Information and Communication Technology ICT

Module – Concepts of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) This module of the Computer Driving Licence syllabus focuses on the major concepts of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and the various parts of the computer Candidates for the licence will be expected to:        Understand what hardware is, including peripheral devices, and know the factors which affect computer performance Know what software is, including operating system software, and give examples of common software applications Understand how computer information networks are used and what different options exist to connect to the Internet Know what Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is and provide examples of its application in society Be aware of the environmental and health and safety issues related to the use of computers Recognize important security issues associated with using computers Be aware of important legal issues related to copyright and data protection 1 HARDWARE 1.1.1 Concepts 1.1.1.1 Computer hardware is the physical material related to a computer such as monitors, printers, keyboards and other parts If you can touch it, it's hardware 1.1.1.2 A personal computer is a general-use computer designed to be used by one person at a time Various types of personal computers include:  Desktops are non-mobile computers designed to be used in one location They work with externally attached monitors and keyboards Desktops are used in home and workplace offices and other locations While they vary in size a desktop computer can be the size of a suitcase or a small box  Laptops, also known as notebooks, are portable personal computers which include their own built-in monitors, keyboards and pointing devices such as a mouse or touchpad They are used by people who need to transport their computer to various locations Modern laptop computers are about the size of a notebook and normally weigh between two and five pounds However the computer industry is constantly learning how to produce smaller and lighter laptops so other categories, such as sublaptops, are being produced  Tablets are mobile computers which, instead of using a keyboard or mouse, use a touchscreen (which can be activated by a finger tip) or a screen which allows the use of a stylus or digital pen They are often used by delivery people or warehouse stock-takers who would find even a laptop too heavy for their work 1.1.1.3 Personal digital devices (PDAs), sometimes known as palmtops, are handheld computers which use touchscreens or small keyboards Some PDAs can access the Internet for emailing and browsing the World Wide Web PDAs which can act as mobile phones and text messagers plus use the Internet are known as smartphones PDAs which can use many different media such as the Internet, music files and act as radios or Global Positioning Systems are known as multimedia PDAs 1.1.1.4 Knowing the major parts of a personal computer is essential to purchasing one and using it efficiently and safely The major components are:  The central processing unit (CPU) executes and controls the operation of the computer's programs It is a microprocessor which operates the arithmetic, logic and control operations of the computer In personal or laptop computers it usually consists of a semiconductor chip made of silicon  Computer Memory consists of two types: volatile and non-volatile Volatile memory such as random access memory (RAM) needs a power supply in order to maintain the information stored in it Non-volatile memory such as Read Only Memory does not Turning off the computer will remove all the information that has been temporarily held in RAM, which is why it is important to periodically save the information to the computer's hard disk  Hard disk drives are pieces of computer hardware which are used to store data For example, data initially entered into the computer's RAM memory (which disappears when the computer is turned off) would be put on to the hard disk for more permanent storage Hard disks are typically referred to by their size which currently may range from 120 gigabytes to terabyte (both of which are measurements of lots of computer space which will be explained below) Another characteristic of hard disks referred to is their transfer rate which refers to how fast data can be transferred from the disk to RAM memory and back Normally the hard disks of laptop computers are smaller and slower than those used in the larger desk top computers The purchase price of computers varies according to how much memory and hard disk space are installed in the computers: more RAM and bigger hard disks cost more  Input and output devices are pieces of computer hardware which allow data to be entered into the computer and then taken out Input devices include keyboards, scanners, bar code readers, microphones, fingerprint scanners, web cameras, joysticks, gamepads and pointing devices such as a mouse or digital light pen Output devices include printers, monitors and speakers Some devices, such as touchscreens, are both input and output devices All the devices mentioned above are examples of computer peripherals which is computer equipment that is attached to the computer 1.1.1.5 Ports are entry and exit points for computer data USB (Universal Serial Bus) ports were designed to provide a standard single socket to which many peripherals, such as a mouse or a printer, could be connected A common use for a USB port is to connect flash drives (sometimes referred to as memory sticks) which act almost like hard disks to store information USB ports were partly designed in order to replace serial ports (which were used to attach devices such a modems that communicated with data networks) and parallel ports (which provided connections to printers) Network ports allow the computer to be connected to a local area network (which are collections of computers which share peripherals such as printers and data storage devices) Firewire ports and cables are computer connection devices which work much faster than USB They are especially popular in professional audio- visual setups, but since they are more expensive USB remains dominant 1.1.2 Computer performance 1.1.2.1 A number of factors affect the performance of a personal computer including the speed of the computer's CPU, the amount of RAM it has, the graphics card installed in it, and the number of applications that it is operating simultaneously The faster the speed of the CPU the faster the computer can process data And the more RAM it has the faster it can work because it has more memory space to hold data and parts of programs A graphics card has a separate microprocessor and its own memory so it can handle the graphics being worked with thereby freeing up the CPU to focus on other operations Finally, the more programs or other applications the computer has to contend with the slower the computer works A CPU which has to work with just one program such as a word processor will be able to concentrate all its power on that one program If it has to use its capabilities to handle more programs then its overall speed slows down 1.1.2.2 The speed of the computer's CPU is determined by the number of cycles per second the CPU takes to perform operations, such as adding two numbers Personal computer speeds are measured in units of megahertz and gigahertz A megahertz (MHz) CPU can accomplish one million CPU cycles in one second A gigahertz (GHz) CPU can one billion cycles in a second Normally a MHz CPU would be faster than a Mhz CPU but other factors may have to be considered such as the amount of work being performed by the CPU or the size of its cache (which is an area where recently processed data is held for quicker retrieval) Bigger cache space can significantly affect the speed of a computer The price of a personal computer increases with higher CPU speeds and larger caches 1.1.3 