Master AP Chemistry 2nd Edition

Peterson’s MASTER AP CHEMISTRY 2nd Edition Brett Barker About Peterson’s, a Nelnet company Peterson’s (www.petersons.com) is a leading provider of education information and advice, with books and online resources focusing on education search, test preparation, and financial aid Its Web site offers searchable databases and interactive tools for contacting educational institutions, online practice tests and instruction, and planning tools for securing financial aid Peterson’s serves 110 million education consumers annually For more information, contact Peterson’s, 2000 Lenox Drive, Lawrenceville, NJ 08648; 800-338-3282; or find us on the World Wide Web at: www.petersons.com/about © 2007 Peterson’s, a Nelnet company Previous edition © 2005 Editor: Wallie Walker Hammond; Production Editor: Mark D Snider; Composition Manager: Gary Rozmierski; Manufacturing Manager: Ray Golaszewski ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means—graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, Web distribution, or information storage and retrieval systems—without the prior written permission of the publisher For permission to use material from this text or product, complete the Permission Request Form at http://www.petersons.com/permissions ISBN-13: 978-0-7689-2472-5 ISBN-10: 0-7689-2472-3 Printed in the United States of America 10 Second Edition 09 08 07 Petersons.com/publishing Check out our Web site at www.petersons.com/publishing to see if there is any new information regarding the tests and any revisions or corrections to the content of this book We’ve made sure the information in this book is accurate and up-to-date; however, the test format or content may have changed since the time of publication OTHER RECOMMENDED TITLES Peterson’s Peterson’s Peterson’s Peterson’s Peterson’s Master Master Master Master Master AP AP AP AP AP Calculus U.S Government & Politics English Language & Composition English Literature & Composition U.S History Contents Before You Begin xi How This Book Is Organized xi Special Study Features xii Appendix xii You’re Well on Your Way to Success xii Give Us Your Feedback xiii Top 10 Strategies to Raise Your Score xiv PART I AP CHEMISTRY BASICS All About the AP Chemistry Test Getting Started Preparing for the AP Chemistry Test Making a Study Plan What the Test Covers Getting to Know the Format of the Test How the AP Chemistry Test Is Scored Review of the AP Question Types The Answer Sheets Summing It Up 3 10 11 18 24 PART II DIAGNOSING STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES Practice Test 1: Diagnostic 29 Directions for Taking the Diagnostic Test 29 Answer Key 38 PART III AP CHEMISTRY REVIEW Problem Solving and Measurement 43 Defining Accuracy and Precision 44 Using Significant Figures 44 Reviewing Scientific Notation 47 Using Dimensional Analysis to Organize Your Work 47 Laboratory Component 49 Summing It Up 52 vi Contents Atomic Structure 53 The Historical Development of Modern Atomic Theory Modern Atomic Theory The Periodic Table of the Elements The Quantum Model of the Atom Quantum Numbers Electron Configurations Periodic Trends Exercises: Atomic Structure Answer Key and Explanations Summing It Up 53 56 58 62 67 70 75 82 84 87 Nuclear Chemistry 89 The Discovery of Radioactivity Rutherford Discovers Different Types of Radiation Different Types of Radioactive Emissions Radioactive Decay Half-Life Nuclear Reactions Exercises: Nuclear Chemistry Answer Key and Explanations Summing It Up 89 90 90 93 94 101 103 106 109 Chemical Bonding 111 Lewis Symbols 112 Octet Rule 113 Ionic Bonds 114 Covalent Bonds 116 Using Lewis Structures to Determine Molecular Bonding 117 Resonance Structures 119 Intermolecular Forces 121 Exercises: Chemical Bonding 123 Answer Key and Explanations 125 Summing It Up 126 Molecular Geometry 127 VSEPR Theory 127 Molecular Geometry 130 Dipole Moments 134 Valence Bond Theory 137 Sigma and Pi Bonds 141 Molecular Orbital Theory 142 Exercises: Molecular Geometry 145 Answer Key and Explanations 147 Summing It Up 149 www.petersons.com Contents vii States of Matter—Gases 151 Units of Measure The Gas Laws The Ideal Gas Law Gas Density Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures Kinetic-Molecular Theory