls, 366 mercury in, 258–259 metal analysis, 100–101, 100t metal level in, 393 patterns, Barnegat Bay Black Skimmers, 338, 340f, 341f Roseate Terns, 332, 335f, 336 studies of mercury in, 262–263, 263t Eggs associated with effects, metal levels in, 434–436, 435t, 437f Egretta alba (Great Egret), see Great Egret Egretta caerulea (Little Blue Heron), 74t, 76, 76t, 85, 133t, 181t, 248 Egretta garzetta/Egretta thula (Snowy Egrets), see Snowy Egrets Egretta tricolor (Tricolored Heron), 74t, 76, 76t, 85, 133t, 181t Eisler, Ronald, 245 Emissions, from power plants, 460 Endangered and Nongame Species Program, 94, 142–143 Endangered Species Act (1973), 73 Endangered Species List, 459 Endocrine disruptive effects, defined, 237 Endpoints for Bluefish, 21f for Common Terns, 20–21, 20f, 21f defined, 11t Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, 98 Environmental assessment, defined, 12t Environmental contaminants, 24–25 Environmental Contaminants in Biota, 245 Environmental fate and transport, 235–237, 235t, 236f Environmental justice, defined, 12t Environmental monitoring, defined, 12t Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 428 Clean Water Act, 197, 233 Harbor Estuary Program, 31 NEP, 39–40, 94 partial ban on leaded gasoline, 317 RfD, 247 Erosion, on sandy beaches, 200 Erwin, Michael, 95 Estuaries, Northeast, see Bays and estuaries, Northeast Ethical issues, in field studies, 72t, 73, 74t–75t, 76t Etrumeus teres (Round Herring), 296 Eudocimus albus (White Ibis), mercury studies in eggs, 262 in Florida, 265–267, 265t, 266t Eurasian Oystercatchers (Haematopus ostralegus), 207 European Herring Gull, 364 Events, detecting, 242–243, 243t 552 Evolution, defined, 241 Exposure assessment, toxicokinetics and, 234–237 fate and transport, 235–237, 235t, 236f defined, 12t to metal, management of, 462 Exposure pathway, defined, 12t Exxon Valdez oil spill, Downloaded by [University of Minnesota, Duluth] at 08:30 27 July 2016 F Falco peregrinus (Peregrines), Falco sparverius (American Kestrel), 262 Falkner Island, 470, 470f Fathead Minnow (Pimephales promelas), 240 Feathers biomonitoring for cadmium, 270 metals in, 97–98 collection of, 418 Common Terns, from Barnegat Bay metal levels in, 356t–357t patterns, 317, 321, 322f, 323f, 324f, 325f data collection, 89–91, 90f Forster’s Terns, from Barnegat Bay metal levels in, 360t patterns, 332, 333f, 334f of Great Black-backed Gulls, 363 of Great Egret, metal levels in, 421t–422t of Gull Fledglings, metal levels for, 383t mercury and methylmercury in, 25, 97–98, 99, 258–259 metal analysis, 101 patterns, Barnegat Bay Black Skimmers, 338, 339, 340, 342–344, 342f, 343f, 344t, 345f Roseate Terns, 336–338, 336f, 337f of Snowy Egret fledglings, metal levels in, 423t–424t of young Herring Gulls, 366 Feathers associated with effects, metal levels in, 429–434 Feed additives, arsenical, 274 Feed chicks, fish brought to nests, 293–298, 294f, 295t–296t, 297f Field studies, ethical issues in, 72t, 73, 74t–75t, 76t Finfish, heavy metals in, 303–309 metal levels importance, 307, 309 from New Jersey, 303, 305, 305f, 306f recreationally caught and commercially caught seafood, 304f seasonal patterns for indicator, from Barnegat Bay, 305, 307f spatial comparisons for indicator, from New York– New Jersey Harbor to Delaware Bay, 305, 306, 307, 308t Fish, heavy metals in as bioindicators, 291 finfish, 303–309 metal levels, from New Jersey, 303, 305, 305f, 306f metal levels, importance, 307, 309 Index metal levels in recreationally caught and commercially caught seafood, 304f seasonal patterns for indicator, from Barnegat Bay, 305, 307f spatial comparisons for indicator, from New York– New Jersey Harbor to Delaware Bay, 305, 306, 307, 308t natural history background, 291–293, 292f, 293t prey fish, 293–302 fish brought to nests to feed chicks, 293–298, 294f, 295t–296t, 297f metal levels, importance, 299–302, 301f, 302t, 3002f from Raritan Bay (New York–New Jersey Harbor) vs Barnegat Bay, 298, 299, 299t spatial comparison of metal levels within Barnegat Bay, 298, 298t Fish consumption and average daily mercury intakes from, 445f and exposure to metals, 441–442 mercury from, human exposure to, 448 Fishing, 4, Fish population, decline in, 438 Fish reversal feeding test, 250, 252t Fish swallowing, 250, 252t Fledgling, defined, 429 Floatable debris, 57 Floods, nesting in coastal habitats and, 122, 123–125, 124f, 125f Florida caerulea (Little Blue Heron), 85, 133t Florida Egrets and Ibis, mercury studies in, 265–267, 265t, 266t Fluke (Paralichthys dentatus), 33, 34f Food chain bioamplification, 257 of Common Terns, 19f, 20 contaminants, 20 Food chain effects, 437; see also Heavy metals/trophic levels/food chains, risks with Food chain levels for mercury, 441f for selenium, 443f Foraging, habitat, 134–138, 135f, 136f, 137f, 138f, 197–199, 222–223, 223f Forster’s Terns (Sterna forsterii) conservation status, 74t description, 82 examples, 11t, 12t foraging, 18 heavy metals in, 329–332 Barnegat Bay egg patterns, 329, 330f, 331f Barnegat Bay feather patterns, 332, 333f, 334f eggs from Barnegat Bay, metal levels, 358t–359t fledgling feathers from Barnegat Bay, metal levels, 360t interspecies comparisons, 349–350, 349t, 350t other Northeast bays and regions, 332 overview, 311–313, 312f, 329, 329f temporal patterns, 344, 346t, 347–348, 347t Downloaded by [University of Minnesota, Duluth] at 08:30 27 July 2016 Index levels of total mercury in eggs, 261t mercury in feathers, 258–259 moisture content, of eggs, 100, 100t population trends, 191 Barnegat Bay, 155–156, 156f, 180t Chesapeake Bay, 180t, 188t, 189t, 190t Delaware Bay, 180t Jamaica Bay, 180t Long Island, 180t Massachusetts, 180t New York–New Jersey Harbor, 175, 180t variable trends, 195 predicted impacts and species’ responses, 213t sea level rise in Barnegat Bay, 219, 221t types of data, 72t variability in number of nesting pairs, Barnegat Bay, 146t–147t, 148 Forsythe NWR (“Brigantine” New Jersey), habitat loss, 109, 109f Fucus gardneri (Rock Weed), 278t Fulminate of mercury, 381 Fundulus majalis (Striped Killifish), 278t Fundulus sp (killifish), 473 Future populations, implications for, 224–225, 225f G Gadus morhua (Cod), 16, 17 Gavia immer (Common Loons), 16, 25 General linear models (GLM) models, 293 “Geology Day” event (Rutgers), 27 Geometric mean (maximum) of metal levels, for Snowy Egret/Great Egret/BCN Heron, 418t, 420 German North Sea coast, feathers of Herring Gulls, 376t Geukensia demissa (Ribbed Mussel), 278t Global warming Barnegat Bay, 209–217 colony site selection in Common Terns, 214, 215, 217, 217t nesting birds (case study), 210, 212–214, 213t–214t, 215f, 216f policies and perceptions, 209–210, 209f, 211t–212t defined, 12t effects on birds, 203–209 environmental effects of, 199–201, 200f overview, 197–199, 198f seasonal effects from, 211t–212t Glossy Ibis (Plegadis falcinellus), 411 bird length and mean nest height, 133t conservation