fundamentals of applied acarology

Manjit  Singh Dhooria Fundamentals of Applied Acarology Fundamentals of Applied Acarology Manjit Singh Dhooria Fundamentals of Applied Acarology Manjit Singh Dhooria Department of Entomology Punjab Agricultural University Ludhiana, Punjab, India ISBN 978-981-10-1592-2    ISBN 978-981-10-1594-6 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-1594-6 Library of Congress Control Number: 2016953350 © Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #22-06/08 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore My Wife: Rajinder Dhooria My Sons: Ramanjot Dhooria: Reena, Sarah and Geet Taranjot Dhooria: Saveena and Mannat Preface Acarology, the study of mites and ticks, is a subdiscipline of Zoology and is many times considered in the field of Entomology (the study of insects) Mites and ticks are distributed throughout the world and inhabit almost every ecosystem (both terrestrial and aquatic) More than 55,000 species of mites and ticks are already described, and the number of undescribed species may reach about 20-fold as mite fauna in most of the world regions are still poorly explored Mites and ticks directly affect humans as pests of different crops, fruit plants, vegetable crops and field crops; as parasites of human beings, veterinary animals, poultry and pets; as pests of stored grains and other products, mushrooms and cheese; and as parasites of honeybees Mite infestations are responsible for economic losses worth billions of dollars in terms of reduced crop yields and lowered quality of produce Some species of mites serve as vectors of various plant diseases Ticks cause losses through blood feeding and by transmitting Lyme disease, babesiosis, Rocky Mountain fever, tularaemia and many other diseases among man and animals House-dust mite allergies and tick bite allergies are also common in many parts of the world Our knowledge of biology, ecology and the importance of mites has largely expanded At the same time, the actual and potential economic importance of these creatures continues to grow worldwide, and their success in colonizing the new regions makes them an ongoing quarantine threat in many parts of the world There is a great necessity of an up-to-date compilation of basic and applied knowledge on mites and their proper management that is otherwise found scattered in a variety of languages and literature throughout the world The present book, Fundamentals of Applied Acarology, is written keeping in view nonavailability of any standard text dealing in different aspects of acarology at one place Separate chapters in this book are devoted to the importance of acarology, historical account, acarine technology, morphology and anatomy of Acari; and feeding, development and reproduction providing knowledge on diapause and water balance The book includes a recent classification of subclass Acari, and illustrations are provided for the identification of 107 important families of Acari The role of mites in breaking down soil organic matter and affecting the quality of water bodies is discussed in detail Molecular developments in relation to mites and ticks are also discussed The role of mites and ticks in quarantines of plants and animals, forensic/criminal investigations and the importance of accidental acarophagy are also discussed in detail Transmission of plant diseases by mite vectors is vii viii Preface thoroughly discussed Safe usage of pesticides based on their mode of action (IRAC’s groups), development of acaricide resistance and measures to mitigate it are also discussed Mite pests of fruit trees, vegetable plants, floricultural plants and field crops; mite problems in greenhouses/polyhouses; mite problems encountered under organic cultivation of plants and their management through minimum usage of pesticides are emphasized in different chapters The role of different predaceous mites in controlling plant pests like thrips, aphids and scale insects is elaborately discussed Biological control of phytophagous mites is discussed in detail Different animal parasitic mites and ticks are discussed from veterinary and medical point of view At the end of each chapter, many important references for further reading and electronic references (ER) in the form of YouTube links and other weblinks are given to understand fully how these tiny creatures look like and behave, feed and reproduce, the nature of damage they cause to plants and animals and measures to mitigate them At the end, a glossary of important taxonomic and integrated pest management terms is provided which makes understanding the contents in a more suitable way creating great lust for knowing more and more about these creatures I am grateful to the late Dr G.P. ChannaBasavanna and Dr S.K. Gupta, both ­distinguished acarologists from India, who encouraged me and lent their moral ­support for writing such a book on applied aspects I also sincerely acknowledge Dr Uri Gerson of Israel and Dr K. Ramaraju of India, eminent acarologists, for their useful suggestions The knowledge contained in the book may prove very useful for ‘General and Applied Acarology’ course for graduate and postgraduate levels, teachers and researchers in entomology, pest control advisors, professional entomologists, pesticide industry managers, policy planners and others having interest in mites and ticks Ludhiana, India M.S. Dhooria About the Book Acarology, the study of mites and ticks, is a subdiscipline of Zoology and is many times considered in the field of Entomology (the study of insects) Mites and ticks are distributed throughout the world and inhabit almost every ecosystem (both terrestrial and aquatic) including grassland soils More than 55,000 species of mites and ticks are already described, but the number of undescribed species may reach up to 20-fold as mite fauna in most of the world regions are still poorly explored Mites