Graham’s Law of Effusion Deviations from the Ideal Gas Laws Exercises: States of Matter—Gases Answer Key and Explanations Summing It Up 151 153 156 157 159 161 164 166 169 172 176 States of Matter—Liquids and Solids 177 General Characteristics of Gases, Liquids, and Solids 177 Energy and Phase Changes 178 Heating Curves 179 Vapor Pressure 182 Phase Diagrams 186 The Solid State 188 Exercises: States of Matter—Liquids and Solids 191 Answer Key and Explanations 194 Summing It Up 196 10 Solutions 197 Measuring Concentration 198 Solvation 200 Colligative Properties 203 Exercises: Solutions 212 Answer Key and Explanations 216 Summing It Up 221 11 Reaction Types 223 Nomenclature 223 Molecular Compounds 232 Chemical Equations 235 Major Reaction Types 241 Ionic Equations 246 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 249 Summary of the Main Reaction Types 257 Exercises: Reaction Types 263 Answers and Explanations 264 Summing It Up 266 www.petersons.com viii Contents 12 Stoichiometry 267 The Mole Determining Chemical Formulas Calculations in Chemical Reactions Limiting Reactants Exercises: Stoichiometry Answer Key and Explanations Summing It Up 267 272 275 279 281 284 289 13 Equilibrium 291 The Equilibrium Constant 292 The Equilibrium Constant, Kc 292 The Equilibrium Constant, Kp 293 The Relationship Between Kc and Kp 294 The Reaction Quotient 296 Solving Problems When Not All Equilibrium Concentrations Are Known 297 Le Châtelier’s Principle 302 Exercises: Equilibrium 305 Answer Key and Explanations 309 Summing It Up 314 14 Acids and Bases 315 Definitions of Acids and Bases 315 The pH Concept 320 Weak Acids and Bases 324 Salt Solutions 327 The Relationship Between Ka and Kb 328 The Common-Ion Effect 329 Buffers 332 Acid-Base Titrations 337 Exercises: Acids and Bases 340 Answer Key and Explanations 343 Summing It Up 350 15 Additional Equilibrium Concepts 353 The Solubility-Product Constant, Ksp 354 Solubility 354 The Ion Product 356 Factors That Affect Solubility 358 The Common-Ion Effect 358 The Effect of pH on Solubility 359 Complex Ions 361 Miscellaneous Topics 362 Coordination Complexes 363 Nomenclature of Coordination Complexes 364 www.petersons.com Contents ix 16 Kinetics 379 Reaction Rate 380 Using Concentrations to Describe Rate 381 Units and Rate Constants 386 Determining Rate Laws 387 Reaction Types 389 Half-Life 391 The Relationship Between Temperature and Rate 392 Reaction Mechanisms 395 Rate-Determining Steps and Rate Laws 397 The Effect of Catalysts on Reaction Rate 399 Exercises: Kinetics 401 Answer Key and Explanations 405 Summing It Up 410 17 Thermodynamics 411 The First Law of Thermodynamics 412 Enthalpy 413 Thermochemical Equations 413 Hess’s Law 417 Spontaneity 418 Entropy 419 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 419 Gibbs Free Energy 421 Exercises: Thermodynamics 425 Answer Key and Explanations 428 Summing It Up 432 18 Electrochemistry 433 Oxidation and Reduction 433 Voltaic Cells 434 The Relationship Between emf and Free Energy 439 The Nernst Equation 440 Electrolysis 441 Faraday’s Laws 444 Exercises: Electrochemistry 448 Answer Key and Explanations 451 Summing It Up 457 www.petersons.com Exercises: Additional Equilibrium Concepts 367 Answer Key and Explanations 370 Summing It Up 378 x Contents 19 Organic Chemistry 459 Alkanes Isomers Unsaturated Hydrocarbons Functional Groups Summing It Up 459 464 465 468 472 PART IV TWO PRACTICE TESTS Practice Test 477 Section I 477 Section II Reference Information 488 Section II 494 Answer Key and Explanations 499 Practice Test 521 Section I 521 Section II Reference Information 532 Section II 538 Answer Key and Explanations 542 APPENDIX College-by-College Guide to AP Credit and Placement 567 www.petersons.com 596 APPENDIX Credits Granted Required Score University of Maryland, College Park—continued CHEM 131/132 & CHEM 271 University of Mary Washington (VA) CHEM 0105 4 CHEM 0111 CHEM 0111 & CHEM 0112 4 CHM 111 & CHM 113 CHM 111, 112, 113, & 114 CHEM 125/126 & CHEM 130 hours for Chemistry 130 and hours for Chemistry 125(1)/126(1) if placed into Chem 210, 211 by taking placement test during orientation For College of Literature, Science, & the Arts CHEM 125/126 & CHEM 130 No credit if not placed into Chem 210 and 211 by taking