status, 74t description, 85, 87f feed, on larger fish, 18 levels of mercury, 263 moisture content, of eggs, 100, 100t population trends Barnegat Bay, 179t Chesapeake Bay, 179t, 188t Delaware Bay, 179t, 181t Jamaica Bay, 179t Long Island, 179t 553 Massachusetts Bay, 179t New York–New Jersey Harbor, 170, 171f, 176f, 179t predicted impacts and species’ responses, 213t salt marsh species in bays and estuaries, 76t sea level rise in Barnegat Bay, 221t Glutathione, 402 Grass Shrimp (Palaemonetes pugio), 278t Great Black-backed Gulls (Larus marinus); see also Gulls, heavy metal levels in Barnegat Bay egg patterns, 363 Barnegat Bay feather patterns, 363 conservation status, 74t description, 79–80, 79f, 361–363, 362f example, 11t feathers from Barnegat Bay, metal levels in, 387t feed, on larger fish, 18 moisture content, of eggs, 100, 100t Northeast bays, 363 population trends, 191, 194 Barnegat Bay, 156, 157f, 158f, 179t Chesapeake Bay, 179t, 188t, 190t Delaware Bay, 179t Jamaica Bay, 179t Long Island, 179t Massachusetts Bay, 168, 168f, 179t New York–New Jersey Harbor, 179t New York–New Jersey Harbor, 174f, 176f predicted impacts and species’ responses, 213t preference for nesting, 114 sea level rise in Barnegat Bay, 219, 220, 221t, 222, 222f types of data, 72t variability in number of nesting pairs, Barnegat Bay, 146t–147t, 148 Great Blue Heron (Ardea herodias), 133t, 177, 181t, 189t Great Egret (Egretta alba/Ardea alba) bird length and mean nest height, 133t conservation status, 74t description, 77, 77f examples, 11t, 12t, 13t feed, on larger fish, 18 foraging, 136, 137f mercury in feathers, 25 mercury studies in Florida, 265–267, 265t, 266t moisture content, of eggs, 100, 100t population trends Barnegat Bay, 160–161, 161f, 162f Chesapeake Bay, 179t, 188t, 190t Delaware Bay, 179t, 181t increasing trends, 194 Jamaica Bay, 179t Long Island, 179t Massachusetts Bay, 179t New York–New Jersey Harbor, 170, 171f New York–New Jersey Harbor, 179t predicted impacts and species’ responses, 213t sea level rise in Barnegat Bay, 221t types of data, 72t variability in number of nesting pairs, Barnegat Bay, 146t–147t, 148 Downloaded by [University of Minnesota, Duluth] at 08:30 27 July 2016 554 Great Egrets; see also Heavy metals in Herons/Egrets/ Night-Herons/Ibises about, 393–394 diet of, 393 egg and feather patterns from Barnegat Bay, 395–396, 397t increase in population, 456 metal levels in feathers from Barnegat Bay, 421t–422t Northeast bays and estuaries, 396, 398t Great Horned Owl, 472 Great Lakes declines in mercury in eggs, 381 mercury levels in eggs of Herring Gulls, 376t Great Lakes embryo mortality, edema, and deformities syndrome (GLEMEDS), 264 Great Slave Lake, Canada, mercury levels in eggs of Herring Gulls, 376t Great White Heron (Ardea herodias occidentalis), 259 Green Crab (Carcinus maenas), 278t Green Heron (Butorides striatus), 133t Greenhouse effect, defined, 197 Green Sea Turtles (Chelonia mydas), 16, 17 Groundsel Tree (Baccharis halimifolia), 91, 108, 110 Gulf of Gdansk, Polabd, mercury levels in eggs of Herring Gulls, 376t Gulls, bioindicators of environment, 361 Gulls, heavy metal levels in discussion comparative study, 383–384 locational differences within Barnegat Bay, 382 potential effects, 384–386 temporal patterns, 378–382, 382t trophic level relationships, 382–383, 383t Great Black-backed Gulls about, 361–363, 362f Barnegat Bay egg patterns, 363, 365t Barnegat Bay feather patterns, 363, 365f Northeast bays, 363 Herring Gull about, 363–365, 365t, 366f Barnegat Bay egg patterns, 366 Barnegat Bay feather patterns, 366, 367f eggs from Barnegat Bay, metal levels in, 388t feathers from Barnegat Bay, 389t from New York–New Jersey Harbor Estuary, 367–372 Laughing Gulls about, 372–373 Barnegat Bay egg patterns, 373 Barnegat Bay feather patterns, 374 eggs from Barnegat Bay, 390 from Northeast bays, 374–378, 376t Gymnogyps californianus (Condors), 13t, 243 H Habitat(s), 107–138 activity and, 112–113 availability, 91–92, 92f, 113–115, 114f, 115f, 209–217 coastal narrow nature of, 126–127 sea level rise on, 199–201, 200f Index coloniality, 116–117, 117f defined, 12t diversity and changes, 21–24, 22f, 23f factors affecting colony and nest site selection, 117–126 competition, 120–121, 121f conspecifics and other species, 118–120, 119f flooding/severe storms, 122, 123–125, 124f, 125f human activities, 125–126 predators, 121–122, 122f, 123f reproductive success, 126 stability, 118 foraging, 134–138, 135f, 136f, 137f, 138f, 197–199, 222–223, 223f horizontal stratification, 130–132 loss, 108–112, 108f, 109f, 111f, 112f overview, 107–108 population and risk, 459–460; see also Waterbirds, colonial preference for nesting, 110, 112f restoration, 209 sandy beach, 142–144, 143f, 144f, 145f selection, 91–92, 92f, 115–116 spatial stratification, 127 suitability, 91–92, 92f, 109, 110, 113–115, 114f, 115f temporal stratification, 126–130 types from Virginia to Maine, 108, 108f use, 91–92, 92f vertical stratification, 132–134 Haematopus ostralegus (Eurasian Oystercatchers), 207 Haematopus palliates (American Oystercatcher), see American Oystercatchers Half Moon, 21 Haliaeetus leucocephalus (Bald Eagle), 9, 16, 189t Harbor Estuary Program (HEP) documents, 45, 46 of EPA, 31 Harbor Herons Project, 169–170, 171, 172–173, 173f Hazard, defined, 12t Heavy metals, 277–353 Black Skimmers, 338–344 Barnegat Bay egg patterns, 338, 340f, 341f Barnegat Bay feather patterns, 338, 339, 340, 342–344, 342f, 343f, 344t, 345f overview, 311–313, 312f, 338, 339f Common Terns, 311–329 Barnegat Bay egg patterns, 315–317, 316f, 318f, 319f, 320f, 321t Barnegat Bay feather patterns, 317, 321, 322f, 323f, 324f, 325f as bioindicators, 314 contaminant data, 314 eggs from Barnegat Bay, metal levels, 354t–355t fledgling feathers from Barnegat Bay, metal levels, 356t–357t levels in feathers, 314–315, 314t, 315t other Northeast bays and locations, 321, 326t, 327t–328t, 329 overview, 311–313, 312f, 314–315 defined, 232 Downloaded by [University of Minnesota, Duluth] at 08:30 27 July 2016 Index discussion, 344, 346–353 comparisons of levels from other Northeast bays and regions, 350–351, 350t effects levels, 351–353 interspecies comparisons, 349–350, 349t, 350t locational differences in eggs of Common Terns, 348–349 temporal patterns in terns, 344, 346t, 347–348, 347t fish as bioindicators, 291 finfish, 303–309; see also Finfish natural history background, 291–293, 292f, 293t prey fish, 293–302 Forster’s Terns, 329–332 Barnegat Bay egg patterns, 329, 330f, 331f Barnegat Bay feather patterns, 332, 333f, 334f eggs from Barnegat Bay, metal levels, 358t–359t fledgling feathers from Barnegat Bay, metal levels, 360t other Northeast bays and regions, 332 overview, 311–313, 312f, 329, 329f Horseshoe Crabs, 278–291 Atlantic coast patterns in metal levels, 282–284, 282t, 283f, 283t as bioindicators, 278–279, 279f on Delaware Bay beach, 281f, 282 importance and implications, 287–291, 