Copyright © 2014 Tom Clark The right of Tom Clark to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved This book may not be reproduced in whole or in part, in any form (beyond that copying permitted by Sections 107 and 108 of the U.S Copyright Law and except by reviewers for the public press) without written permission from the publishers For information about this and other Yale University Press publications, please contact: U.S Office: sales.press@yale.edu yalebooks.com Europe Office: sales@yaleup.co.uk www.yalebooks.co.uk Set in Sabon by IDSUK (DataConnection) Ltd Printed in Great Britain by TJ International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Clark, Tom, 1976– Hard times : the divisive toll of the economic slump / Tom Clark, with Anthony Heath pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-300-20377-6 (alk paper) United States—Economic conditions—2009– United States—Social conditions Great Britain—Economic conditions— 1997– Great Britain—Social conditions Recessions—Social aspects Global Financial Crisis, 2008–2009—Social aspects I Heath, A F (Anthony Francis) II Title HC106.84.C53 2014 330.973—dc23 2014002243 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library 10 For my mother T.C Contents Preface and acknowledgements Authorial note Introduction Not quite 1933 All in it together? Mapping the black stuff Toil and trouble Anxious individuals, unhappy homes The small society The long shadow A tale of two tragedies The veil of complacency 10 Shelter from the storm Notes Select bibliography Index Preface and acknowledgements The research underpinning this volume was undertaken as part of a five-year collaboration between the University of Manchester and Harvard University, known as Social Change: A Harvard– Manchester Initiative (SCHMI) The collaboration was directed by Robert D Putnam, the Malkin Professor of Public Policy at Harvard, and Ed Fieldhouse, Professor of Social and Political Science at Manchester It was based at the Institute for Social Change at Manchester and ran from 2007 to 2012 This book draws especially heavily on work by the following individual scholars, whose work was funded through the programme and coordinated by Anthony Heath: • Gabriella Elgenius (Oxford) • Paul Hepburn (ISC) • James Laurence (ISC) • Yaojun Li (ISC) • Chaeyoon Lim (Wisconsin) • Siobhan McAndrew (ISC) • Lindsey Macmillan (Institute of Education, London) The correspondence between the research and the chapters that follow is not exact, but papers by Laurence and Lim particularly inform Chapters 5, and parts of Chapter 7; the work of Li, Chapter 3; and the work of Macmillan, the final part of Chapter McAndrew's work on suicide is used in Chapter 7, as is attitudinal data researched by Hepburn in Chapter 9, and they both helped with some of the historical trends documented throughout the book Full details of the research papers are provided in the notes to each chapter To say that we are grateful to these researchers is scarcely adequate – without them there would be no book Particular thanks are due to Gabriella Elgenius, who joined the project late, and then worked tirelessly with modest resources to conduct the interviews with hard-hit families that run throughout the pages In addition, we would like to thank other SCHMI scholars – especially Robert Ford (ISC) and Maria Grasso (Sheffield) – who produced interesting papers on other aspects of the experience of hard times which ended up being less central to the book as it evolved They also contributed valuable comments at SCHMI seminars in Manchester in 2011 and in Sarasota, Florida, in 2012 At the same events and since, we benefited greatly from the advice and insight of Professor Putnam himself, who suggested many telling points and ringing phrases that have made their way into our text, including the tornado image, which twists its way through the book Beyond his important direct input into the present work, we also need to thank Professor Putnam for his leadership over the five years of SCHMI, and Professor Fieldhouse for providing the day-to-day management with friendly dedication, as well as expert analytical support on quantitative aspects of the research Professor Rachel Gibson has subsequently taken over as director of the Institute for Social Change, and we would like to extend thanks to her for efficiently tying up the managerial loose ends, as we would to Magdalen Faulds for helping with the final administration The support of Jennifer Birchall, Tom Sander and Kyle Gibson is gratefully acknowledged in pulling off the major logistical task of bringing together scholars from both sides of the Atlantic Tom Sander also played a major role in our intellectual debates and we are very grateful for his expert input throughout the project SCHMI would not have existed without generous funding from the University of Manchester, which we gratefully acknowledge We would like to thank the then President, the late Alan Gilbert, and the Vice-President and Dean, Alistair Ulph, for their enthusiastic support in making SCHMI a reality Tom Clark would like to thank: Stephan Shakespeare, Joel Faulkner Rogers and Peter Kellner of YouGov for providing data and expert guidance on its interpretation, and likewise Bobby Duffy of Ipsos MORI and Martin Boon from ICM Alison Park of NatCen Social Research was extremely helpful in providing BSA data For providing additional numbers – and help in making sense of them – debts are owed to the Institute for Fiscal Studies (especially Robert Joyce and James Browne) and the Resolution Foundation (where James Plunkett, Gavin Kelly, Vidhya Alakeson, Warwick Smith and Matthew Whittaker were all invaluable) Simon Kirby from the National Institute has been another great help in providing data, as has Danny Blanchflower at Dartmouth College, Professor Steve Machin of UCL and Professor Paul Gregg and Mariña Fernández Salgado at Bath John Goldthorpe kindly made