placement test during orientation For College of Literature, Science, & the Arts CHEM 130 For College of Engineering 4–5 CHEM 125/126 & CHEM 130 All students with an AP score of or are eligible to elect Chem 210 and 211 For College of Literature, Science, & the Arts 5 CHEM 125/126 & CHEM 130 For College of Engineering School Name University of Miami (FL) University of Michigan (MI) University of Michigan– Dearborn (MI) www.petersons.com 3–5 Course Waived CHEM 144 or CHEM 134 Stipulations CHEM fulfills a major requirement in all Life Sciences; it also fulfills a CORE-Lab (Physical) Science requirement College-by-College Guide to AP Credit and Placement 597 Credits Granted CHEM 1101 4–5 CHEM 1101 & CHEM 1102 3–5 CHEM 1021 & CHEM 1022 CHEM 1310 & CHEM 1320 4–5 CHEM 1310, 1320, 1330 University of Missouri– Kansas City (MO) 3–5 10 CHEM 211 & 211L & 212R & 212LR University of Missouri– Rolla (MO) CHEM CHEM & CHEM 5 CHEM 3–5 CHEM 109 & CHEM 110 3 CHEM 132 4–5 CHEM 144 CHEM 101 & CHEM101L CHEM 101, 101L, 102,102L CHEM 101 Lab School Name University of Minnesota, Morris (MN) University of Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus (MN) University of Missouri– Columbia (MO) University of Nebraska– Lincoln (NE) The University of North Carolina at Asheville (NC) The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (NC) The University of North Carolina Wilmington (NC) Course Waived Stipulations Fulfills physical science/lab requirement Does not fulfill environmental theme www.petersons.com Required Score 598 APPENDIX The University of North Carolina Wilmington— continued University of North Florida (FL) University of Notre Dame (IN) University of Oklahoma (OK) University of Pennsylvania (PA) University of Pittsburgh (PA) Credits Granted School Name Required Score 4–5 CHEM 101 Lab & CHEM 102 Lab CHEM 1020C 4 CHEM 2045C CHEM 2045C & CHEM 2046C CHEM 10101 CHEM 10117 & CHEM 10118 Course Waived 4–5 CHEM 1315 & CHEM 1415 CHEM 091 3–4 CHEM 0110 CHEM 0110 & CHEM 0120 University of Puget Sound (WA) 4–5 University of Redlands (CA) 3–5 University of Rhode Island (RI) 3–5 CHEM 101/102 & CHEM 112/114 University of Richmond (VA) 4–5 CHEM 141 University of Rochester (NY) 4–5 CHM 131 www.petersons.com Stipulations No AP credit is given for laboratory work CHM 110 & CHM 111 Eligible to apply for CHM 171Q (Organic Chemistry) Placement in CHM 132 in the spring Students taking 131 will forfeit AP credit College-by-College Guide to AP Credit and Placement 599 Credits Granted Course Waived Stipulations 3–5 CHEM 100 A score of or higher may CHEM 100, depending on laboratory experience, at the discretion of the chair of the department 4–5 CHEM 111 A score of or higher may CHEM 111, depending on laboratory experience, at the discretion of the chair of the department University of St Thomas (TX) 3–5 CHEM 1341 & CHEM 1342 University of San Diego (CA) 3–5 The University of Scranton (PA) 4–5 University of St Thomas (MN) University of South Carolina (SC) University of Southern California (CA) The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga (TN) The University of Texas at Austin (TX) The University of Texas at Dallas (TX) 3–6 CHM 111 & CHM 111L 4–5 CHM 111/111L & CHM112/ 112L 3–5 4 CHEM 121 & CHEM 123 4–5 CHEM 121, 123, 122, & 124 CH 301, 302, CR CH 301, 302, A 3 SCH free electives CHEM 1311 Lab CHEM 1311/1312 Lab www.petersons.com School Name Required Score 600 APPENDIX Credits Granted Required Score Course Waived 4–5 CHEM 25 4–5 CHEM 1013 & CHEM 1023 University of Utah (UT) 3–5 Science IE Placement by Department University of Virginia (VA) 4–5 CHEM 141 & CHEM 142 No laboratory credit given 10 CHEM 142 & CHEM 152 16 CHEM 142, 152 & 162 Elective credit 4–5 CHEM 103 3 Chemistry Electives 4–5 CHEM 103 University of Wisconsin– River Falls (WI) 3–5 CHEM 121 Ursinus College (PA) 4–5 CHEM 121 4–5 CHEM 121 & CHEM 122 School Name University of the Pacific (CA) University of the Sciences in Philadelphia (PA) 4–5 University of Tulsa (OK) University of Washington (WA) University of Wisconsin–La Crosse (WI) University of Wisconsin– Madison (WI) Valparaiso University (IN) Vanderbilt University (TN) www.petersons.com Stipulations General chemistry for science and engineering majors Counts toward Natural World general education