Memory and storage 1.1.3.1 More RAM (Random Access Memory) can significantly improve a computer's performance RAM is used by the computer to temporarily store parts of programs and the data they work with Data can be accessed faster from RAM than a hard disk because RAM is electronic memory and does not depend on the movement of physical equipment such as the parts of a hard disk More RAM can allow the computer to handle more data and programs faster Often the way to improve the performance of a computer is to add more RAM With desktop computers this can be accomplished by installing more memory chips – something which is much more difficult to with a laptop RAM is used to temporarily store data and parts of programs while the computer is on The computer needs to be plugged in and turned on for the RAM to be accessible In contrast ROM (Read Only Memory) does not need the power supply of the computer to be on It is used to provide the initial start-up instructions which tell the computer how to begin its operations 1.1.3.2 The storage capacity of computers is measured with the following units They are used to measure both memory (such as RAM) and storage space such as found on hard disks  Bits Personal computers are digital computers because they work with two digits: 0s and 1s A zero or a one is a bit  Bytes A combination of bits is a byte (pronounced bite) A byte of memory space can hold one alphanumeric character (a letter or a number)  Kilobytes (KB) A kilobyte is 1,024 bytes (usually rounded off to simply 1,000) A kilobyte of space will hold about 128 alphanumeric characters – about the size of this whole sentence including the spaces  Megabytes (MB) A megabyte is thousand kilobytes The now increasingly obsolete 3.5 inch floppy disks could hold about 1.5 megabytes of information A megabyte of storage space will hold about 1,000 copies of the first two sentences of this paragraph  Gigabytes (GB) A gigabyte is billion megabytes It is the unit most often used when considering the memory and hard disk space of current personal computers, for example: 4GB of RAM and a 500 GB hard disk  Terabytes A terabyte is 1,000 gigabytes – the equivalent of trillion bytes Hard disks of one terabyte are now available In 2008 Cisco, the computer network hardware manufacturer, estimated that the Internet transferred about 160 terabytes per second 1.1.3.3 Storage media for personal computers include:  Internal hard disks A hard disk is a rigid magnetic disk fixed permanently within a computer drive unit A hard disk drive positions a relatively fixed arm (referred to as a `head`) to read and write data from the disk The hard disk is rather like a collection of stacked phonograph records which have sections on them called ``tracks`` where the data is stored electronically  External hard disks External hard disks are units which are outside the main box of the computer They are often used to backup (make a copy) of the data which is on the internal hard disk of the computer The connections from the external hard disk to the computer can be made with either a USB or Firewire port  Network drives Local area networks (collections of computers sharing devices) often have storage areas referred to as network drives These are usually on separate computers which can be organized into many different virtual drives On the list of drives found on the personal computer the network drive will be designated as a letter such as E: or F: Many of the Driving licence tests require the candidate to save the results of the test on a particular drive  CDs A compact disk (CD) is an optical disk which can store the digital data The data is held as a series of tiny indentations on the disk called ``pits`` A laser beam reads the pits and the spaces between them to determine the Os and 1s which make up the data A standard CD will hold about 700MB of data – approximately 80 minutes of audio Various types of CD include: CD-ROMS (the disk can be read but not written upon), CDR (data can be read but also written to the disk once), CD-RW (data can be written to the disk many times) CDs are sturdier storage media than floppy disks but are still susceptible to damage from daily use – especially scratches - because the pits are so close to the surface  DVDs – A Digital Video Disc (DVD) is about the same size as a CD but can hold about six times more data This makes it especially suitable for storing movies, which take up a lot of space As with CDs there are various types of DVDs A DVD-ROM has data that can be read but it cannot be written to DVD-R and DVD+R can record data once DVDRW, DVD+RW and DVD-RAM can both record and erase data many times New generation DVDs are being developed, such as the Blu-ray (named after the colour of its laser beam), which can store about 50 gigabytes  USB flash drives Flash memory is a particular type of non-volatile memory (which means it doesn`t need a power source) A USB flash drive is a device with a USB port connector and flash memory held on a printed circuit board encased in plastic The name ``drive`` is a hold over from older hard disk drive technology - nothing in the flash drive actually moves Current flash drives weigh less than an ounce and typically store between 64MG and 64 GB of data  Memory cards Typical memory cards use flash memory and are used with digital cameras, personal digital assistants, handheld and mobile computers, telephones, music players, video game consoles and other electronic equipment  Online file storage There are many companies on the Internet which will store computer data for a fee They allow PC users to back up their files either via the World Wide Web or via a communications system using File Transfer Protocol (FTP) They can be set up to work with a single user or many 1.1.4 Input, output devices A personal computer is based on three operations: entering the data (inputting), processing it, and presenting the processed data in some way (called outputting) 1.1.4.1 Input devices The inputting devices most often used by personal computers include:  Keyboards A keyboard is a set of keys which has numbers and letters (alphanumeric characters) which can be entered into the memory of the computer The particular keys and their arrangement on the keyboard vary according to the primary language chosen for the computer For example, a popular English-language keyboard is the QWERTY which is named for the first six letters on the first letter row of the keyboard What the keys and their arrangement can be re-set with the computer`s software  Mouse A computer mouse is a handheld device which moves a cursor around the coordinates of the computer`s display Some have balls which roll under the device to indicate where the cursor should be placed Others use laser light instead of balls  Trackballs Many laptops use trackballs which are balls built into the computer's keyboard which, when rolled, move the cursor around the screen  Scanners A scanner is a device that optically scans images, printed text, handwriting, or an object, and converts it to a digital image This allows images and text to be brought into the computer`s software and manipulated  Touchpads A touchpad is a pointing device consisting of a specialized surface which users touch with their fingers in order to move the cursor around the computer`s screen They are a common feature of laptop computers and are often used as a substitute for a mouse when desk space is limited They are commonly found on personal digital assistants (PDAs)  Microphones A microphone is an instrument that converts sound into electricity in order to transmit the sound or send it to a recording device (as in radio, TV or tape recording) Microphones are used with personal computers to place telephone calls over the Internet or in combination with web cams  Web cams A web cam is a camera which takes digital pictures or video in order to transmit over the Internet Used in combination