time to talk over matters to with social class and social mobility, as did Professor Janet Hunter of LSE on Japan For helping us assemble a rich range of case studies with great speed, we would like to thank the Resolution Foundation for a second time, as well as Citizens Advice, Save the Children and the London MPs Stella Creasy and Karen Buck Tom also owes a debt of thanks to Alan Rusbridger and Paul Johnson at the Guardian for allowing him time off, and to his leader-writing colleagues – David Hearst, Martin Kettle and Anne Perkins – for putting up with the consequences for their own workload He also wishes to thank Aditya Chakrabortty from the paper, for reading a near-entire manuscript and providing insightful tips, as well as Simon Lancaster who cast an eye over the proposal at an earlier stage, and Yale's two anonymous readers for their expert suggestions We are also greatly indebted to copy-editor Clive Liddiard, for turning his eagle eye to every last line of the text, and averting many mistakes in the process Tom would like to thank his family, particularly Helen, but also her parents and his own mother for providing out-of-hours childcare, without which the writing could never have got done As agent, Sarah Chalfant did a wonderful job in guiding us to flesh out what was initially a rather flimsy proposal into something substantial, and particularly in encouraging us to bring in the voices of the recession's victims directly Together with Alba Ziegler-Bailey and colleagues at Wylie, she showed extraordinary patience in shepherding a project, which encountered more than its share of upsets, through to deal and publication Finally, we could not have been blessed with a more efficient or intelligent editor than Phoebe Clapham at Yale, who exceeded any reasonable expectation, at one point even pointing us to a valuable new data source She, too, has been loyal to the book through many disruptions, and – faced with chaotic early drafts – she zoomed up and dived down across a messy landscape, and imposed some much-needed order on the map The only thing she did wrong was to leave before publication, which could have been catastrophic, had not Rachael Lonsdale and Heather McCallum stepped forward and – with great energy – kept everything on track Authorial note As the Acknowledgements make plain, large parts of this book are, in an important sense, the product of a whole team of researchers, whose work on ‘hard times’ themes was overseen by Professor Anthony Heath Through seminars and correspondence, Tom Clark played an active part in the work of this team, and in the text thus uses the collective first person – e.g ‘we discovered’, ‘our findings’ – in discussing the SCHMI research Beyond that, Tom Clark had editorial control of the text – adding opinions and observations, as well as knitting in other sources of research, as he saw fit Where the book ranges beyond SCHMI's work, therefore, the text often reverts to the first-person singular, to make clear that the observations and opinions are Tom Clark's alone Introduction The men of Marienthal were so depressed that you could see it in the very way they walked Most trudged along at two miles an hour, and nine out of every ten crossing the few hundred yards of their village would find an excuse to stop en route, often dithering along their brief way The slump's poison had seeped out of silent factories, and ended up somewhere under the skin We know all of this – and much more about daily life in this one tiny Austrian town in the 1930s – because pioneering young sociologists went there to find out what happens when everyone is thrown out of work, as virtually everyone had been when Marienthal's flax mill fell victim to the credit crunch of 1929.1 Eighty years later, a true economic hurricane again engulfed the rich world, for the first time since the 1930s In the UK at least, the statistics confirm that national income took a bigger cumulative hit than during the Great Depression itself You might imagine that there would be vast social consequences, but – thanks to the burgeoning of data and computers to crunch it – there is no need to rely on the imagination, or indeed on anecdotes from one village in the Austrian hills Drawing on the social scientific research of a distinguished transatlantic team of scholars – headed by Manchester University's Anthony Heath and Harvard's Robert D Putnam – this book treats the contemporary Anglo-American economies as one giant Marienthal Through one-to-one interviews with recessionary victims, as well as detailed analysis so up-to-the-minute that it has yet to reach the academic journals, it maps out the ways in which bad financial news pours off the business pages and onto the streets of our communities Back in Marienthal, there was, of course, material hardship: hunger was so rampant that a family whose dog had gone missing would no longer bother to report the loss The Viennese researchers who entered the village documented a degraded diet and worn-out clothes, just as they had expected Far more disturbing, however, was what they learnt about the impoverishment of the spirit Despite boundless time, free library tickets and discounted newspapers, the townsfolk somehow did not get around to reading, even though they had been enthusiastic readers when they were still busy with work The small town was once blessed with rambling clubs, sports teams and discussion groups that had passed time pleasantly and at minimal cost Yet when the slump bequeathed all those spare hours to fill, instead of booming, many such societies folded The researchers asked townsfolk to keep diaries of their days They found hours accounted for with baffling entries such as ‘in the meantime midday comes around’2 – entries documenting how the clocks tick differently after all hopes of prosperity and purpose have died Far away, in the United States of the same era, the Depression's great chronicler, John