requirement for graduation CHEM 142 also satisfies Quantitative and Symbolic Reasoning graduation requirement Students who intend to continue in Chemistry should take CHEM 122 in the first semester at UWRF Permits entry into Chemistry 218a College-by-College Guide to AP Credit and Placement 601 Vassar College (NY) Villanova University (PA) Credits Granted Vanderbilt University— continued CHEM 102a, 102b, & CHEM 104a, 104b Course Waived 4–5 Virginia Military Institute (VA) 3–5 CH 137 & CH 138 w/labs Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (VA) 4–5 CHEM 1035, 1045, 1036, & 1046 Wabash College (IN) 4–5 Wagner College (NY) 4–5 Wake Forest University (NC) 4–5 Wartburg College (IA) Washington & Jefferson College (PA) Washington and Lee University (VA) Washington College (MD) Washington University in St Louis (MO) Stipulations Chemistry majors must take first-year chemistry; all others will receive credit depending upon score and curriculum Advanced Placement credits earned in Biology, Chemistry, or Physics will NOT fulfill the college laboratory science distribution requirement CHM 111 & CHM 111L CH 113 With recommendation to audit CH 113 4–5 CH 113 With no recommendation to audit 4–5 4 CHEM 100 CHEM 100 & CHEM 15CN 4–5 CHE 101 & CHE 102 Elective credit www.petersons.com School Name Required Score 602 APPENDIX Washington University in St Louis—continued Credits Granted School Name Required Score 10 Wellesley College (MA) 4–5 Wells College (NY) 4–5 Wesleyan College (GA) 4–5 Wesleyan University (CT) Western Washington University (WA) Westminster College (UT) CHEM 111A, 112A, 151, & 152 Stipulations Students are permitted to place into Chem 251 However, students who intend to major in chemistry may find it useful to take the entire general chemistry sequence in preparation for advanced coursework CHEM 105 & 205 or CHEM 120 Students can receive 1.00 credit by either: a) completing CHEM 144 with a minimum grade of B, or b) completing a full year of Organic Chemistry (251 & 252) with a minimum grade of B Students can receive 2.00 credits by completing a full year of Organic Chemistry (251 & 252) with a minimum grade of B No credit will be granted if a student completes any of the following courses: CHEM 141, 142, 143, or 144 3–5 10 CHEM 121 & CHEM 122 CHEM 100T 4–5 CHEM 111 & CHEM 112 Westmont College (CA) 4–5 Wheaton College (IL) 3–5 Wheaton College (MA) 4–5 www.petersons.com Course Waived College-by-College Guide to AP Credit and Placement 603 Credits Granted Course Waived Whitman College (WA) 4–5 CHEM 125 AP credit does not cover chemistry laboratory courses Students must have completed and passed Chemistry 135, or an equivalent college chemistry course, in order to enroll in Chemistry 136 Whitworth College (WA) 3–4 CH 161 In Chemistry, documentation of lab experience required for 4th credit CH 161 & CH 281 In Chemistry, documentation of lab experience required for 4th credit CHEM 115 These course credits not satisfy Mode of Inquiry general requirements School Name Willamette University (OR) 4–5 William Jewell College (MO) 4–5 Williams College (MA) 3–5 Winona State University (MN) 3–5 Wittenberg University (OH) 4–5 Wofford College (SC) 4–5 Worcester Polytechnic Institute (MA) 4–5 Xavier University (OH) Stipulations CHE 121 Dept Assigns Placement and major course credit depend on department exam results and consultation with the department CHEM 123 & CHEM 124 Chemistry majors must validate this score by passing a test administered by the chemistry department Students who pass the advanced placement test in Biology, Chemistry, or Physics B with a “4 or 5” will be awarded 1/3 unit of advanced placement credit This credit will show on the transcript as “L” 3 CHEM 160 Those taking CHEM 161 (lab) must audit CHEM 160 CHEM 160 & CHEM 161 & CHEM 162 Those taking CHEM 163 (lab) must audit CHEM 162 www.petersons.com Required Score 604 APPENDIX Credits Granted Required Score Xavier University—continued Yale University (CT) School Name www.petersons.com Course Waived CHEM 160/161 & CHEM 162/163 Stipulations NOTES NOTES NOTES NOTES Peterson’s Book Satisfaction Survey Give Us Your Feedback Thank you for choosing Peterson’s as your source for personalized 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