with a microphone they allow computer users to communicate using both voice and live video over the World Wide Web  Digital cameras are cameras which take digitally-encoded images that can then be displayed and manipulated by the computer's software  Joystick A joystick is a manual handle which can be moved or angled in many directions in order to convey information to a computer program They are often used with video games 1.1.4.2 Outputting devices The main outputting devices used by a personal computer are:  Monitors/screens A visual display unit (VDU), more commonly known as a monitor or screen, is a piece of electrical equipment which temporarily displays images generated by the video output of computers Older computers used bulky cathode ray tubes (CRTs) but more modern computers use LCD displays which are lighter and use less electricity  Printers A printer is machine which takes documents (text or graphics) stored in electronic form and produces a hard copy on physical print media such as paper On older computers they were attached to the computer with serial cables More modern computers connect to the printer with a USB port  Headphones Headphones are small speakers which can be placed on or in a user's ear in order to hear sound from a computer, radio, CD player or portable media players such as the iPod Headphones are also known as earphones, earbuds, stereosets or headsets They are especially popular with computer users who place telephone calls over the Internet or use Web Cams to communicate with both sound and video 1.1.4.3 Combined input/output devices Some computer peripherals can be used as both input and output equipment A touchscreen, for example, allows the user to input data by touching the screen and then responds by presenting data 1.2 SOFTWARE 1.2.1 Concepts Candidates for the computing driving licence are expected to understand basic concepts of personal computers such as software, operating systems, various applications, and accessibility 1.2.1.1 Software Computer software is a general term used to describe the computer programs and their inner coding which tell a computer how to perform operations It can be divided into three major categories: system software (such as programs called “drivers” which tell the computer how to work with a particular program), programming software such as tools to help programmers create computer programs and application software which perform particular tasks such wordprocessing or graphics Software often works on top of the computer's operating system 1.2.1.2 Operating systems An operating system (often referred to as an OS or O/S) is software specialized in coordinating the operations of a computer and the sharing of its resources amongst the programs which run on it It acts as the base program for programs by defining how they can work with the computer's devices, such as hard disks, printers, monitors and keyboards Almost all computers use operating systems The operating systems available for personal computers include Microsoft Windows (in its various versions such as XP and Vista), Solaris, OS 10 for Macintosh computers and the open source OS called Linux (including its distributions such as GNOME and Ubuntu), Windows is predominate on personal computers, though this is changing as laptops and other computers take advantage of the free-of-charge and programming adaptabilty of Linux Larger computers such as network servers generally run Linux or a variation of its predecessor Unix Linux is sometimes referred to as GNU/Linux to recognize the fact that it uses many parts of a previous program called GNU Linux is pronounced in English as lynne-uks not lie-nuks The growth in Linux use has been hampered by the amount of application software that is available for it However, more software such as the OpenOffice.org suite of programs is being written for it 1.2.1.3 Application software Software written to perform a specific task is known as application software Some examples:       Wordprocessing programs are used to create, edit, format and print documents of text and sometimes graphics OpenOffice.org has a wordprocessing component called Writer Spreadsheets are programs which allow the user to manipulate and display numbers in many ways The spreadsheet module of OpenOffice.org is called Calc, Databases are collections of data which are entered into a computer program in structured ways and which allow for various reports on the data Databases are made up of fields (individual units of information such as lastname) and records (collections of fields) on one entity such as an individual The most common type of database is relational which ties together a number of records and produces reports using the data in all the records OpenOffice.org has database module called Base Presentation programs are computer programs which are used to display information, usually on a wall-screen Users can enter data into them, format the data, add graphics and then run slide shows of the information The presentation program in OpenOffice.org is called Impress E-mail is a system for transferring electronic messages from one computer to another, usually via an office network or the Internet An email refers to one message To email means to send a person an electronic message The most popular open source email program is Thunderbird Web browers are programs which enable users to display and interact with text, images, videos, music, games and other information located on a web page at a web site on the World Wide Web or a local area network Browsers allow users to follow the links which are embedded in some web pages that point to other web pages They interpret files written in a document markup language called HTML which determines how the text, images and other elements are displayed Individual browser may display   pages differently The most popular open source web browser is Firefox Photoediting programs are computer programs which allow users to manipulate pictures Typical uses include removing unwanted features, changing colours, creating graphics and logos, or resizing and cropping photos Some programs include options for editing animations or videos A popular open source photoediting program is GIMP Computer games allow users to interact with computer programs in entertaining ways They often use joysticks as well a mouse and keyboard 1.2.1.4 Operating systems vs application software To summarize: operating systems are programs which manage and coordinate the operation of computers and their peripherals Software applications are programs designed for particular purposes such as word processing or photoediting The open source equivalent to the Windows operating system is Linux While most software available today is written for Windows more and more application programs are being developed for Linux 1.2.1.5 Accessibility in relation to computers refers to the accessibility of the computer system to all people regardless of any disability they may have Disabilities may include understanding and learning disabilities, visual impairment such as blindness or colour blindness, deafness and dexterity impairment such as paralysis and carpal tunnel syndrome Assistive technology is the use of hardware and software to enable the use of the computer by a person with a disability or impairment Accessibility options include:    Voice recognition software converts speech into computer readable input, such as keypresses or digital signals One example is a system which allows users to tell computer programs to perform operations such opening and saving files Another example is voice dialing (“call the office”) used by many modern cellphones Screen readers are computer programs which identify and interpret what is being or could be displayed on the monitor and then present it in a variety of accessible ways such as text-tospeech or Braille output devices Screen magnifiers are programs which magnify