Steinbeck, was writing that it was ‘in the souls of the people’ that ‘the grapes of wrath are filling’ This time around, little of what has been written and broadcast about the new global slump has had anything to with the soul The news reports have been delivered against a backdrop of the trading-room floor's flickering screens We read that the animal spirits of investors had fallen into depression But perhaps it is time to inquire about spirits more generally, and to ask whether we collectively sank into a Marienthal-style social slump – the sort of slump to snuff out the happiness of the individual, the life of the community and the dreams of the next generation For anyone who is interested in what happens next, it is just as important to investigate the public Dorling, Danny (i) dropouts (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) Duchenne smiles (i) Duncan Smith, Iain (i) Durkheim, Emile (i) economic growth economic gap (i) growth and national income (i), (ii) post-recession agenda (i), (ii) public policy (i) social security (i) UK (i), (ii), (iii) wages (i) economic insecurity see insecurity Economic Journal (i) education economic insecurity (i) job insecurity (i) marriage rates (i) social mobility (i), (ii), (iii) unemployment (i), (ii), (iii) elasticity of intergenerational income (i), (ii) Elder, Glen (i) Elder, James (i) elderly population (i), (ii), (iii) Emanuel, Rahm (i) Employee Benefits Research Institute (i) employment protection (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) employment rates (i), (ii) Employment White Paper (1944) (i) Eton College (i) Eurobarometer (i) eurozone (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) expansionary fiscal contraction (i) expectations (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) faith (i) Faith Matters (i), (ii) family class divide (i) human unhappiness (i), (ii), (iii) post-recession agenda (i), (ii) public policy (i) relative financial standing (i), (ii) social networks (i), (ii) female employment (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Fingleton, Eamonn (i) Fitzgerald, F Scott (i) food (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) foodbanks (i) food stamps (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Foot, Michael (i), (ii), (iii) formal (or organised) volunteering (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Fragile Families Survey (i) France employment protection (i), (ii) human unhappiness (i), (ii), (iii) inequality (i) social networks (i), (ii) social security (i), (ii) Friedman, Benjamin (i) Fukushima nuclear power plant (i) Galbraith, J.K (i), (ii) Gallup polls (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Galton, Francis (i) GDP (gross domestic product) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Geithner, Tim (i) gender divide (i) General Social Survey (GSS) (i), (ii), (iii) generational divide (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Gen X (i), (ii), (iii) Gen Y (i) Germany employment protection (i), (ii) human unhappiness (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) inequality (i) social networks (i), (ii), (iii) social security (i), (ii) unemployment (i) girls, employment of (i) graduates (i), (ii), (iii) The Grapes of Wrath (Steinbeck) (i) Great Depression change in GDP (i), (ii) crime rates (i) death rates (i) Europe (i) and Great Recession (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) growth and national income (i) human unhappiness (i), (ii), (iii) hysteresis (i) lynchings (i) polarised public opinion (i), (ii) public policy (i) social mood (i) social networks (i), (ii), (iii) social security (i), (ii), (iii) Steinbeck on (i) unemployment (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) ‘Great Gatsby Curve’ (i) Great Hanshin earthquake (i) Great Recession change in GDP (i), (ii) economic gap (i) and Great Depression (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) growth and national income (i), (ii) human unhappiness (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) long shadow of class action (i) future generations (i) overview (i) unemployment (i) young people (i) low-grade jobs (i), (ii) polarised public opinion (i), (ii), (iii) post-recession agenda (i) Cameron conundrum (i) future policy (i) polarisation (i) public policy (i), (ii) social mood (i) social networks (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) social security (i) start of (i) unemployment (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) uneven impact (i) Greece (i), (ii), (iii) Greenberg Quinlan Rosner (i), (ii) Greenspan, Alan (i) Gregg, Paul (i) growth see economic growth Hacker, Jacob (i) Hansard (i) Hansard Society (i) happiness (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii) Happiness (Layard) (i) ‘Happy Days Are Here Again’ song (i) hardship (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii) Hatton, Timothy (i), (ii) health (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii) healthcare (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) ‘hedonic treadmill’ (i) helping (informal volunteering) (i), (ii), (iii) Help to Buy (i) heritability of unemployment (i) Heritage Foundation (i), (ii) Hills, Sir John (i) Hispanic community (i), (ii) home ownership (i), (ii) Hoover, Herbert (i), (ii), (iii) household incomes (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) household leverage (i) housing costs (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) home ownership (i), (ii) housing benefit (i) poverty (i) social housing (i) wealth reduction (i) human unhappiness (i) family life (i) overview (i) public policy (i) suicide (i) unemployment (i) well-being data (i) working population (i) hysteresis (i), (ii) identity (i), (ii) immigration (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) incapacity benefit (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) income (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) income