287f, 288t, 289f, 290f, 291f natural history, 279–282, 281f spatial patterns in Delaware Bay, 285–287, 285f, 286f, 286t temporal patterns in Delaware Bay, 284–285, 284f lower trophic levels, 277–278, 278t overview, 277 passerines, 309–310, 309t Roseate Terns, 332, 335–338 egg patterns, 332, 335f, 336 feather patterns, 336–338, 336f, 337f overview, 311–313, 312f, 332, 335f Heavy metals in Herons/Egrets/Night-Herons/Ibises Black-crowned Night-Herons about, 404–405 egg and feather patterns from Barnegat Bay, 405–406, 409t–410t from Northeast bays, 407 Cattle Egret, 411 comparison of levels, 416–419 effects levels, 419–420 Great Egrets about, 393–394 egg/feather patterns from, 395–396, 397t Northeast bays and estuaries, 396, 398t from New Jersey, 412t overview, 391–393 Snowy Egrets about, 399 egg/feather patterns from Barnegat Bay, 400 from Northeast bays and estuaries, 401–404, 403t temporal patterns of metals in Ardeids, 411, 413–414 trophic level relationships, 415–416, 416t 555 Heavy metals/trophic levels/food chains, risks with ecotoxicologists, suggestions from, 446–448 effects levels and individual variation, 427–429 food chains, building, 437 human exposure to mercury from fish, 441–445 implications for people, 438–441 levels in eggs associated with effects, 434–436, 435t, 437f levels in feathers associated with effects, 429–434 overview, 427 percentage of eggs above regulatory/advisory levels of mercury for human consumption, 446t Henslow’s Sparrow (Ammodramus henslowii), 13, 75t Heron family (Ardeidae), 391 Heronries, Delaware Bay, 176, 177, 181f, 181t, 182t Herons, 18 Herring Gull eggs from Barnegat Bay metal levels in, 388t Herring Gull feathers from Barnegat Bay metal levels in, 389t Herring Gulls (Larus argentatus smithsonianus); see also Gulls, heavy metal levels in on abandonment and formation of new colonies, 130t Barnegat Bay egg patterns, 366 Barnegat Bay feather patterns, 366, 367f bioindicator of contamination, 363 at Captree colony, 72f conservation status, 74t decrease in, 456 description, 79f, 80, 363–365, 365t, 366f establishing colonies, 118 examples, 11t, 12t feather chromium level, 273 feed, on larger fish, 18 food of, 366f Laughing Gulls and, 127–128 lead experiments with feathers of experimental birds, recalculating effect level, 255–256 laboratory experiments, 248–250, 249f neurobehavioral development in field, 253–255, 254f, 254t neurobehavioral test battery, 250–253, 251t, 252t in marshes/under flooding conditions, 124 moisture content, of eggs, 100, 100t from New York–New Jersey Harbor Estuary, 367–372 open-faced garbage dumps and, 363 population trends, 191, 194 Barnegat Bay, 156, 157f, 158f, 179t Chesapeake Bay, 179t, 188t, 190t decreasing trends, 195 Delaware Bay, 179t Jamaica Bay, 179t Long Island, 179t Massachusetts Bay, 179t New York–New Jersey Harbor, 173, 174f, 179t predators, 122 predicted impacts and species’ responses, 213t preference for nesting, 110, 112f, 115–116 sea level rise in Barnegat Bay, 219, 220, 221t, 222 Downloaded by [University of Minnesota, Duluth] at 08:30 27 July 2016 556 serve as bioindicators, 14f types of data, 72t variability in number of nesting pairs, Barnegat Bay, 146t–147t, 148 Hill, Austin Bradford, 242 Himantopus mexicanus (Black-necked Stilts), 352 Hitchcock, Alfred, 81 Hooded Merganzer (Lophodytes cucullatus), 263t Horizontal stratification, 130–132, 131f Horseshoe Crabs (Limulus polyphemus), 473, 474 Atlantic coast patterns in metal levels, 282–284, 282t, 283f, 283t as bioindicators, 278–279, 279f breeding ground for, 64 water temperature on, 224 Delaware Bay on beach, 281f, 282 spatial patterns, 285–287, 285f, 286f, 286t temporal patterns in, 284–285, 284f eggs, 373 feeding, Red Knot, 83f, 178, 181–183, 185f, 187f importance and implications, 287–291, 287f, 288t, 289f, 290f, 291f natural history, 279–282, 281f overharvesting, 84 Host factors, defined, 12t House Wrens (Troglodytes aedon), 264, 309 Huckleberry Island, cadmium in, 370 Hudson, Henry, 21 Human activities, ground-nesting species, 125–126 Human dimensions, Northeastern bays and estuaries, 25, 27–37 Barnegat Bay as microcosm, 27 coastal habitat, importance, 35, 35f ecosystem of bay, changes, 29, 30, 32f habitat improvement, 35–37, 36f management and public policy, perceptions influencing, 35–37, 36f perceptions, 35–37, 35f, 36f physical and biological aspects, 30, 31, 32–35, 33f, 34f use of bay, 27–29, 28f, 29f, 30f, 31f Human presence, and leaving of nests by birds, 470 Hurricane Irene, impact of, 363, 380 Hurricane Gloria (1985), 380 Hurricane Hugo, 380 Hydranassa tricolor (Tricolored Heron), 85, 133t Hypoxia, dead zones of, 57 I IBA (Important Bird Area), 142 Immunosuppression in waterbirds, 407, 420 Implications, for future populations, 224–225, 225f Important Bird Area (IBA), 142 In-depth nest checks, 94 Indicator, defined, 12t Industrial ecology, 460, 462 in New York–New Jersey Harbor, 61–62 Index Infectious diseases, avian mortality, 9–10 Inorganic pollutants, 232 Interspecific associations, 119 Iva bushes, nesting on, 465 Iva frutescens (Marsh Elder), 91, 108, 110 J Jamaica Bay, population trends of colonial waterbirds, 173, 176f, 177f, 178f, 179t–180t, 186t Jamaica Bay Wildlife Refuge (JBWF), 173 John F Kennedy (JFK) International Airport, culling program at, 374 Jones Beach colony, 118 K Katrina hurricane, Kendall tau, 394 Kendall tau rank correlation method, 101–102 Kennedy Airport, shooting program of Laughing Gulls, 160, 160f, 174–175, 220 Killifish (Fundulus sp.), 473 Kleptoparasitism, 134 Kolbert, Elizabeth, 197 Kruskal–Wallis chi square test, 101, 252t, 337 L La Brea Tar Pits, 22 Lake Erie region, 306 Lake Heron, mercury levels in eggs of Herring Gulls, 376t Lake Michigan, mercury levels in eggs of Herring Gulls, 376t Lake Superior, mercury levels in eggs of Herring Gulls, 376t Landscape ecology, defined, 12t Largemouth Bass (Micropterus salmoides), 13t, 306 Larus argentatus smithsonianus (Herring Gulls), see Herring Gulls Larus delawarensis (Ring-billed Gull), 191 Larus marinus (Great Black-backed Gulls), see Great Black-backed Gulls Larus smithsonianus, 364 Laterallus jamaicensis (Black Rail), 259 Laughing Gulls (Leucophaeus atricilla), 435, 455; see also Gulls, heavy metal levels in about, 372–373 Barnegat Bay egg patterns, 373 Barnegat Bay feather patterns, 374 breeding colony, in Texas, 166, 166f conservation status, 74t description, 79f, 80–81 eggs from Barnegat Bay, metal levels in, 390t examples, 12t, 13t habitat and activity, 113 Herring Gulls and, 127–128 Kennedy Airport, shooting program, 160, 160f, 174–175, 220 Downloaded by [University of Minnesota, Duluth] at 08:30 27 July 2016 Index in marshes/under flooding conditions, 124, 125f moisture content, of eggs, 100, 100t nesting on marsh creeks, 459 from Northeast bays, 374–378, 376t omnivorous foragers, 373 population trends, 191 Barnegat Bay, 159–160, 159f, 160f, 179t Chesapeake Bay, 179t, 188t, 190t