all or part of anything that is displayed on a monitor Some of these programs also provide the option to send an interpretation of what's on the screen to the computer's speakers 10    used to increase transfer rates over telephone lines and are faster than regular modems Mobile phones Cellular phone networks can be used to provide cell phones and computers with Internet services As the networks move to third generation (3G) speeds even faster connections to the Internet will be provided Cable Coaxial cable, used by TV cable companies, can also be used to provide Internet connections Increasingly, both TV cable companies and telephone companies are using combinations of coaxial cable and fibre optic cables to provide higher broadband rates Wireless Wireless Area Networks (WLANs) are becoming more widespread for the provision of Internet services They are often used by stores, airports or cafés to provide “hotspots” where computers, usually laptops, can gain access to the Internet In some countries such, as the United States and France, people refer to hotpoints as Wi-Fi – however the term Wi-Fi really refers to the certification of the Internet-providing equipment Some equipment in hotpoints may work correctly for Internet services but are not certified by the Wi-Fi alliance which is a consortium of industries In homes companies, such as cable TV and telephone companies, will instill routers which are pieces of equipment which transfer Internet signals and make them available throughout the home but not much further Satellites are also used to provide high broadband Internet services, especially in areas which not have terresterial access or for locations that move frequently such as ships The service is provided via satellite dishes attached to the home or other location 1.3.2.5 Broadband characteristics Broadband internet services have certain characteristics which need to be understood by the Computer Driving candidate    They are always on There is no need to call-up a service such as is the case with dial-up modems They are usually charged by a flat fee, though this can increase accordingly if large rates of data are transmitted Telephone and cable TV companies offer packages which provide their basic services plus Internet connection They are faster than dial-up modem connections A broadband network can provide transmission speeds of 58 mbps and higher However, the actual speed to a subscriber may be lower 14 depending on how many users are connected to the Internet by their ISP in their neighbourhood or other location  Wireless broadband connections in the home or workplace are subject to intrusion by other people picking up the signal and either using it for Internet service or entering the computer of the subscriber Security settings including the use of usernames and passwords can lower the risk of unauthorized access to wireless networks 1.4 ICT in Everyday Life The use of Information Communication Technology (ICT) varies from country top country depending on their level of economic development and committment to adapting their societies to take advantage of new technologies However the candidate for the Driving licence should understand some of the basic concepts, applications and issues 1.4.1 The Electronic World Especially since the introduction of the personal computers into homes and workplaces in the early 1980s societies – especially in developed countries – have been profoundly affected by Information and Communication Technology (ICT) The candidate for the Computer Driving licence is expected to understand the major applications of ICT in society 1.4.1.1 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is a general term used to refer to the use of computers, computer communication networks and any communication device such as radio, television, cellular phones, and satellite systems as well as the services and applications associated with these technologies such as e-commerce (ICT used for online business applications) and distance education It consists of the hardware, software, computer networks, and media for the collection, storage, processing, transmission and presentation of information (in the form of voice, data, text, images), as well as related services 1.4.1.2 Internet-based services for consumers With the increased use of ICT recently, especially the increase in Internet usage, many new services for consumers have developed, including:  E-commerce (electronic commerce) is the buying and selling of goods and services with the use of computer networks, especially the Internet It involves online buying of goods via Web sites, electronic funds transfer, online banking, inventory management systems, electronic data exchange between companies and organizations (to replace activities such as paper-based invoicing and payment systems), online transaction processing and supply chain management It also takes advantage of email E-commerce depends on fast, reliable computer communication systems, and in the case of online buying and selling, credit cards For 15   these reasons developing countries without the infrastructure or wide-use of bank accounts and credit cards may currently be disadvantaged when applying e-commerce which could lead to a widening of the digital gap between developed and developing countries E-banking is the use of ICT for the remote delivery of new and traditional banking products and services via computer communications With ebanking a customer may perform banking transactions electronically without visiting a physical bank location Examples include the use of cash machines, bank account management via the Internet and electronic bill paying E-government is the application of ICT to how countries are governed It involves activities such as providing citizen access to government databases of information, online tax paying and electronic voting The term also refers to governments such as state and city administrations using ICT to plan and implement their programmes 1.4.1.3 E-Learning is the delivery of educational services and learning with the use of computers and computer communications, especially the Internet It is a type of distance education (which can also refer to more traditional educational programmes such as those based on the postal system) The term covers a wide range of multi-media applications and processes, such as Web-based learning, computer-based learning, virtual classrooms, and digital collaboration It includes the delivery of content via the Internet, intranet/extranet (LAN/WAN), audio- and videotape, satellite broadcast, interactive TV, CD-ROM, and more The great advantage of e-learning is that it allows learners to participate in educational activities from home or office and often at times of their own choosing E-learning can also be very cost effective because it does not extensively use physical locations such as classrooms As well, access to specialized teachers is made easier because they can instruct learners geographically dispersed around a city, country or even the world There are now many e-learning opportunities on the Internet ranging from skills-training (such as using computer programs) to degree-granting programmes leading all the way up to a doctorate 1.4.1.4 Teleworking is the term used for people who work away from the office, often from home, but also while travelling for the employer A teleworker is usually connected to the workplace through email, the Internet and/or an intranet (a private company network) but technologies such as fax machines , telephones and possibly videoconferencing are also used Teleworking has a number of advantages for the employee such as little or no commuting to the office, flexible schedules, and the potential to focus on tasks without the distractions found in most offices There are also advantages for the employer including reduced space requirements for employees and access to a wider range of