and ticks directly affect humans as pests of different crops, fruit plants, vegetable crops and field crops; as parasites of human beings, veterinary animals, poultry and pets; as pests of stored grains and other products, mushrooms and cheese; and as parasites of honeybees Mite infestations are responsible for economic losses worth billions of dollars in terms of reduced crop yields and lowered quality of produce Many species of mites serve as vectors of various plant diseases; some species of ticks cause losses through blood feeding and by transmitting Lyme disease, babesiosis, Rocky Mountain fever, tularaemia and many other diseases among man and animals House-dust mite allergies and tick bite allergies are also common in many parts of the world The present book, Fundamentals of Applied Acarology, is written keeping in view nonavailability of any standard text dealing in different aspects of acarology at one place Separate chapters in this book are devoted to the importance of acarology; historical account; acarine technology; morphology and anatomy of Acari; and feeding, development and reproduction providing knowledge on diapause and water balance Molecular developments in relation to mites and ticks are also discussed The role of mites and ticks in quarantines of plants and animals, forensic/criminal investigations, and the importance of accidental acarophagy are discussed in detail in different chapters Safe usage of pesticides based on their mode of action (IRAC’s groups), development of acaricide resistance and measures to mitigate it are also discussed Mite pests of fruit trees, vegetable plants, floricultural plants and field crops; mite problems in greenhouses/polyhouses; mite problems encountered under organic cultivation of plants and their management through minimum usage of pesticides are emphasized in different chapters The role of different predaceous mites in controlling plant pests like thrips, aphids and scale insects is elaborately discussed Biological control of phytophagous mites is discussed in detail ix x About the Book Different animal parasitic mites and ticks are discussed from veterinary and medical point of view Many YouTube and other weblinks explain in an interesting way emphasizing the importance of salient information on these creatures and measures to combat them At the end of each chapter, many important references for further reading and electronic references (ER) in the form of YouTube links and other weblinks are given to understand fully how these tiny creatures look like and behave, feed and reproduce, the nature of damage they cause to plants and animals and measures to mitigate them Weblinks will stimulate interest in the readers for more information about different mites and ticks The knowledge contained in the book may prove as best material for ‘General and Applied Acarology’ course for graduate and postgraduate levels, teachers and researchers in entomology, pest control advisors, professional entomologists, pesticide industry managers, policy planners and others having interest in mites and ticks 562-I Block, B.R.S. Nagar, Ludhiana-141012, Punjab, India E-mail: msdhooria@yahoo.com M.S. Dhooria Contents Acarology and Its Importance 1 Further Reading 2 Historical Account of  Acarology 9 2.1 Developments Prior to 1850 AD 10 2.2 Progress During 1851–1950 AD 10 2.3 Developments Since 1951 11 2.4 OSU Acarology Development Programme 12 2.5 Acarological Societies 12 2.6 Journals in  Acarology 16 2.7 Important Books Published 17 2.8 Conclusions 18 Further Reading 18 3 Acarine Technology 21 3.1 Collection 22 3.1.1 Plant-Associated Mites 22 3.1.2 Water Mites 23 3.1.3 Soil Mites 24 3.1.4 Parasitic Mites 25 3.1.5 Collection of  Ticks 27 3.2 Preservation/Killing in a Medium 28 3.3 Preparation (Slide Mounting) 28 3.3.1 Preparation for  Water Mites 29 3.3.2 Plant-Associated Mites 29 3.3.3 Preparation of Ticks for Study 30 3.3.4 Mounting Ticks on Glass Slides 31 3.3.5 Staining 31 3.3.6 Slide Preparation Technique 31 3.4 Preparation for Scanning Electron Microscopy Studies (SEM) 32 3.5 Preparation for Molecular Analysis Studies 33 3.6 Photomicrography of  Mites 33 xi 25.6 Cheese 455 damage to the crops, but contaminate edible parts of crops, and foraging animals can ingest them directly Oribatid mites Atropacarus striculus, Ceratozetes gracilis, Oribatula tibialis, Scheloribates laevigatus and Suctobelbella falcata are commonly reported on low growing crops A high number of mites are found from unwashed leaves, vegetables and fruits Oribatid mites, S laevigatus, found commonly as coprophage, are intermediate hosts of the tapeworms, Moniezia expansa (family Anoplocephalidae), which are parasitic on mammals including sheep, goat and cattle 25.6 Cheese Sometimes grain mite (Acarus siro), mould mite (Tyrophagus putrescentiae) and cheese mite (Tyrolichus casei) infest stored foods and other organic debris such as grain, flour, cereals, dried fruits, vegetables, pet foods, cheese, dried milk, dried bananas, dried copra, ham, sugar, etc These mites often prefer a moist and damp location Sometimes the infested materials appear to move due to the enormous numbers of mites Heavy infestations of grain mites have a sweet ‘minty’ odour, best detected when mites are crushed between the thumb and forefinger Coating or piles of brownish ‘mist dust’ may appear on open shelving around the base of flour, stacks on the surface of cheese or in other foods Such piles consist of dead and living mites and their cast off skins and faeces Stomach disorders may result if mites are taken internally with infested foods However, acarid mites are responsible for the sharp flavour of a famous German cheese: Altenburger ‘Milkenkase’ Any one ingesting this cheese (with its thousands of mites) for the first time may have gastrointestinal disturbances Mites can survive temperatures near freezing and may become more prevalent