decreasing trends, 195 Delaware Bay, 179t Jamaica Bay, 179t Long Island, 179t Massachusetts Bay, 166, 168, 168f, 179t New York–New Jersey Harbor, 174–175, 177f, 178f, 179t variable trends, 195, 196 predicted impacts and species’ responses, 213t preference for nesting, 113 sea level rise in Barnegat Bay, 219, 220, 220f, 221t susceptible to avian influenza, 65 types of data, 72t variability in number of nesting pairs, Barnegat Bay, 146t–147t, 148 Laysan Albatross (Phoebastria immutabilis/Diomedia immutabilis), 25, 26f, 248 Lead, 246–256 arsenate, 234 in avian feathers, 386 toxic effect levels, 385 Black Skimmer, from Barnegat Bay egg patterns, 338, 340f feather patterns, 338, 339, 340, 342, 342f, 344, 344t Common Terns, from Barnegat Bay egg patterns, 315–317, 316f, 319f, 321t eggs, metal levels in, 354t–355t feather patterns, 317, 321, 322f, 324f feathers of, 314–315, 314t, 315t fledgling feathers, metal levels in, 356–357t decline in, 379, 428 effects levels, 351 in eggs/fledgling feathers, 435t in eggs of Black-crowned Night-Herons, 405 in eggs of Great Egrets, 394f in eggs of Herring Gulls, 367f in eggs of Snowy Egrets, 400f in feathers of Black-crowned Night-Herons, 407f in feathers of experimental birds, recalculating effect level, 255–256 in feathers of fledgling Herring Gulls, 369f in feathers of Great Egrets, 396f in feathers of Herring Gulls, 374f in feathers of Snowy Egrets, 402f, 403t food chain levels for, 440f, 441f Forster’s Terns, from Barnegat Bay egg patterns, 329, 330f eggs, metal levels in, 358t–359t feather patterns, 332, 333f fledgling feathers, metal levels in, 360t Herring Gull chicks and, 428, 429f 557 Horseshoe Crabs, 283f, 283t, 286t individual variation in, 430f interspecies comparisons, 349–350, 349t, 350t laboratory experiments, in young terns and gulls, 248–250, 249f in marine and coastal waters, 384 mechanisms of developmental delay, 256 metals in eggs/feathers in Great Black-Backed Gull, 382t neurobehavioral development in field, 253–255, 254f, 254t neurobehavioral test battery, 250–253, 251t, 252t prey fish, 302t Roseate Terns egg patterns, 332, 335f, 336 feather patterns, 336–338, 336f, 337f temporal patterns in terns, 344, 346t, 347–348, 347t toxicity effects levels, 247–248, 247t Least Tern (Sternula antillarum), 459 conservation status, 75t description, 89 nesting on beaches of barrier islands, 23 population trends, 191 Barnegat Bay, 180t Chesapeake Bay, 180t, 188t Delaware Bay, 180t Jamaica Bay, 180t Long Island, 180t Massachusetts Bay, 166, 167f, 168, 180t New York–New Jersey Harbor, 173–174, 175f, 180t preference for nesting, 113–114, 114f, 115f, 118 reproductive success of, 143 sandy beach habitats, Barnegat Bay, 142–143, 143f types of data, 72t Lesser Scaup (Aythya affinis), 263t Lethal doses, 238–240, 239f, 240f Leucophaeus atricilla (Laughing Gulls), see Laughing Gulls Leucophoyx thula, 78 Limosa limosa (Black-tailed Godwit), 240 Limulus lysate, 279 Limulus polyphemus (Horseshoe Crabs), see Horseshoe Crabs Little Blue Heron (Egretta caerulea), 74t, 76, 76t, 85, 133t, 181t, 248 Little Egrets (Egretta garzetta), 271, 391 LOAEL (lowest observed adverse effect level), 238–240, 239f, 240f, 246, 259 Locational differences in eggs of Common Terns, 348–349 within Barnegat Bay, 382 Locomotion, 250–251, 252t Long Island Sound characteristics, 40, 41t–44t Northeast estuary, 55–59, 57f, 58f, 59f population trends of colonial waterbirds, 169, 179t–180t Long-legged waders, 391 Long-tailed Ducks (Clangula hyemalis), 237 Lophodytes cucullatus (Hooded Merganzer), 263t 558 Loss, habitat, 108–112, 108f, 109f, 111f, 112f Louisiana Heron, 76 Lower trophic levels, 277–278, 278t Lowest observed adverse effect level (LOAEL), 238–240, 239f, 240f, 246, 259 Downloaded by [University of Minnesota, Duluth] at 08:30 27 July 2016 M Malaclemys terrapin (Diamond-back Terrapin), 66 Mallard Duck, 248 Mallards (Anas platyrynchus), 352 Management for conservation/protection of colonial nesting waterbirds, 468t–469t Management of colonail waterbirds habitat, 462 Manahawkin Bay Bridge, 47 Manganese, 370 Black Skimmer, from Barnegat Bay egg patterns, 338, 341f feather patterns, 338, 339, 340, 342, 343f, 344 Common Terns, from Barnegat Bay egg patterns, 317, 318f, 320f, 321t eggs, metal levels in, 354t–355t feather patterns, 321, 323f, 325f fledgling feathers, metal levels in, 356–357t effects, 246, 272 effects levels, 352–353 in eggs of Black-crowned Night-Herons, 406 in eggs of Great Egrets, 395f in eggs of Herring Gulls from Barnegat Bay, 368f in eggs of Laughing Gulls, 378 in eggs of Snowy Egrets, 401f in feathers of Black-crowned Night-Herons, 408f in feathers of Great Black-backed Gulls, 365 in feathers of Great Egrets, 397f, 397t in feathers of Herring Gulls, 370f, 375f in feathers of Snowy Egrets, 403f Forster’s Terns, from Barnegat Bay egg patterns, 329, 331f eggs, metal levels in, 358t–359t feather patterns, 332, 334f fledgling feathers, metal levels in, 360t Horseshoe Crabs from different states, 282t, 283t, 286t individual variation in, 433f interspecies comparisons, 349–350, 349t, 350t Roseate Terns egg patterns, 332, 335f, 336 feather patterns, 336–338, 337f temporal patterns in terns, 344, 346t, 347–348, 347t temporal trends in metal levels in feathers/eggs of gulls, 382t Marine birds, 385 Marsh Elder (Iva frutescens), 91, 108, 110 Marsh Wren (Cistothorus platensis), 264 Massachusetts Bays characteristics, 40, 41t–44t Northeast estuary, 53, 53f population trends of colonial waterbirds, 166–168, 167f, 168f, 179t–180t Measurement endpoint, defined, 10, 12t Melospiza melodia (Song Sparrow), 264 Index Menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus), 293 Menidia (Silversides), 249 Menidia menidia (Atlantic Silverside), 278t Mercury, 256–268 atmospheric transport, 24 biomethylation and bioamplification, 256–257, 257f Black Skimmer, from Barnegat Bay egg patterns, 338, 340f feather patterns, 338, 339, 340, 342, 342f, 344 Common Terns, from Barnegat Bay egg patterns, 315–317, 316f, 319f, 321t eggs, metal levels in, 354t–355t feather patterns, 317, 321, 322f, 324f feathers of, 315, 315t fledgling feathers, metal levels in, 356–357t decline in fish, 428 developmental defects, 263–264, 264f effects fish-eating birds, levels, 261, 261t in songbirds of terrestrial ecosystems, 264–265 effects levels, 351–352 eggs, 258–259, 262–263, 263t in eggs/fledgling feathers, 435t in eggs of Black-crowned Night-Herons, 405, 409t–410t in eggs of Great Egrets, 394f, 398t in eggs of Herring Gulls, 367f in eggs of Snowy Egrets, 400f exposure to, through diet, 416 in feathers, 97–98, 99, 258–259, 385 in feathers of Black-crowned Night-Herons, 407f, 409t–410t in feathers of fledgling Herring Gulls, 369f in feathers of Great Egrets, 396, 396f, 398t in feathers of Herring Gulls, 374f in feathers of Snowy Egrets, 402f, 403t, 404 in fish, information on, 444 on fledgling feathers and eggs, 460 food chain levels for, 441f