skills as workers can be hired from any location in the world that has appropriate telecommunication capabilities 16 However there are disadvantages to teleworking For the employee absence from the workplace may reduce opportunities for advancement Flexible working hours may lead to overwork as the work expands beyond regular working hours, thereby creating work stress and affecting family life Some employees may not find the lack of supervision or human contact suitable and desire more face-toface guidance from supervisors or contact with other employees Provisions for health and safety in the home or other remote location may not be provided 1.4.2 Communication As more people and workplaces have adopted personal computers there has been a dramatic increase in computer-based communications The candidate for the Computer Driving licence is expected to understand the major forms of computer-based communications currently being used 1.4.2.1 Electronic mail (email) is the transferring of messages from one computer to another via a computer network such as the Internet, a local area network (LAN) or a wide area network (WAN) While most emailing involves the sending of text, the messages can also include video, sound and attached documents Emails can be sent to individuals or, by adding extra email addresses to the message, to groups Email list programs allow many people to be sent email messages by sending an email to one common address which is connected to many addresses This technology has been abused by spammers who send millions of unsolicited email (spam) to email addresses they have collected from the Internet 1.4.2.2 Instant message (IM) is the sending of messages in real-time - when two or more people are communicating via a computer network at the same time Real-time (synchronous) messaging is contrasted to asynchronous messaging which is communication that is achieved without the participants having to be on the network at the same time Emailing, for example, is an asynchronous technology While IM started as exclusively text-based (with services such as ICQ) recently the widespread use of web-cams has led to IM video conferencing over the Internet 1.4.2.3 Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) is a protocol ( a set of industry standard rules) developed for the transmission of voice through the Internet or other networks It enables users with fast (high bandwidth) connections to make voice calls via the Internet Some services allow users to use their telephones to perform the communication and call people either on the Internet or on their telephones With VoIP voice signals are translated into data and transmitted across a network like any other file or email Once it reaches the other end the data is transformed back into its original form and sound is generated just like a regular phone call Use of VoIP can dramatically reduce the cost of long distance calling 1.4.2.4 Really Simple Syndication (RSS) is a set of formats which allow web 17 sites which have frequently updated content, including blogs and news services, to send the text, audio or video when it is changed or newly posted (entered on the site) Users subscribe to the automatic feed (the content) with a specialized reader or have the feed translated into email messages which they can read with their normal email program To subscribe users enter the web location of the RSS service into their browsers or RSS readers or they click on the RSS logo which is displayed on web sites which provide the service 1.4.2.5 Web logs, more commonly known as blogs, are web sites, usually maintained by one person, which include commentary, descriptions of events , personal diaries or other material such as videos and graphics Blogging means to put content on the site Many blogs offer ways for readers to enter comments on the blog's content Most blogs are mainly text-based, but increasingly video-based blogs are being developed 1.4.2.6 Podcast is the term used to describe a set of audio or video files which are distributed via the Internet to computers and portable media players The people who the podcasting (create the files to be downloaded) are called podcasters The term came from a combining of iPod (the personal media player produced by the Apple corporation) and broadcast Podcasting originally started as a way for people to produce radio-style shows But it is now it is also used for other services such as distributing re-broadcasts of TV or traditional radio shows, providing public information, contacting conference participants and the distribution of educational material Podcasting has become very popular in education Students can download podcasts of lessons or lectures posted by teachers Parents can receive updated information concerning the educational institute or their children's progress Students can create podcasts as presentations While audio podcasts are currently predominant those which use video are increasing as people become more accustomed to the technology 1.4.3 Virtual Communities The proliferation of new computer-based communication technologies has led to the development of large numbers of online (via computer communication) communities, occasionally known as virtual communities 1.4.3.1 Online Virtual Communities The candidate for the Computer Driving licence should be familiar with the various types of online communities, including:  Social networking websites are sites which provide communication spaces for individuals or organizations to discuss or post material concerning particular viewpoints, ideas, industrial issues or develop contacts and friendships In addition to web-based services they may also 18    use email and instant messaging services They are used by millions of people around the world where access to computer communication is available Businesses are using networking sites to increase their contacts and maintain relationships with their clients Educational institutes are using computer conferencing (the use of computer forums) to provide spaces for learners to interact Scientists and medical practitioners are using them to distribute peer-to-peer knowledge Political movements and parties are using social networks to recruit members and raise funds But perhaps the most popular use of social networks is by individuals who are building local, national and global networks of friends and aquaintances Social networks promise to be a permanent part of how people will interact in the future Internet forums are computer communication spaces where people can read and enter messages They are also referred to as web forums, bulletin boards, message boards, online discussion groups or computer conferences They are used by communities for general discussions on various topics, but have become especially prevalent for helping groups find and provide technical information on products or computer programs Very often forums demand that people register as members and use passwords to enter the system A new member is called a newbie and is expected to read the FAQs (Frequently Asked Questions) before posting (entering) a message Some forums may have moderators who exercise some control over the discussions Other forums are unmoderated Flaming (entering bad-tempered or hostile messages) is frowned upon and may result in the person being cut off the system Double posting means to use the same, or slightly-altered, message in more than one conference - which can be annoying to users who are members of the conferences where the duplicated messages are posted Chat rooms are computer communication spaces used by people, who are on the communication system at the same time (in other words synchronously) While having started off as text-based systems increasingly chat rooms are using audio or video elements They may also use graphical representations of the user (called an avatar) inside graphical social environments Online computer games are