during colder months Symptoms like diarrhoea due to ‘intestinal acariasis’ produced by infestation with Tyrophagus longior have been reported, which are frequently found on cheese and dried fruits ‘Mimolette’ cheese is a hardball of ripened cows’ milk and is popular in the northern city of Lille (France) In France it is also known as Boule de lille after its city of origin Cheese balls weigh about 2 kg (approximately 4.5 pounds) Its name comes from the French word molle, meaning soft This cheese has a similar appearance to a cantaloupe melon The greyish crust of aged mimolette is the result of cheese mites intentionally introduced to add flavour by their action on the surface of the cheese Mimolette lovers love to eat this cheese at different stages of ageing Maturing the cheeses involves storing them in damp cellars and turning them every week At the same time, the surface of the cheese is brushed to remove cheese mites which feast on its surface As the cheese ages, evidence of mites can be seen in the pitted and moonlike surface on the cheese But the FDA is turning away imports of mimolette cheese in the USA because the FDA seems concerned that cheeses with too many mites could trigger allergic reactions and so has rejected shipments of mimolette cheese with comments like filthy, putrid or decomposed substance that is ‘unfit for food’ (ER2) 456 25  Accidental Acarophagy 25.7 Meat (Including Cured Fish) Very tiny mites are reported occurring on the cured meat In the surroundings the mites may also be found infesting grain, cheese and flour Heavily infested material may have a sweet or ‘minty’ odour and the surface may appear to move if extremely numerous mites are found Over time, infested areas develop a powdery appearance from the build up of dead mites and their shed skins Since mite infestations are limited to the surface, it may be possible to brush off most of the mites A light coat of vegetable oil can be rubbed thoroughly over the surface to kill the remaining mites and eggs Repeat the treatment in 7–10 days Improve ventilation as much as possible If the cured fish has a dusty rough-textured appearance, the dust in fact may be mites On cured fish, the common acarid mites found are Lardoglyphus spp (family Acaridae) Feeding by the adults and nymphs of Lardoglyphus spp will cause quantitative loss of dried cured fish Quality loss may result from the contamination by live and dead bodies of mites, which can be very numerous L konoi has been found infesting salted fish products as well as unsalted dried fish Optimum conditions for the development of L konoi are 30–35 °C and 87 % relative humidity and below, but population of mites increases at humidities of 75 % and above (up to 98 %) Lardoglyphus spp can become pests in many tropical and subtropical situations, especially where ambient conditions are humid or the fish is not well dried Home-­ cured meats may also be infested by mites, and if a large number of mites are found, dermatitis can develop from handling infested foods Mites can be controlled with a thorough cleanup at the infested area In addition to L konoi, L angelina and L zacheri have also been reported on cured fish The development of Lardoglyphus spp can be very rapid at 23 °C and 87 % relative humidity The life cycles of L konoi and L zacheri take only 9–11 and 10–11 days, respectively Both the species produce hypopus stage which not feed but are mainly a dispersal stage Hypopi can climb onto the larvae and adults of beetle pests and use their suckers to attach themselves to the insects’ cuticle and remain there on the upper surface of the elytra for several days and are therefore often carried to new infestation sites before they detach themselves and change into tritonymph (Nunen 2015; Haines and Rees 1989) 25.8 Conclusions Mites are well-known allergen producers House dust mites are of a primary concern owing to their proximity to humans But recently many reports are appearing regarding sensitizations of humans to many other stored product mites besides Dermatophagoides spp The consumption of pest mites along with infested food may cause allergic reactions The second risk is associated with the vectoring of mycotoxin-producing fungi like Aspergillus spp and Penicillium spp The mites may cause diseases inside the body through production of allergen, cutaneous dermatitis and also in most parasitic diseases where they act as vector Ingestion of Further Reading 457 house dust mites may result in respiratory acariasis (taking place in the lungs), and higher ingestion of stored product mites may result in intestinal acariasis and patients may suffer from diarrhoea and may complain of abdominal pain In human acariasis, mites are visible in the stools Sometimes mites are visible in the sputum and the degree and extent of the disease is estimated by taking into account the total number of mites seen in the sputum Various species of mites often infest stored foodstuffs, meat, baby food, dried fruits, mushrooms, cheese, different drugs and pet foods and may cause economic losses in terms of food quality and quantity The losses are especially high under humid and warm area So such food items should be properly stored at appropriate conditions depending on a quantity of material being stored In case of dried fruits like apricots, figs, plums and raisins, mites develop very fast at 25 °C and 85 % relative humidity So such items should be stored in refrigerators near freezing Sometimes plant-feeding mites are found in large numbers on edible parts of plants like leaves and fruits So there are chances of ingestion of higher number of mites along with the leaves and fruits when taken directly from the plants without washing and cooking In many underdeveloped societies, fruits of musk melon, cantaloupe, sapota and papaya are taken without peeling and washing resulting in ingestion of mites and the intestinal