Forster’s Terns, from Barnegat Bay egg patterns, 329, 330f eggs, metal levels in, 358t–359t feather patterns, 332, 333f fledgling feathers, metal levels in, 360t Great Black-Backed Gull, 382t herons in Nevada, 267–268 Horseshoe Crabs, 282t, 283f, 283t, 286t human exposure to, from fish, 441–445 individual variation in, 431f, 436f interspecies comparisons, 349–350, 349t, 350t in marine and coastal waters, 384–385 methylmercury vs., 257–258 prey fish, 302t Roseate Terns egg patterns, 332, 335f, 336 feather patterns, 336–338, 336f feathers of, 315, 315t studies, in Florida Egrets and Ibis, 265–267, 265t, 266t temporal patterns in terns, 344, 346t, 347–348, 347t toxicity to birds, 259, 260t Downloaded by [University of Minnesota, Duluth] at 08:30 27 July 2016 Index Merrimack River Watershed restoration strategy, 471 Metal analysis, 95–101 collection of samples for, 95, 97–98, 99f biomonitoring in eggs, 97 biomonitoring in feathers, 97–98 tissue samples, 98 eggs, analysis, 100–101, 100t feathers, analysis, 101 organs and tissues, 101 sample analysis, 98, 99, 99f Metalloids choice of, 246 defined, 232 Metals; see also Heavy metals bioavailability of, 236 ecotoxicology, see Ecotoxicology effects, 245–275 arsenic, 273–274 cadmium, 268–270 chromium, 246, 273 lead, see Lead manganese, 246, 272 mercury, see Mercury metalloids and, choice, 246 overview, 245–246 selenium, 246, 270–272 in environment, general principles affecting, 232–234, 233f in feathers of Great Egret, 421t–422t in feathers of Snowy Egret, 423t–414t in feathers of young Egrets from New Jersey, 417t in feathers of young Egrets/Ibises/Herons, 412t mixtures, 234 pollutants, 232 risks and, 460–462 sources, 233–234 toxic effects, toxicodynamics and, 237–241 no effect levels, effect levels, and lethal doses, 238–240, 239f, 240f tolerance, adaptation and evolution, 241, 241f toxicity, mechanisms, 238 vulnerability and susceptibility, 240 toxicity, beneficial uses, 234 Methods, Barnegat Bay, 89–94 eggs and feathers, collection, 89–91, 90f habitat availability, use, and selection, 91–92, 92f population numbers, 93–94, 93f Methylmercury, 441, 442, 443, 461 atmospheric organic mercury conversion to, 24 biomethylation and bioamplification, 256–257, 257f concentration of, 33 for embryonic development, 240 in feathers, 25, 98, 99 total mercury vs., 257–258 toxicity, 232, 233 water quality standard for, 33 Michigan, feathers of Herring Gulls, 376t Michigan Herring Gull colonies, 381 Micropterus salmoides (Largemouth Bass), 13t, 306 Microtox™, 40 559 Migratory Bird Treaty Act, 73, 85 Migratory ducks, 31, 32 Milton, John P., 197–198 Minimal Risk Levels (MRL), 442 Mixtures, of contaminants, 234 Monitoring, defined, 10, 12t Monomoy National Wildlife Refuge, 168 Morone americana (White Perch), 306 Morone saxatilis (Striped Bass), 12t, 19, 31, 32, 33, 33f, 279, 303, 305–307, 306f, 307f, 308t Morus capensis (Cape Gannets), 205f Mosquito control, effect of, 91 Mytilus edulis (Blue Mussel), 40 N National Audubon Society, 64, 73, 119 National Coastal Assessment methods, 45 National Estuary Program (NEP), 39–46 characteristics of major bays and estuaries, 41t–44t Coastal Condition reports, EPA, 94 overview, 39–40 quality index comparisons, 45, 46, 46t sediment quality index, 45, 45f water quality index, 40, 45 National Mussel Watch, 57 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 40, 57 National Research Council (NRC), 15, 17, 261 National Status and Trends Program, 40 National Wildlife Refuge, 142 Nauset Marsh in Cape Cod (Massachusetts), habitat loss, 109, 109f N-cadherin, 256 Needlefish (Strongylura marina), 296 NEP, see National Estuary Program Nest checks, types, 94 Nesting in Barnegat Bay Black-crowned Night-Herons, 160–161, 161f, 162f Black Skimmers, 148–153, 149f, 150f, 151f, 152f, 153t Common Terns, 153, 154f, 155f Forster’s Terns, 155–156, 156f Great Black-backed Gulls, 156, 157f, 158f Great Egrets, 160–161, 161f, 162f Herring Gulls, 156, 157f, 158f Laughing Gulls, 159–160, 159f, 160f Snowy Egrets, 160–161, 161f, 162f of birds, 464–465, 464f birds, in Barnegat Bay (case study), 210, 212–214, 213t–214t, 215f, 216f in colonies, 116–117, 117f preferences, 113–116, 114f, 115f site selection, factors affecting, 117–126 competition, 120–121, 121f conspecifics and other species, 118–120, 119f flooding/severe storms, 122, 123–125, 124f, 125f habitat stability, 118 Downloaded by [University of Minnesota, Duluth] at 08:30 27 July 2016 560 human activities, 125–126 predators, 121–122, 122f, 123f reproductive success, 126 suitable, 197–199, 209–217 Nest/Trap, 293 Neural cell adhesion molecules (NCAMs), 256 Neurobehavioral development, in field, 253–255, 254f, 254t Neurobehavioral test battery, 250–253, 251t, 252t Nevada, mercury in herons in, 267–268 New Bedford Harbor, in Buzzards Bay, 54 Newcastle Disease, 9–10, 66 New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection (NJDEP), 94 New Jersey Department of Health, 314 New York Academy of Sciences, 61 New York City Audubon Society, 169 New York–New Jersey Harbor characteristics, 40, 41t–44t to Delaware Bay, spatial comparisons for indicator finfish, 305, 306, 307, 308t estuary, chromium contamination in, 246 long-term studies, 95, 97f Northeast estuary, 59–62, 60f pollution prevention and industrial ecology, 61–62 population trends of colonial waterbirds, 169–175, 170f, 171f, 172t, 173f, 174f, 175f, 176f, 177f, 178f Raritan Bay, prey fish from Barnegat Bay vs., 298, 299, 299t New York–New Jersey Harbor Estuary, 380 Night-Herons, in Barnegat Bay, 392f NOAEL (no observed adverse effects level), 238–240, 239f, 240f, 246, 259, 443 No effect concentration (NOEC), 238–240, 239f, 240f, 246 Nonavian species, climate change and, 202–203, 202f Noncoastal species, climate change and, 203–204 No observed adverse effects level (NOAEL), 238–240, 239f, 240f, 246, 259, 443 North American Herring Gull, 364 Northeast bays estuaries and, see Bays and estuaries, Northeast heavy metals Common Terns, 321, 326t, 327t–328t, 329 comparisons of levels, 350–351, 350t Forster’s Terns, 332 Laughing Gulls from, 374–378, 376t Northern Norway, mercury levels in eggs of Herring Gulls, 376t N-15 stable isotope of nitrogen, 402 Nyctanassa violacea (Yellow-crowned Night-Heron), 133t, 181t Nycticorax nycticorax (Black-crowned Night-Heron), see Black-crowned Night-Heron O Oil spills, 5–6, 171–172, 172t Oncorhyncus mykiss (Rainbow Trout), 240 Onychoprion [Sterna] anaethetus (Bridled Terns), 271 Index Open-Marsh Water Management (OMWM), 110 Organic pollutants, 231–232, 231f Organometallic compounds, examples of, 232, 233 Organs, metal analysis, 101 Ospreys (Pandion haliaetus), 9, 14f, 65, 74t, 76t, 85, 86, 86f, 189t Overfishing, effect of, 363 Oxidative stress, 402 P Palaemonetes pugio (Grass Shrimp), 278t Pandion haliaetus (Ospreys), 9, 14f, 65, 74t, 76t, 85, 86, 86f, 189t Paralichthys dentatus (Summer Flounder), 33, 34f Paramyxovirus, 66 Passerines, 309–310, 