games played over a computer network They are designed to be used by individuals or groups With the growth of fast broadband networks in many developed countries massively multiplayer games involving hundreds of thousands of players have developed 1.4.3.2 Publishing and sharing content The technologies which have been developed to enable online virtual communities have promoted the use of computer communications for publishing and sharing content Some examples 19 of this phenomena are: web logs (blogs), podcasts and web sites which allow people to share photos, video and audio clips 1.4.3.3 Taking Precautions While virtual communities can be entertaining, educational and effective ways of building contacts and aquaintances precautions should be taken when participating in them Many online communities post information such as names, email addresses and other information about their members publically Caution should be exercised when being contacted by strangers If possible community members should make their information (their profiles) completely private or available only to selected individuals The amount and type of information provided to any virtual community or social networking site should be limited For example, telephone numbers and home addresses should never be provided if they are going to be made available to members of the system 1.4.3 Health As more and more people use computers in workplaces and homes it becomes increasingly important to be aware of the health and safety issues related to computer use 1.4.4.1 Ergonomics is the scientific discipline dedicated to designing safe and comfortable products for humans In the computer field ergonomics is concerned with subjects such as the design of monitors, keyboards, desks, chairs and related equipment Ergonomic scientists study the capabilities of humans in relationship with the work they perform Research derived from these studies is used to enhance overall system performance while contributing to the design and evaluation of jobs, tasks, work environments and products The goal is to enhance system performance while respecting the needs, abilities and safety of people 1.4.4.2 Lighting is a major issue in making work environments healthy and safe The use of artificial light from sources such as desk lamps and fluorescent ceiling fixtures, for example, needs to be considered seriously when analyzing the ergonomic design of workplaces It can be not only a source of energy wastage, but also a promoter of adverse health effects Overlighting can produce headaches, worker fatigue and anxiety Fluorescent lighting can increase blood pressure The result of all these factors can be increased stress and work errors Considerations for healthy lighting in a workplace include the amount and type of light and its direction Light sources from windows or lamps directly in front of workers can cause problems Ceiling fixtures should be shielded so workers are not forced to stare into a light source while working The use of desk lamps is healthier than ceiling lights Monitors should not be placed in front of windows – not only is the amount of light a problem but the constant refocussing of eyes from the monitor to the window and back again can cause headaches 1.4.4.3 Correct positioning of the computer can promote good posture and 20 help avoid health problems For example workstations designed according to healthy ergonomic principles can help avoid serious problems such as repetitive strain injuries (RSI) which develop over time and can result in longterm disabilities An example of RSI is carpal tunnel syndrome: the partial paralysis or weakening of the wrist often brought on by constant use of a computer mouse or keypad Computers chairs should be designed so that support can be supplied to the lumbar (lower back) and adjustable to a level where feet can be comfortably placed on the floor or a footrest They should include arm rests Desks should be flexible so monitors and keyboards can be adjusted to safe and comfortable positions Monitors should be adjustable so the user can look slightly down while working so as to not put stress on the neck 1.4.4.4 User well-being while working with a computer can be protected and enhanced by paying attention to a few principles Users should take regular stretch breaks They should use eye relaxation exercises Every ten minutes they should take “eye-breaks” by looking away from the monitor and staring at something in the distance They should a session of rapid blinking because staring at monitors may cause loss of eye lubrication While sitting they should maintain good posture by sitting straight in the chair with arms on the armrests and feet placed comfortably on the floor or footrest Every 15 minutes they should walk away from the computer for a rest break 1.4.5 The Environment Since the early 1980s an enormous amount of computer and related equipment has been introduced into workplaces and homes This has a significant impact on the environment The candidate for the Driving licence will be expected to be aware of the environmental issues and their potential solutions 1.4.5.1 Recycling is essential to creating an environment-friendly workplace which uses computers Old computers – those than can be repaired – may be donated to organizations which fix them for use in low income areas, schools or the developing world Printer cartridges can be renewed by inserting new ink components Paper can be reused by printing on the other side for draft printing or sent to recycling centres E-waste (obsolete, broken or discarded electrical or electronic devices such as computers or cellphones) is becoming an increasingly significant problem Recycling can help alleviate the problem 1.4.5.2 Energy Saving Options The amount of electronic equipment in homes and offices consumes a significant amount of energy Computer users can help reduce this amount by:   Setting the computer to darken or turn off the monitor when not in use for a certain period of time The setting for this can be found in the operating system of the computer Automatically putting the computer to sleep when not in use This is an operation in which the computer shuts down all unncessary 21  components When a laptop computer, for example, goes into sleep mode it shuts down the display screen and the disk drive When it is awakened (usually by moving the mouse or touching the keyboard) the computer returns to its former operating status Switching off the computer The best option for saving energy used by a personal computer is simply to turn it off when it is not being used A computer that is always left on and is used for an eight-hour work day is wasting energy during the 16 hours it is not being used With some early computers there may have been problems with stressing the computer's components by turning it off and on, but that is not a concern with modern personal computers Shutting off the computer while it is not in use can result in significant money savings rity Whenever a personal computer is connected to a network such as the Internet or an office LAN there are security concerns to be considered The candidate for the Computer Driving licence should be able to identify these concerns and recognize solutions 1.5.1 Identity/Authentication Computers are being used increasingly for operations which demand strict control over access to the computers and networks controlling the operations Candidates for the Computer Driving Licence should understand why usernames and passwords are used and how they can be created for greater security 1.5.1.1 Usernames and passwords As a security measure networked computers, such as the ones used by companies or banks, ask users to supply usernames (ID) and passwords This is to protect the private information held on the network The usernames and passwords are usually provided by the system administrator or the computer system during the registration process