disorders Most of the mites are not removed even by washing the fruits in running water So thorough washing of fruits and peeling before consumption are strongly recommended Even in case of vegetables like long melon, cucumber and tomatoes, fruits should be consumed only after thorough washing/peeling off Oral mite anaphylaxis (OMA) or ‘pancake syndrome’ is a severe, potentially lethal allergic condition which occurs in many countries, but frequently remains undiagnosed Early detection of OMA may lead to implementation of simple prophylactic measures in at-risk populations of allergic patients OMA is a new syndrome characterized by severe allergic manifestations occurring in atopic patients shortly after intake of foods made with contaminated wheat flour Because cooked foods are able to induce the symptoms, it has been proposed that thermo-resistant allergens are involved in its production A novel variety of this syndrome occurs during physical exercise-induced anaphylaxis To prevent mite proliferation and the production of anaphylaxis, wheat flour should be stored at low temperatures, and animal or pet feed should only be stored in properly sealed small packings If cheese, ham and salami are stored for long periods at room temperatures, then they need to be examined at frequent intervals for mite infestations Further Reading Arlian LG (2002) Arthropod allergens and human health Annu Rev Entomol 47:395–433 Aucamp JL (1969) The role of mite vectors in the development of aflatoxin in groundnut J Stored Prod Res 5:245–249 Balance C, Quiraltge J, Castgillo R, Delgado J, Arteaga C, Berter D (1997) Anaphylaxis after ingestion of wheat flour contaminated with the mites J Allergy Clin Immunol 99:305–313 458 25  Accidental Acarophagy Chmielewski W (1998) Mites (Acarina) collected from stored apples J Fruit Ornam Plant Res 6:33–40 Cobanoglu S (2009) Mite population density analysis of stored dried apricots in Turkey Int J Acarol 35:67–75 Demerrel DG, Olmos CE, El-Dohr JM (2004) Mites in the mix: dust mite contamination of a flour product J Allergy Clin Immunol 113(Suppl):32–35 Dunn JA, Thind BB, Banks J, Chambers J (2002) The development of ELISAs for the detection of storage mites in grain Food Agric Immunol 14:323–327 Haines CP, Rees DP (1989) A field guide to the types of insects and mites infesting cured-fish FAO corporate document repositary, produced by Fisheries and Agriculture Department (http:// www.fao.org/docrep/003/t0146e/T0146E02.htm) Heranz G (1963) Hypersensitivity reaction to the ingestion of mites (Tyrophagus farina), pathologic study of a fatal case Rev Med Univ Navarra 7:137–149 Hubert J, Stejskal V, Kubatova A, Munzburgeva Z, Vacova M, Oarkova E (2003) Mites as selective fungal carriers in stored grain habitats Exp Appl Acarol 29:69–87 Hubert J, Erban T, Nesvorna M, Steskal V (2011) Emerging risk of infestation and contamination of dried fruits by mites in the Czech Republic Food Addit Contam 28:1129–1135 Hubert J, Nesvorna M, Volek V (2015) Stored product mites (Acari: Astigmata) infesting food on various types of packaging Exp Appl Acarol 65:137–142 Hughes AM (1976) The mites of stored food and houses Tech Bull Minist Agric Fish Food 9, 400 pp Miller JD, Hamanaivary PJ (2007) The pancake syndrome Allergy Asthma Proc 28:251–252 Nunen SV (2015) Tick-induced allergies: mammalian meat allergy, tick anaphylaxis and their significance Asia Pac Allergy 5:3–16 Sanchez-Borger M, Raul-Suarez C, Arnaldo CV, Fernan CF, Enrique FC (2013) Anaphylaxis from ingestion of mites: Pancake anaphylaxis J Allergy Clin Immunol 131:31–35 Sanchez-Machin I, Glez-Paloma PR, Iglesias-Souto J, Iraola V, Matghem V (2010) Oral mite anaphylaxis Allergy 65:1345–1347 Skubala P, Marzec A, Skolowska M (2006) Accidental Acarophagy: mites found on foods, vegetables and mushrooms Biol Lett 43:249–255 Spiegal WA, Anolok R, Jakabovice E, Arlian LG (1994) Anaphylaxis associated with dust mite ingestion Annu Allergy 72:56 Szilman P, Szilman D, Szilman M, Meszynska E, Maniurka H, Solar K, Sieron AL (2006) Occupational exposure to allergenic mites among workers of the Silesian Zoo Biol Lett 43:375–380 Thind BB, Clarke PG (2001) The occurrence of mites in cereal-based foods destined for human consumption and possible consequences of infestation Exp Appl Acarol 25:203–215 Trucksess MW, Scott P (2008) Mycotoxins in botanicals and dried fruits: a review Food Addit Contam 35:181–192 Walter DE, Proctor HC (1999) Mites, evolution and behaviour CABI Publishing, New York, 322 pp We DC, Shyur SD, Ho CM (2005) Systemic anaphylaxis after the ingestion of pancake contaminated with the storage mite, Blomia freemani Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 95:612–614 Electronic References (ER) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3651046/# sec2title Pancake syndrome (Oral mite anaphylaxis) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MEGCH8W-EEU Cirons de la Mimolette Vieille, Cheese Mites, acariens de fromage, Macro 100mm f2,4 1:1 × http://en.agaricus.ru/cultivation/diseases/mites Mites Further Reading 459 http://www.esciencecentral.org/journals/accidental-acarophagy is-it-safe-for-us-­2375-4397-­ 1000e110.pdf Accidental acarophagy – is it safe for us? https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237457967_Accidental_acarophagy_mites_found_ on_fruits_vegetables_and_mushrooms Accidental acarophagy: mites found on fruits, vegetables and mushrooms Glossary 26 Acari  A very large varied subclass of class Arachnida; representatives are commonly called mites and ticks In some old classifications, mites and ticks are placed in order Acarina or as order Acari They are usually small; their length ranges from 0.08 to 16 mm in mites and 2–30 mm in ticks In modern classificatory accounts, in subclass Acari, two superorders Acariformes and Parasitiformes are recognized Their representatives are predaceous, parasitic, scavengers