309t PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), 8, 40, 45, 54, 61, 62, 263, 279, 352, 407 Peakall, David, 231 Pea Patch Island, heronry at, 177, 181f Peconic Bay, 55–59, 57f, 58f, 59f Pelecanus occidentalis (Brown Pelicans), 9, 74t, 76f, 76t, 84, 189t, 231, 231f People ecosystem of bay, changes, 29, 30, 32f physical and biological aspects of bay, 30, 31, 32–35, 33f, 34f use of bay, 27–29, 28f, 29f, 30f, 31f Peprilus triacanthus (Butterfish), 293 Perceptions defined, 12t of sea level rise, 209–210, 209f, 211t–212t Peregrines (Falco peregrinus), Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), 232 Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), 232 Phalacrocorax auritus (Double-crested Cormorant), see Double-crested Cormorant Phasianus colchicus (Ring-necked Pheasants), 260t Phenology, 89 Phoebastria immutabilis (Laysan Albatross), 25, 26f Phoebastria nigripes (Black-footed Albatross), 25, 256, 261, 313 Phragmites (Reeds), 108, 394 nesting, 464, 467 Phragmites communis (Common Reed), 91 Physical stressors, Pimephales promelas (Fathead Minnow), 240 Pipefish, 296 Piping Plover (Charadrius melodus), 459 conservation status, 74t descriptions, 88, 88f foraging in, 134, 135, 137f nesting on beaches of barrier islands, 23 population of, 10 preference for nesting, 114, 115f, 118 salt marsh species in bays and estuaries, 76t sandy beach habitats, Barnegat Bay, 143–144 Platalea minor (Black-faced Spoonbill), 209 Plegadis chihi (White-faced Ibis), 133t Downloaded by [University of Minnesota, Duluth] at 08:30 27 July 2016 Index Plegadis falcinellus (Glossy Ibis), see Glossy Ibis Poison Ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), 11t, 91 Polar Bear (Ursus maritima), 206 Policies, of sea level rise, 209–210, 209f, 211t–212t Pollutants; see also specific types inorganic, 232 organic, 231–232, 231f Pollution prevention, in New York–New Jersey Harbor, 61–62 Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), 407 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), 8, 40, 45, 54, 61, 62, 263, 279, 352, 407 Pomatomus saltatrix (Bluefish), see Bluefish Poplar Island Restoration Project, 472 Population, defined, 12t Population numbers, Barnegat Bay method, 93–94, 93f Populations, exposure to metal levels, 438 Population trends of colonial waterbirds, in Barnegat Bay, 139–163, 179t–180t colonies, 142 overview, 139–142, 140f, 141t sandy beach habitats, 142–144, 143f, 144f, 145f spatial variation, 144, 145–148, 146t–147t summary of, 163t temporal trends, 148–162 Black Skimmers, 148–153, 149f, 150f, 151f, 152f, 153t Common Terns, 153, 154f, 155f Forster’s Terns, 155–156, 156f Great Black-backed Gulls and Herring Gulls, 156, 157f, 158f Great Egrets, Snowy Egrets, and Black-crowned Night-Herons, 160–161, 161f, 162f Laughing Gulls, 159–160, 159f, 160f Population trends of colonial waterbirds, in other Northeast bays, 165–196 BNA accounts, 189, 191 Buzzards Bay, 169 Chesapeake Bay, 186–189, 188f, 188t, 189t, 190t decreasing trends, 194–195 Delaware Bay, 175, 176, 177, 178–186, 179t–180t heronries, 176, 177, 181f, 181t, 182t shorebirds, 178, 181, 182–186, 182f, 183f, 184f, 185f, 186f, 186t, 187f discussion, 189–196 increasing trends, 194 Jamaica Bay, 173, 176f, 177f, 178f, 179t–180t Long Island Sound, 169, 179t–180t Massachusetts Bays and region, 166–168, 167f, 168f, 179t–180t New York–New Jersey Harbor Estuary, 169–175, 170f, 171f, 172t, 173f, 174f, 175f, 176f, 177f, 178f Northeast bays and estuaries, comparisons among species in, 193–196 other analyses, 191–192 overview, 165–166, 166f reproductive success, role, 192–193, 192t, 193f variable trends, 195–196 Prall’s Island, lead concentration in, 369 Predators, nest site selection, 121–122, 122f, 123f 561 Prey fish, 293–302 fish brought to nests to feed chicks, 293–298, 294f, 295t–296t, 297f importance of metal levels, 299–302, 301f, 302t, 3002f in New Jersey, 394 from Raritan Bay (New York–New Jersey Harbor) and Barnegat Bay, comparison, 298, 299, 299t spatial comparison of metal levels within Barnegat Bay, 298, 298t Primary species descriptions, 77–84 Black-crowned Night-Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax), 78, 78f Black Skimmer (Rynchops niger), 82–84, 83f Common Terns (Sterna hirundo), 81–82, 81f Forster’s Tern (Sterna forsteri), 82 Great Black-backed Gull (Larus marinus), 79–80, 79f Great Egret (Egretta alba), 77, 77f Herring Gulls (Larus argentatus smithsonianus), 79f, 80 Laughing Gull (Larus atricilla), 79f, 80–81 Red Knot (Calidris canutus), 83f, 84 Roseate Tern (Sterna dougallii), 81f, 82 Snowy Egret (Egretta thula), 77f, 78 Proximate factors, reproductive success and, 126 Prunus spp., 91 Public Service Enterprise Group (PSEG), operation of, 467 Pyrgus communis (Common Checkered Skipper), 202, 202f Q Quality index comparisons, 45, 46, 46t sediment, 45, 45f water, 40, 45 R Rainbow Trout (Oncorhyncus mykiss), 240 Rallus longirostris (Clapper Rail), 13, 74t, 76t, 87, 87f, 110, 112f, 213t, 259 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, 64 Raptors, 25 Raritan Bay highest counts of shorebirds, 186t New York–New Jersey Harbor, prey fish from Barnegat Bay vs., 298, 299, 299t Receptor, defined, 12t Recovery, defined, 12t, 462 Red Knots (Calidris canutus), 459 color mark, 182 conservation status, 73, 74t description, 83f, 84 examples, 11t, 12t population trends, Delaware Bay, 178, 181–186, 182f, 185f, 186f, 186t, 190t Reeds (Phragmites), 108, 394 nesting, 464, 467 Reference Dose (RfD), EPA, 247, 442, 443 Downloaded by [University of Minnesota, Duluth] at 08:30 27 July 2016 562 Reproductive success Black Skimmers, 151–153, 151f, 153t Common Terns, 153 decline in, oil spill, 172 factors affecting proximate, 126 ultimate, 126 nest site selection, 126 population trends in Northeast bays and, 192–193, 192t, 193f Resiliency, defined, 13t, 462 Restoration, habitat, 209, 471 Restoration examples for Northeast estuaries, 471–475, 476f Ribbed Mussel (Geukensia demissa), 278t Righting response, 250, 252t, 253 Ring-billed Gull (Larus delawarensis), 191 Ring-necked Pheasants (Phasianus colchicus), 260t Risk, defined, 13t Risk assessment, defined, 13t Risk control, 462 Rissa tridactyla (Black-legged Kittiwakes), 79, 80, 250 Rock Weed (Fucus gardneri), 278t Roseate Spoonbill (Ajaia ajaja), 133t Roseate Tern (Sterna dougallii), 459, 470, 470f, 472 conservation status, 75t data collection, 96f descriptions, 81f, 82 heavy metals egg patterns, 332, 335f, 336 feather patterns, 336–338, 336f, 337f levels in feathers, 314–315, 314t, 315t overview, 311–313, 312f, 332, 335f temporal patterns, 344, 346t, 347–348, 347t population trends, 191, 192 Barnegat Bay, 180t Buzzards Bay, 169 Chesapeake Bay, 180t, 190t Delaware Bay, 180t Jamaica Bay, 180t Long Island, 180t Massachusetts, 167f, 168, 180t New York–New Jersey Harbor, 180t types of data, 72t Round Herring (Etrumeus teres), 296 Routine nest checks, 94 Roxarsone™, 274 Royal Tern (Thalasseus