The username is usually an account on the system and usernames are often made available to the public (such as in email addresses) The password is the secret part and so is most sensitive Most systems now have facilities for reminding a user of a forgotten password by posing a question the user supplied during the registration process The forgotten password is then sent to the email address the user provided during registration 1.5.1.2 Good password polices Users can protect their passwords by not sharing them with others and changing them regularly Password length and the mix of letters and numbers are important Here are some things to avoid while creating passwords:  Don't use words found in the dictionary – even words spelled backwards 22   There are malicious programs which send all the words in the dictionary (in various combinations) to the computer and eventually find their way into the system (These are called dictionary attacks) Don't use personal information such as the name of your child, pet or favourite sports team They can be guessed by people who know you Don't keep your passwords in your computer The files they are kept in could be read Here are some strategies for creating effective passwords:   Passwords should be at least five characters long A combination of upper and lower characters; e.g: MyPassWord  Adding a non alpha-numeric characacter (#$&) e.g: My#PassWord$  Adding numbers e.g: MyPassword234  Using acronyms of mnemonic phrases e.g The White Cat Jumped Over The Black Dog = TWCJOTBD Even better: Twcjotbd2X4 1.5.2 Data security is the set of policies and practices which keeps data safe from being corrupted (made unusable) and protected from unauthorized access It helps to protect privacy and ensures that the individual or organization which created the data will continue to have access to it 1.5.2.1 Back-up policies are particularly important to an effective data security programme Backing-up means to make another copy of the data One way to this is to copy the data to a CD However, simply making a back-up copy may not be enough, especially for particularly important data such as payroll or invoice information A back-up must be kept off-site – in other words at some location other than the one in which the data was created Some organizations put backups of their data in bank safety deposit boxes Others use online services which back up their information to secure computers on the Internet 1.5.2.2 Firewalls are security systems designed to prevent unauthorized electronic access to a computer network They can consist of both hardware and software They are frequently used to prevent unauthorized users from entering a computer network which is connected to the Internet such as company intranets Firewalls work by inspecting every message that attempts to enter or leave the network and stops those which not meet certain security rules Personal firewalls are available to protect individual computers Like network 23 firewalls they inspect all communication requests to the computer and determine if they should be allowed depending on the rules the computer user has established 1.5.2.3 Data theft is the term used to describe when information is stolen or copied from a business or individual It has become an increasingly significant problem as more employees have access to network information through their office computers or can use portable devices such as USB memory sticks to copy information The information commonly involves user data such as passwords, social security numbers, credit card information or other personal information Protection from data theft involves implementing secure username and password systems which are available only to selected individuals Other techniques involve locking the computers or physicallyattaching them to desks with a security cable Security cables – steel cables with locks – are especially useful to prevent the theft of laptop computers Data created by a company or an individual working for that company is owned by the company People stealing the data can be prosecuted in courts of law 1.5.3 Viruses Viruses are programs which can cause significant harm to a computer Candidates for the Computer Driving licence need to know what viruses are, how they are transferred from computer to computer and how to protect computers 1.5.3.1 A computer virus is a computer program that can enter a computer, copy itself, and something to the computer without the permission or knowledge of the computer's user Some viruses are relatively unharmful because they simply display a message (“Happy New Year!”) But most are malicious and can significant harm to the computer's software and data 1.5.3.2 Viruses enter a computer in a number of ways: they can move from an infected computer to another when they are transfered physically by people (via a CD, floppy disk or USB drive) or transmitted over a network, such as the Internet, via email, file transfer or instant messaging They are often sent as file attachments to emails and infect the computer when the user opens the file These types of attached files frequently have extensions such as com or exe Another type of viruses (called macro viruses) infect Microsoft Word by inserting unwanted words or phrases into documents A worm, while not technically a virus, can also cause harm to a computer Unlike viruses worms not need to be attached to a program and transferred physically or electroncally over networks by people Theyare self-replicating They send copies of themselves via networks without user intervention and thereby cause harm by taking up space on computers and clogging transmission systems Viruses, on the other hand, almost always cause some kind harm by corrupting or modifying files on the affected computer A trojan is a program which seems to be designed to something useful, or at least acceptable, but 24 in fact performs undisclosed malicious functions that allow unauthorized access to the computer Programs such as viruses, worms, trojans, spyware (programs inserted surreptitiously in a computer to spy on the user's actions and data) adware (which download ads without permission) are often labelled generally as malware 1.5.3.3 Protection from viruses can be gained by practicing safe computing and installing special protection programs Safe computing principles include: not opening attached files (especially those with extensions such as exe) unless the source is known to be safe and making sure that regular backups are performed The most effective way to ensure protection from viruses is to use an anti-virus program which is a computer program that identifies and removes (or incapacitates) viruses This is done by trying to identify known viruses, monitoring the actions of programs on the computer for unusual behavior, or analyzing the code of programs to see if they include instructions which might cause virus-like activity Open source anti-virus software programs are available including: Clam AV for Linux and ClamWin for Windows To ensure the effective operation of the anti-virus program it needs to be regularly updated by visting the site which distributes it Some programs, though, can be set up to automatically update themselves while the computer is attached to the Internet Care should be taken that the software is actually being applied For example, some anti-virus programs will constantly monitor the computer's files for viruses or suspicious behavior Others however only work if the user manually instructs the program to inspect a particular file or set of files While anti-virus software originally focussed solely on viruses most modern programs also look for malware such as worms, trojans, spyware and adware 1.6 Law There are many legal issues related to the use of computers such as personal privacy, data protection and copyright The candidate for the Driving licence is expected to have a basic understanding of these issues as