or phytophagous Acaricide  Alternatively known as miticide A pesticide used to control mites and ticks (e.g chlorobenzilate, dicofol, avermectin, fenpyroximate), but is relatively non-toxic to insects The acaricides include a diverse array of chemical structures A number of insecticides also display acaricidal activity Acaridomatium  Dwelling spots for mites, often provided by certain plants which in turn benefit from the presence of mites Acariformes  A superorder of subclass Acari – representatives are without visible stigmata, and their tactile and chemosensory hairs contain actinochitin – an Abstract About 115 terms pertaining to information given in 25 different chapters, included in the present book ‘Fundamentals of Applied Acarology’ are given Terms concerning knowledge on different body regions, leg regions, and different structures particularly regarding various tactile and nerve setae found on gnathosomal and idiosomal regions of body are presented in an authentic way Many terms pertaining to biology, ecology, and control techniques employed against these ­creatures are included Meaning of different plant parts on which mites are found feeding are also included in this section Terminology concerning Integrated Pest Management (IPM) are included for better understanding the impact of mite pests on different field crops, vegetable crops and ­different fruit plants For obtaining additional information on these and more other terms concerning applied acarology, readers are advised to see references listed under both Further reading, and Electronic References (ER) at the end of this chapter © Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 M.S Dhooria, Fundamentals of Applied Acarology, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-1594-6_26 461 462 26 Glossary o­ ptically active material which exhibits birefringence in polarized light The Acariformes contain three suborders: Acaridida (Astigmata), Oribatida (Cryptostigmata) and Actinedida (Prostigmata) Acarine Disease Also known as Isle of Wight disease A disease of adult bees caused by the parasitic mite, Acarapis woodi, which enters from the tracheae and feed Mite infestation causes some debilities in bees; however, no outward signs of mite infestation in bees may be found Acarocecidium  A gall caused by gall mites (e.g Eriophyidae) Acarology  A branch of zoology dealing with the scientific study of mites and ticks Acarophily  A symbiotic relationship between plants and mites Acarophobia  Abnormal fear of mites Actinopilin  Optically active component of the core of birefringent setae in acariform mites Actinopilin may occur in true setae (typical mechanoreceptors and trichobothria) and the eupathidia and famulus Solenidia not have actinopilin Agrochemicals  The term agrochemicals includes plant nutrients like fertilizers as well as other alternate chemicals like plant growth regulators, pheromones, hormones, attractants, repellants, chemosterilants and bioorganisms Agroecosystem  An agroecosystem is basically the ecosystem of an area as modified by the practice of agriculture, horticulture or animal rearing It is composed of cultivated land, the plants contained or grown thereon and the animals associated with these plants Ambulacrum  The ambulatory appendage at the distal end of the tarsus, usually consists of a pair of lateral claws and an empodium Apotele  Terminal segment of appendages attached to the tarsus Berlese Funnel  A sampling device that uses heat to drive away small insects and mites from a sample of soil, vegetation or litter The material is placed on a coarse screen platform which has been inserted into a jar containing 70 % alcohol Over the funnel is lighted a lamp As the material dries, the insects and mites which evade the light and heat are driven away from the material in 6–8 h and are collected in the jar containing the alcohol Biodiversity  The natural diversity of living organisms, the range of types and species of plants and animals in an area This also includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystem Biological Control  The action of parasites, predators or pathogens on a host or prey population which produces a lower generation equilibrium position than would prevail in the absence of these agents Biological control has been most 26 Glossary 463 successful against pests of perennial crops especially orchards than in annual cropping systems Bursa Copulatrix  Genital pouches in females of Astigmata with a copulatory opening for accepting sperm (its opening is not genital opening) Camerostome A recess under the rostora tectum that allows retraction of the ­chelicerae and palps of oribatid mites Cannibalism  Phenomenon of feeding on other individuals of the same kind Chela  In mites distal pincer-like part of chelicerae It is composed of two jaws: the fixed jaw (distal part of the chelicerae body) and the movable jaw (the apotele) Chemical Control  The use of chemicals to kill, deter or in any way suppress pest populations The use of chemical control agents is useful as they act quickly and result in rapid reductions in pest populations But too much reliance on pesticides results in problems like pollution of water and human dwellings, delays occur in pest management attempts and development of resistance to pesticides occurs frequently Chigger  The parasitic larva of a trombiculid mite Chiggers damage by feeding as well as by serving as vectors of scrub typhus disease Claw  A hooked structure on the distal end of the pretarsus, usually paired Crook Stage  That stage of plant growth as it emerges from the soil Crop Rotation  A technique of pest control which involves the deliberate planting of specific crop sequences to make the year-to-year survival of soil-­dwelling pests difficult or impossible Crown  The point where the stem and root join in a seed plant This term is also used to describe the foliage