maximus), 188, 189t Ruddy Turnstones (Arenaria interpres), 178, 186t Rutgers Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, 256 Rutgers Marine Field Station, 49 Rynchops niger (Black Skimmers), see Black Skimmers S Salt marsh islands, 372 Saltmarsh Sparrow (Ammodramus caudacutus), 13, 65, 75t, 112 Samples collection, for metal analysis, 95, 97–98, 99f Index biomonitoring metals in eggs, 97 in feathers, 97–98 tissue samples, 98 Sandbars, 201 Sand Eels (Ammodytes), 249 Sanderling (Calidris alba), 186t Sand Shrimp (Crangon septemspinosa), 278t Sandy beach habitats, 142–144, 143f, 144f, 145f Sandy Hook, 59, 60 Sarcophilus harrisii (Tasmanian Devil), 237 Seabirds climate change on, 204–206, 205f mobility, 112–113 Seacoasts benefits, 3–5 defined, overview, 3–8 pollution, 5–6 stressors, Sea Lettuce (Ulva lactuca), 278t Sea level rise avian responses in Barnegat Bay, 217–222, 218t, 220f, 221f, 221t, 222f on coastal habitats, 199–201, 200f defined, 13t effects on birds, 203–209 overview, 197–199, 198f policies and perceptions, 209–210, 209f, 211t–212t Seaside Sparrow (Ammodramus maritimus), 13, 65, 75t Secondary species descriptions, 84–89 American Oystercatcher (Haematopus palliatus), 87f, 88 Brown Pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis), 84 Clapper Rail (Rallus longirostris), 87, 87f Double-crested Cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus), 84–85, 86f Glossy Ibis (Plegadis falcinellus), 85, 87f Least Tern (Sternula antillarum), 89 Little Blue Heron (Egretta caerulea), 85 Osprey (Pandion haliaetus), 85, 86, 86f Piping Plover (Charadrius melodus), 88, 88f Tricolored Heron (Egretta tricolor), 85 Willet (Tringa semipalmata), 88, 89f Sedge Wren, 75t Sediment quality index, 45, 45f Selection, habitat, 91–92, 92f, 115–116 Selenium Black Skimmer, from Barnegat Bay egg patterns, 338, 341f feather patterns, 338, 339, 340, 342, 343f, 344 Common Terns, from Barnegat Bay egg patterns, 317, 318f, 320f, 321t eggs, metal levels in, 354t–355t feather patterns, 321, 323f, 325f feathers of, 315, 315t fledgling feathers, metal levels in, 356–357t effect levels for, 271–272, 352 effects, 8, 246, 270–272 on embryos, 435 Downloaded by [University of Minnesota, Duluth] at 08:30 27 July 2016 Index in eggs of Black-crowned Night-Herons, 406f in eggs of Great Egrets, 395f in eggs of Herring Gulls from Barnegat Bay, 368f in eggs of Laughing Gulls, 378f in eggs of Snowy Egrets, 401f in feathers, 386 feathers associated with adverse effects, 434 in feathers of Black-crowned Night-Herons, 408f in feathers of Great Black-backed Gulls, 365f in feathers of Great Egrets, 397f, 397t in feathers of Herring Gulls, 370f, 375f in feathers of Snowy Egrets, 403f, 403t food chain levels for, 443f Forster’s Terns, from Barnegat Bay egg patterns, 329, 331f eggs, metal levels in, 358t–359t feather patterns, 332, 334f fledgling feathers, metal levels in, 360t Horseshoe Crabs, 282t, 283t individual variation in, 432f, 437f interspecies comparisons, 349–350, 349t, 350t poisoning of birds, in California, 271 prey fish, 302t Roseate Terns egg patterns, 332, 335f, 336 feather patterns, 336–338, 337f feathers of, 315, 315t temporal patterns in terns, 344, 346t, 347–348, 347t temporal trends in metal levels in feathers/eggs of gulls, 382t teratogenesis, 271 Selenomethionine, 271, 272, 461 Semipalmated Sandpiper (Calidris pusilla), 64, 65, 178, 183f, 186t, 289 Sensitivity, for detecting population trend, 102, 102t Sentinels colonial waterbirds as, 17–21, 18f, 19f, 20f, 21f defined, 13t Severe storms, nesting in coastal habitats and, 122, 123–125, 124f, 125f Shad, 31 Shannon–Weiner index, of biodiversity, 40 Shorebird foraging, 473f, 474 Shorebirds climate change on, 206–209, 206f, 208f Delaware Bay, 178, 181, 182–186, 182f, 183f, 184f, 185f, 186f, 186t, 187f Shrinking islands, 471 Sialyltransferase (ST), NCAM-associated, 256 Sibling recognition, in development of gulls and Common Terns, 253 Silent Spring, 197, 243 Silversides (Menidia), 249 Site selection colony, in Common Terns, 214, 215, 217, 217t nest, factors affecting, 117–126 competition, 120–121, 121f conspecifics and other species, 118–120, 119f flooding/severe storms, 122, 123–125, 124f, 125f habitat stability, 118 563 human activities, 125–126 predators, 121–122, 122f, 123f reproductive success, 126 The Sixth Extinction, 197 Small gulls, 364 Snowy Egrets (Egretta garzetta/Egretta thula) bird length and mean nest height, 133t conservation status, 74t decrease in population, 456 description, 77f, 78 example, 12t feed, on larger fish, 18 foraging, 136, 137f, 222–223, 223f heavy metal levels in; see also Heavy metals in Herons/Egrets/Night-Herons/Ibises about, 399, 399f egg/feather patterns from Barnegat Bay, 400 from Northeast bays and estuaries, 401–404, 403t mercury eggs, levels of, 261t in feathers, 259, 260t in herons in Nevada, 267–268 metal levels in feathers, 423t–424t moisture content, of eggs, 100, 100t population trends, 193f, 194 Barnegat Bay, 160–161, 161f, 162f, 179t Chesapeake Bay, 179t, 188t, 190t decreasing trends, 194 Delaware Bay, 179t, 181t, 192t increasing trends, 194 Jamaica Bay, 179t Long Island, 179t Massachusetts Bay, 179t New York–New Jersey Harbor, 170, 171f, 176f, 179t, 192t predicted impacts and species’ responses, 213t, 216f sea level rise in Barnegat Bay, 221t types of data, 72t variability in number of nesting pairs, Barnegat Bay, 146t–147t, 148 Somateria mollisima (Common Eiders), 237 Songbirds level of mercury, 25 of terrestrial ecosystems, mercury effects, 264–265 Song Sparrow (Melospiza melodia), 264 South Florida Water Management District (SFWMD), 17, 396 Spartina, nesting on, 465 Spartina alterniflora (cord grass), 12t, 91, 107–108, 110, 123, 127, 130, 144, 219 Spartina marshes, 364 Spartina patens, 91, 108, 110, 127, 130, 151, 219 nest on, 465 Spatial comparison, of metal levels within Barnegat Bay, 298, 298t Spatial patterns in Delaware Bay, Horseshoe Crab, 285–287, 285f, 286f, 286t Spatial stratification, defined, 127 Spatial variation, Barnegat Bay, 144, 145–148, 146t–147t Spawning, 289 Downloaded by [University of Minnesota, Duluth] at 08:30 27 July 2016 564 Speciation, defined, 232 Species, methods, and approaches, 71–102 Barnegat Bay methods, 89–94 conservation status definitions, 73, 74t–75t, 76f data collection eggs and feathers, collection, 89–91, 90f from other bays and estuaries, 94–95, 95f, 96f, 97f ethical issues in field studies, 72t, 73, 74t–75t, 76t habitat availability, use, and selection, 91–92, 92f metal analysis, 98, 99–101, 99f eggs, 100–101, 100t feathers, 101 organs and tissues, 101 samples, 98, 99, 99f overview, 71–72, 72f, 72t population numbers, 93–94, 93f primary species descriptions, see Primary species descriptions samples collection for metal analysis, 95, 97–98, 99f biomonitoring metals in eggs, 97 biomonitoring metals in feathers, 97–98 tissue samples, 98 secondary species descriptions, 84–89; see also