well as terms such as enduser licences and open source 1.6.1.1 Copyright is the legal right granted to the creator of a original work to have exclusive rights over that work for a certain period of time The rights include publication, distribution and adaptation The period of time has been set internationally as between 50 and 100 years after which the product is considered to be in the public domain Some countries have official requirements for establishing copyright, but most jurisdictions recognize copyright in any completed work without formal registration To some extent copyright laws have been standardized with international conventions such as the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyright Convention These multilateral treaties have been ratified by nearly all countries, and international organizations such as the European Union and World Trade Organization which require their member states to comply with them 25 With the advent of open source software other ways of protecting and distributing original works have developed For example, copyleft is a term used to describe how open source works are made available With copyleft creators give people who receive the work permission to reproduce, adapt or distribute the work as long as the result is also bound by the original copyleft provisions These provisions include acknowledging the original creator, guaranteeing free distribution and allowing others to adapt, reproduce and distribute the changed work Copyleft can be considered a variant of copyright in which the creator imposes some restrictions rather than releasing it into the public domain without any restrictions 1.6.1.2 licenced software refers to computer programs which can be used by end-users in particular ways defined in the software licence Almost all software is licenced for use instead of being sold and is therefore referred to as proprietary software – software which is owned by an individual or company In contrast to proprietary software there is open source software Open source software refers to computer programs where the source code (the underlying instructions which determine the progam's operations) is made available free of charge with permission to adapt it and distribute the resulting new program under the same provisions as the original work A widely used licence for open source programs is the GNU General Public licence Similar licences for other media are available through Creative Commons—called Share-alike This workbook has been released under the Share-alike licence 1.6.1.3 End-user Licence Some software licences (also referred to end-user licenses) restrict the number of computers on which the licenced program can be operated while others are based on the number of users who can use the program Most personal computer software licences allow users to operate the program on only one computer with provision made for copies that are used solely for backup purposes Some licences allow the user to operate the program on other computers To determine the licence provisions regulating the use of a computer program users should consult the licence which the user agreed to during the registration process Users should also check the product ID and registration information by, most commonly, consulting the About item in the program's Help menu 1.6.1.4 Shareware, freeware and open source are terms which refer to computer programs which are distributed according to various monetary schemes Shareware is copyrighted, proprietary software that is available free of charge on a trial basis, usually with the condition that users pay a fee for continued use and support Freeware is software which is available free of charge without any provision that payment is made for continuing use (though often donations are solicited) Open source software refers to computer programs which are distributed free of charge with their source code which can 26 be adapted to produce altered programs as long as the provisions of the original work's licence are respected 1.6.2 Data Protection refers to the rights and responsibilties of people and organizations such as companies and governments concerning data collection, storage, accessibility and usage The data may be related to health, criminal histories, credit cards, finances, ethnicity, residence, biological traits, politics, Internet use and many other types of information Personal privacy is an issue wherever personally identifiable information is collected and stored 1.6.2.1 Data protection legislation or conventions have been adopted by many countries and other jurisdictions in order to protect the rights of data subjects - people organizations or companies on which data is collected The main purpose of data protection legislation and conventions is to protect the rights of the data subjects and set out the responsibilities of the data controller (the person or company which has control of the data) In Europe the right to data privacy is strictly regulated and enforced The European Convention on Humans Rights (in Article 8) provides, subject to certain restrictions, a right to respect for a person's "private and family life, his home and his correspondence" The European Court of Human Rights has ruled that this Article applies to any collection of data by state officials about an individual including census data, fingerprints, police photographs, medical information, personal expenditure records and systems of identifying individuals All these may raise legal questions of personal privacy However, it is not only governments in Europe which are regulated in the collection and use of data Individuals and private companies are also required to adhere to provisions for personal privacy The Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data requires European Union countries which have signed the convention – and all have – to enact national legislation concerning the automatic processing of personal data In addition, the European Commission has issued the Directive on Personal Data which member states had to implement The United Kingdom, for example, has passed the Data Protection Act of 1998 This includes provisions for informing staff in advance if the employer plans to monitor their emails, phone calls and Internet use In contrast to Europe, data privacy in the United States is not highly legislated or regulated Although some partial regulations exist, there is no overall legislation regulating the collection, storage or use of personal data Companies which collect and store information, no matter how they collected the data, are deemed to have the right to use it For example, data related to credit cards or credit histories purchased from data collection companies are used when people apply for employment or for credit to purchase cars, houses or other items Often erroneous information concerning an individual will be dissiminated with serious results for the individual and it is very difficult to have the information corrected 27 1.6.2.2 Identifying the data protection rights of data subjects in their country is expected of candidates for the Computer Driving licence Information about the provisions can be found by consulting government offices, searching the Internet, contacting privacy organizations in the country and using libraries 28 ... professional audio- visual setups, but since they are more expensive USB remains dominant 1. 1.2 Computer performance 1. 1.2 .1 A number of factors affect the performance of a personal computer including the... price of a personal computer increases with higher CPU speeds and larger caches 1. 1.3 Memory and storage 1. 1.3 .1 More RAM (Random Access Memory) can significantly improve a computer's performance... screen and then responds by presenting data 1. 2 SOFTWARE 1. 2 .1 Concepts Candidates for the computing driving licence are expected to understand basic concepts of personal computers such as software,