and branches of trees Cultural Control  Manipulation of cultural practices to provide control of a pest Manipulation of cultural practices like sanitation, manuring, soil cultivation, water and humidity management, strip farming, intercropping, crop rotation and isolation, cultivation of trap crops and keeping variations in sowing date helps in disrupting the life cycle of pests thus achieving their maximum control Degree Hours or Degree Days  Degree days are also known as day degrees An accumulation of heat units above some threshold temperature for a 24-h period The units are used to estimate the total heat required to complete one generation of a mite or insect Deutogyne  A structurally different form of female of an eriophyoid mite species that is found in the winter Females of the same species in the summer (protogynes) may have been described as different species, causing taxonomic confusion 464 26 Glossary Deutonymph A developmental stage of mites; the deutonymph is the second nymphal stage; often it is the last stage before moulting to the adult Some deutonymphs can be highly modified as hypopi, allowing the mites to survive unfavourable conditions and perhaps to disperse to more favourable environments via phoresy Deutosternum  A groove or gutter-like structure on the subcapitulum in parasitiform mites, often with transverse rows of anteriorly directed denticles Dockage  Foreign material in harvested grain such as weed seeds, chaff and dusts; value depreciation of a product owing to the presence of insects, mites or other foreign material Domatia  Plant chambers produced specially to house certain arthropods, especially mites and ants Domatia may be hollow stems, swollen petioles or thorns, which are used by mites and ants either for feeding or as nest sites or both Duplex Setae  The pair of setae found on tarsus I and tarsus II, often with joint bases One of the pair is usually very long (solenidion) and the other a small tactile seta Economic Injury Level (EIL)  The lowest density of pest population that does economically significant damage The concept of EIL has marginal utility to pests of public health importance wherein the most critical factor is the presence or even the potential of a pathogen within the vector or host population Economic Threshold (ET)  The pest density at which control measures should be applied to prevent an increasing pest population from reaching the economic injury level It is sometimes also known as action threshold Exuviae  The undigested exocuticle and epicuticle of nymphs and larvae shed during ecdysis Festoons  The ornamentation in some ticks that resembles a series of loops around the margin of the body Flag Stage  Stage of growth in cereals and other grasses at which the sheath and leaf have been produced from which the head will emerge Forensic Acarology  The use of acarological information in criminal investigations Knowledge of the behaviour and development rates of carrion mites inhabiting corpses allows estimates of egg-laying time and, therefore, the time of death of the victim The police sometimes utilizes such information to investigate cases of homicides Haller’s Organ A sensory field on the tarsus of legs I of ticks that contains ­olfactory receptors along with heat and humidity receptors Hypopus Nonfeeding deutonymph in the Astigmata adapted for dispersal and resisting adverse environmental conditions They have a large ventral plate and use insects for phoretic dispersal 26 Glossary 465 Hypostome  The anterior part of the subcapitalum in parasitiform mites; a barbed piercing organ in ticks that contains retrorse teeth for attaching to the host Integrated Pest Management (IPM)  A management system that uses all the suitable techniques and methods in as compatible a manner as possible to maintain pest problems at levels below those causing economic injury Cultural methods, crop rotation, pest-resistant varieties, time of sowing or harvesting, trap crops and chemical methods are the major components (tools) of IPM Key Pests  The serious and the persistent pests which attack a crop and cause major damage every season unless controlled is regarded as key pest Larva The second instar in acariform mites having a complete ontogenetic sequence Life Cycle  Habit and changes undergone by an organism from the egg stage to its death; the sequence of events in the lifetime of an organism Life Table  A description of the age-specific survival of cohorts of individuals in relation to their age or stage of the development Life table provides age-­specific data which are ideal for use in population management Lint  Fibre surrounding the seed of unginned cotton Metastriata  Hard ticks (Ixodidae) are divided into two groups, the Metastriata and the Prostriata The metastriatid ticks have an anal groove posterior to the anus Naso  Unpaired protuberance on digital prodorsum in some acariform mites Also known as nasus Notogaster  The dorsal hysterosoma or, in a more specific sense, the shield covering the dorsolateral aspects of hysterosoma in many oribatid mites Nymphochrysalis  The protonymphal stage in the Parasitengona; a calyptostatic cuticle formed within the larval cuticle in which the deutonymph stage develops Occasional Pest  A mite species which reaches significant levels only occasionally and sporadically exceed the economic injury level Organic Farming A means of food production which discourages use of the organic fertilizers and the plant protection chemicals Pest control within organic production systems is largely based upon the cultural techniques of crop rotation, host plant resistance and various agronomic practices that are designed to improve plant health Otoacariasis  Invasion of the ear canal by mites or ticks Ovipositor  An extrusible organ for laying the eggs Female oribatid mites have a well-developed ovipositor that ends in three fingerlike projections