Secondary species descriptions statistical analysis, 101–102, 102t taxonomy and nomenclature, 73, 76–77 Specificity, for detecting population trend, 102, 102t Spendelow, Jeff, 58, 95 Stability, habitat, 118 Stable isotope analysis, 383 Statistical analysis, 101–102, 102t Sterna dougallii (Roseate Tern), see Roseate Tern Sterna forsterii (Forster’s Terns), see Forster’s Terns Sterna hirundo (Common Tern), see Common Terns Sterna paradisaea (Arctic Terns), 237 Sternula antillarum (Least Tern), see Least Tern Stone Harbor Project, 474 Stratification, habitat, 126–134 horizontal, 130–132, 131f spatial, 127 temporal, 127–130, 128f, 129f, 130t vertical, 132–134, 133t Stressors affecting birds nesting on island colonies, 22, 23f ecotoxicology, for birds, see Ecotoxicology, for birds physical, chemical, and biological, Striped Bass (Morone saxatilis), 12t, 19, 31, 32, 33, 33f, 279, 303, 305–307, 306f, 307f, 308t Striped Killifish (Fundulus majalis), 278t Strongylura marina (Needlefish), 296 Subadults, 375 Sublethal adverse effects, 419 Subsidence, defined, 13t Subsistence, defined, 13t Suitability, habitat, 91–92, 92f, 109, 110, 113–115, 114f, 115f Suitable nesting, 197–199, 209–217 Index Summer Flounder (Paralichthys dentatus), 33, 34f “Superfund,” on Raritan Bay, 278 Superstorm Sandy, 6, 52, 52f, 53, 143, 200 impact of, 363 Superterritory, defined, 118 Susceptibility defined, 240 tolerance and, 241 Sustainability, defined, 13t Synchrony breeding, 127 defined, 13t Synoptic Reviews, 245 T Tachycineta bicolor (Tree Swallows), 237, 309 Tasmanian Devil (Sarcophilus harrisii), 237 Taxonomy and nomenclature, 73, 76–77 Teflon™, 232 Temporal patterns in Delaware Bay, Horseshoe Crabs, 284–285, 284f in terns, 344, 346t, 347–348, 347t Temporal stratification, 127–130, 128f, 129f, 130t Temporal trends Barnegat Bay, 148–162 Black Skimmers, 148–153, 149f, 150f, 151f, 152f, 153t Common Terns, 153, 154f, 155f Forster’s Terns, 155–156, 156f Great Black-backed Gulls and Herring Gulls, 156, 157f, 158f Great Egrets, Snowy Egrets, and Black-crowned Night-Herons, 160–161, 161f, 162f Laughing Gulls, 159–160, 159f, 160f in metal levels in feathers/eggs of Gulls from Barnegat Bay, 382t in metals in eggs/feathers of Herons, 415t Teratogenesis, 271 Tern chicks, 367 Terrestrial ecosystems, mercury effects in songbirds, 264–265 Thalasseus maximus (Royal Tern), 188, 189t Thermoregulation test, 153, 251, 252, 252t Thomas A Mathis Bridge, 47 Thryothorus ludovicianus (Carolina Wrens), 264 Tissues, metal analysis, 101 Tissue samples, for metal analysis, 98 Tolerance, defined, 241 Toxic chemicals and mortality, 430 Toxicity causation of effects, establishing, 241, 242–243, 243t event, detecting, 242–243, 243t defined, 13t metals, 234 effects levels, lead, 247–248, 247t mechanisms, 238 mercury, to birds, 259, 260t no effect levels, effect levels, and lethal doses, 238–240, 239f, 240f Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Downloaded by [University of Minnesota, Duluth] at 08:30 27 July 2016 Index 565 tolerance, adaptation and evolution, 241, 241f toxicodynamics and, 237–241 vulnerability and susceptibility, 240 Toxicodendron radicans (Poison Ivy), 11t, 91 Toxicodynamics defined, 235 of metals, 461 toxic effects of metals and, 237–241 no effect levels, effect levels, and lethal doses, 238–240, 239f, 240f tolerance, adaptation and evolution, 241, 241f toxicity, mechanisms, 238 vulnerability and susceptibility, 240 Toxicokinetics defined, 235t exposure assessment and, 234–237 fate and transport, 235–237, 235t, 236f Toxicological Profiles, 245 Toxicosis, defined, 13t Treadmills, animal, 255 Tree Swallows (Tachycineta bicolor), 237, 309 Tricolored Heron (Egretta tricolor), 74t, 76, 76t, 85, 133t, 181t, 411 Tringa totanus (Common Redshank), 207 Troglodytes aedon (House Wrens), 264, 309 Trophic level, defined, 13t Trophic level relationships, 382–383, 383t, 415–416, 416t; see also Heavy metals in Herons/Egrets/ Night-Herons/Ibises U Ultimate factors, affecting reproductive success, 126 Ulva lactuca (Sea Lettuce), 278t Ursus maritima (Polar Bear), 206 U.S Department of Interior, 68 U.S Fish and Wildlife Service, 66, 82, 245 U.S Geological Survey (USGS), 68 V Vertical stratification, 132–134, 133t Visual cliff, 251, 252t, 253 Vulnerability defined, 240 in eggs to mercury, 455t of habitats in Northeast bays, 457f of primary species nesting in Barnegat Bay, 458t W Wadden Sea, mercury levels in eggs of Herring Gulls, 376t Wading birds, 95, 97f, 135, 173f, 206, 265 Waterbirds, 187 Waterbirds, colonial Barnegat Bay and Northeast estuaries, see Bays and estuaries as bioindicators and sentinels, 17–21, 18f, 19f, 20f, 21f conservationists and, 454 defined, 11t differences among species, 455 differences in vulnerability of eggs of species to mercury, 455t global warming, see Global warming habitat, see Habitat(s) indices of vulnerability/risks of species about, 456–459, 458t avian options, 464–465 ecological ark, building, 466 habitat, population and risk, 459–460 management and risk control, 462 metals and risks, 460–462 recovery/resiliency/adaptations, 462–463 restoration examples for Northeast estuaries, 471–475, 476f management for conservation of, 468t–469t metals, see Metals monitoring of, 454f population trends of Barnegat Bay, see Population trends of colonial waterbirds, in Barnegat Bay other Northeast bays, see Population trends of colonial waterbirds, in other Northeast bays regional studies on, 453 sea level rise, see Sea level rise species, methods, and approaches, see Species, methods, and approaches status of waterbird populations in Northeast bays, 454, 456 suitable nesting, 197–199, 209–217 Waterbirds and ecosystem, 454 Waterfowl, 8, 25, 32 Water quality index, 40, 45 Watts, Bryan, 95 Weakfish (Cynoscion regalis), 473 Weather events, on collection of data, 89, 91 Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network (WHSRN), 64 Wet deposition, defined, 256 White-faced Ibis (Plegadis chihi), 133t White Ibis (Eudocimus albus), mercury studies in eggs, 262 in Florida, 265–267, 265t, 266t White Perch (Morone americana), 306 Willets (Catoptrophorus semipalmatus), 74t, 76t, 77, 88, 89f, 110, 112f, 115, 118, 213t Wrack, defined, 107, 118 Y Yellow-crowned Night-Heron (Nyctanassa violacea), 133t, 181t Z Zostera marina (Eelgrass), 118, 127 www.Ebook777.com ... Plankton Blooms and Effects on Secondary Production in Gulf Coast Estuaries, Robert J Livingston Habitat, Population Dynamics, and Metal Levels in Colonial Waterbirds: A Food Chain Approach, Joanna... about population dynamics, colonial birds, habitats, heavy metals, or Barnegat Bay, and they have shaped our thinking, including Ken Able, Jim Applegate, Peter Becker, Colin Beer, Paul and Francine... disciplines And it requires integration of our findings with those of others in disciplines including toxicology, geology, and climate change science We are eternally grateful to the birds and their