Ovipositors are less well developed or absent in other mites 466 26 Glossary Parasitiformes  A superorder of the subclass Acari Their representatives possess one to four pairs of lateral stigmata posterior to the coxae of the second pair of legs Actinochitin is lacking in their tactile and chemosensory hairs The Parasitiformes have four suborders, of which the Gamasida (Mesostigmata) and Ixodida (Metastigmata) are of great medical and veterinary importance Location, size and other structural aspects are used in taxonomic descriptions Peritreme  Small plate perforated by spiracle opening in ticks, mites and some insects Peritreme is associated with a stigma It is either a taenidium or a closed (or partly closed) canal connected with the stigma or, a more or less, concave plate surrounding the stigma Pesticide Treadmill  The situation where the number of pesticide applications that has to be made increases year after year has been called the pesticide treadmill In some of the cases, it has led to the complete collapse of agroecosystem Phoresy  A type of migration where mites board larger animals (usually insects) and cease or otherwise alter normal behaviours (e.g feeding, reproduction, movement, etc.) until some cue elicits the departure from the animal and the resumption of normal behaviour Phoresy usually results in the dispersal of populations Phoretomorph  Forms adapted for phoresy Phytosanitation The measures requiring the removal of or destruction of the infected or infested plant material likely to form a source of reinfection or reinfestation This is done by disposal of unwanted crops and crop residues and the elimination of weeds or volunteers that can harbour pests Phytotoxemia  Also known as ‘toxicosis’ It is a group of diseases that are caused by the toxins produced by insects or mites while feeding An insect or mite whose feeding produces symptoms of disease is said to be toxicogenic and the condition is spoken of as ‘phytotoxemia’ Prelarva The first instar in acariform mites having a complete ontogenetic sequence, but absent in derived Prostigmata and Parasitiformes (except Opilioacarida); incompletely formed, without functional mouthparts, often retained within the egg shell or just extruding from it Prostriata  Ixodid ticks are divided into Prostriata and Metastriata Prostriata ticks have an anal groove anterior to the anus and enclosing the anus Protogyne  The normal feeding form, as opposed to the overwintering or aestivating form (deutogyne) in case of eriophyoid mites Protonymph  The first stage in the life cycle in which the mite or tick has four pairs of legs, coming after the larval stage in which only three pairs of legs are present (except in the Eriophyoidea) 26 Glossary 467 Pteromorph  Wing-like to shelf-like lateral extensions of the body in oribatid and tarsonemid mites Ptychoidy  The ability of some oribatid mites to withdraw the legs between two body regions like a penknife being closed or a box being closed and resulting in seedlike appearance A derived form of dichoidy Pulvillus  Cushion-like structure located ventral of and between the paired claw and forming part of the ambulacrum Quarantine Regulations designed to prevent the spread of agricultural pests through the commerce involving certain agricultural products and the restrictions of the movement of infected plant material comprise what is referred as quarantine; place where the people or animals are kept for the inspection Quiescence  State of inactivity that is induced directly by adverse environmental conditions in mites and ticks Typically normal activity is restored immediately upon a return to favourable environmental conditions Ratoon  New tillers which grow from the stubbles of harvested plants These new tillers constitute the ratoon crop Resurgence  The term resurgence is used to express a sudden increase in population number of insects or mites One type occurs when the target species which was initially suppressed by the insecticidal treatment undergoes rapid recovery after the decline of the treatment effect Resurgence can be managed by avoiding hormoligosis, by avoiding natural enemy destruction and by intelligent use of pesticides considering their physiological and ecological selectivity Retrorse Teeth Turned or bent backward; this type of teeth is found on the ­hypostome of ticks and makes it difficult to remove the tick from the host during feeding Rhagidial Organs  Recumbent solenidia in shallow depressions on the distal segments of leg I–II in Eupodoidea (Prostigmata) Rosette  A group of the leaves which are arising from a short stem and are, therefore, lying close together on or near the ground Rotation  Practice of growing different crops on the same land in a regular and recurring sequence Rotations tend to be most effective against pest species that have a narrow host range and limited rate of dispersal Rutellum  In Sarcoptiformes, the hypertrophied setae on the hypostome which are often toothed Scabies  A contagious skin disease of animals caused by parasitic mite, Sarcoptes scabiei Secondary Pest  A pest that usually does little damage but it can become a serious pest under certain conditions 468 26 Glossary Sensillum  Also known as sensilla or sensillae A sensory structure, sensilla is often used for the bothridial seta in Acariformes Silk  Substance produced by some species of spider mites, although not all; silk is important in their biology providing benefits such as protecting them from rain, predation and desiccation Solenidion  A hollow optically inactive chemosensory setae in limbs of acariform mites Spermatodactyl A structure on the chelicerae of some gamasid males that is involved in sperm transfer (podospermy) The structure of the spermatodactyl can be used to identify species Typically, podospermy involves the male taking up a bundle of sperm from the genital opening on his venter and inserting the sperm packet into a structure in the female located between legs three and four Spinneret  A structure that produces silken fibres In spider mites, the spinneret is in the form of a short seta-like structure on the palp tarsus Staggered Planting  Planting different fields in a commodity or a farm over a period of several weeks in contrast to simultaneous planting where planting of all fields is done over a period of a week or less Stigma  The opening to the tracheal system Stippling  Localized damage to foliage characterized by numerous pale dots or points where the chlorophyll has been removed by mites during feeding Stylet  A narrow, pointed structure, typically referring to a mouthpart in the Acari Stylophore  Chelicerae formed of fused cheliceral bases bearing stylet-like moveable digits as in Raphignathidae (Prostigmata), which includes the plant parasitic spider mites and their relatives (Tetranychoidea) Stylostome  A ramifying structure produced in the skin of a host by the feeding of a chigger or larval water mite Subcapitulum  Also known as infracapitulum The venter of the capitulum; the ventral faces of the fused palp coxae apparently formed independently in the two superorders of mites Surveillance  Also called scouting Refers to the constant watch on a pest for the detection of the species presence and determination of population density, dispersion and dynamics on search crop at fixed interval Tanglefoot  A sticky substance used in the traps to immobilize mites Tanglefoot is used as a barrier on leaf discs for studying development of mites and for pesticidal efficacy against mites Tectum  Any shelflike projection of the cuticle In Mesostigmata the leading dorsal edge of the basic capitulum is referred to as tectum, gnathotectum or epistome 26 Glossary 469 Tectum capituli  The tectum or epistome of Mesostigmata Tenent Hairs  Tiny hairs on the pulvilli and tarsal pads that allow some mites to cling to smooth surfaces Tegula  Lobe-like to acuminate tectum projecting posteriorly between coxae IV in Tarsonemidae Tetrapodili  An obsolete name for the Eriophyoidea Thumb–Claw Complex  A compound structure of palp in some acarines which is adapted to holding It consists of a tibial seta (the claw) and the palpal tarsus (the thumb) Tillering Stage  The development of side shoots from the base of a single-­stemmed cereal or grass plant Tolerance  The condition when the host plant may show an ability to grow and reproduce itself or to repair injury despite the presence of mite or insect population adequate to damage a normally susceptible host beyond repair Transgenic  A transgenic plant is simply a normal plant with one or more additional genes from diverse sources Application of transgenic plants through genetic engineering is the latest concept in management of insect and mite pests Trichobothria  Minute sensory hairs on the tarsi in mites and spiders, often set in a cuplike base Tritonymph  The third and final nymphal stage or instar present in Opilioacarida, Holothyrida, Argasidae and many Acariformes Tritosternum  The sternum of the third body segment (between legs I) produced as a biflagellate structure in Mesostigmata, although sometimes the flagella (lacinia) are partial or completely fused Vagrant  A mite which occasionally moves from one place to another but not with any regularity, the implication is that the movement is accidental Varroasis  Also sometimes called as ‘varroatosis’ Parasitic mite, Varroa destructor, is the major pest of honeybees; the mite reproduces mainly on the drone pupae Varroasis symptoms include the presence of pale or dark-brown mites on the white pupae, and the drone or worker brood has punctured cappings and disfigured and stunted adults Vector  A living organism (e.g insect, mite, nematode, etc.) able to carry and transmit a pathogen (virus, bacterium, fungus), thus disseminating disease Web  Network of threads spun by the spider mites Through ballooning spider mites are transported from one habitat to another 470 26 Glossary Weed  A plant growing in the wrong place where it is not desired; an aggressive, invasive, easily dispersed plant, one which commonly grows in cultivated ground to the detriment of a crop Witches’ Broom  Disease symptom with an abnormal, massed, brush-like development of many weak shoots or roots of mainly woody plants, arising at or close to the same point or resulting from the proliferation of buds, caused by mites, viruses, fungi, bacteria, nematodes, etc Wolbachia  A genus of bacteria that is a very common microbial endosymbiont of arthropods Some are associated with modifications of the sex ratio, with cytoplasmic incompatibility and with fitness costs Usually Wolbachia is found in the reproductive tracts (ovaries) and transovarially transmitted to progeny However, the effect of Wolbachia often remains unknown Further Reading Van der Hammen L (1976) Glossary of acarological terminology Boston W Junk, The Hague Electronic References (ER) http://itp.lucidcentral.org/id/mites/invasive_mite/Invasive_Mite_Identification/key/0_Glossary/ Mite_Glossary.htm Glossary of acarine terms http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/glossary.html IPM glossary http://bristoltickid.blogs.ilrt.org/introduction-3/glossary-of-morphological-features/ Glossary of morphological features of ticks .. .Fundamentals of Applied Acarology Manjit Singh Dhooria Fundamentals of Applied Acarology Manjit Singh Dhooria Department of Entomology Punjab Agricultural University... in many parts of the world The present book, Fundamentals of Applied Acarology, is written keeping in view nonavailability of any standard text dealing in different aspects of acarology at one... throughout the world The present book, Fundamentals of Applied Acarology, is written keeping in view nonavailability of any standard text dealing in different aspects of acarology at one place Separate