distribution (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii) income support (i), (ii) inequality (i) causes (i) economic gap (i) income distribution (i), (ii) job insecurity (i) life satisfaction (i) polarised public opinion (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) post-recession agenda (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) poverty (i) public policy (i), (ii) social mobility (i), (ii), (iii) social security (i) unemployment (i) inflation (i), (ii), (iii) informal volunteering (helping) (i), (ii), (iii) insecurity austerity (i) class divide (i) human unhappiness (i), (ii), (iii) job insecurity (i) pay gap (i) polarised public opinion (i) post-recession agenda (i), (ii), (iii) social networks (i), (ii) unemployment (i) Institute for Employment Research (i) Institute for Fiscal Studies (IFS) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) intergenerational income (i) investment (i) Ipsos MORI (i), (ii) Ireland (i) isolation (i), (ii) Italy (i), (ii) Japan (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) Jarrow March (i) job insecurity see insecurity Jobseeker's Allowance (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) jobs growth (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Kahn, Lisa (i) Kan, Naoto (i) Kantar (i) Keynes, John Maynard (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) King, Mervyn (i) Kobe (i) Komarovsky, Mirra (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x) Krueger, Alan (i), (ii) Krugman, Paul (i) Labour Force Survey (i) labour market (i), (ii) labour productivity (i), (ii), (iii) ladder of opportunity (i) Layard, Richard (i) Lehman Brothers (i), (ii) Leunig, Tim (i) Lewis, Michael (i), (ii) life expectancy (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) life satisfaction (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Lilley, Peter (i) living standards (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) Li, Yaojun (i) loans (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) London (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii) lone parents (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) long-term unemployment (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) low-grade jobs (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii) Machin, Stephen (i) Macmillan, Harold (i) macroeconomic policy (i) male employment (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) male suicide (i) manufacturing (i), (ii), (iii) ‘marginalised’ workers (i) Marie Antoinette (i) Marienthal hardship (i), (ii), (iii) human unhappiness (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) neighbours informing on each other (i) social networks and groups (i) unemployment (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) marriage rates (i), (ii), (iii) medical bills (i) medical staff (i) mental health (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Mexico (i) middle class (i), (ii) migration (i) minimum wage (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) mobility (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) monetary policy (i), (ii) money-saving activities (i) money supply (i) money worries (i), (ii), (iii) mortality rates (i), (ii) motivation (i) National Child Development Survey (NCDS) (i), (ii) National Conference on Citizenship (i) National Government (i) National Housing Federation (i) national income (i), (ii), (iii) National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (i) necessities (i), (ii) NEETs (not in education, employment or training) (i) neighbourliness (i), (ii), (iii) neoliberalism (i) net worth (i) New Deal (i), (ii) New Labour (i), (ii) New Right (i), (ii) New York Times (i) New Zealand (i) Nixon, Richard (i) Northern Rock (i) North–South divide (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Obama, Barack (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii) Occupy (i) OECD see Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development old age (i), (ii), (iii) O'Loughlan, Joel (i), (ii) optimism (i), (ii), (iii) Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii) Orwell, George (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Osborne, George (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii) Packer, George (i) Pakistani community (i) parental income (i), (ii), (iii) parenting (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) parent–teacher associations (PTAs) (i), (ii), (iii) participation careers (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) part-time work (i), (ii) path dependency (i) pay squeeze (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix) Peck, Don (i) pensions (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) People's Budget (1909) (i) Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (i) Pew Center (i), (ii), (iii) Philip, Prince (i) Philpott, Mick (i) The Pinch (Willetts) (i) polarised public opinion (i) desired level of inequality (i) divided communities (i) economic divide (i) genetic discrimination in healthcare (i) post-recession agenda (i) social security (i), (ii) solidarity (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) unemployment (i) policy see public policy postal deliveries (i) poverty absolute poverty (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) debt (i) health (i) housing costs (i), (ii) income distribution (i) losing face (i), (ii) low-grade jobs (i), (ii) post-recession agenda (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) public policy (i), (ii) relative poverty (i), (ii) social security (i), (ii) UK (i), (ii), (iii) unemployment (i), (ii) uneven impact of recessions (i) US (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) working population (i), (ii) poverty pay (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) pregnancy (i), (ii) Prescott, John (i) Priestley, J.B (i) Probert, Nicola (i) productivity (i), (ii), (iii) PTAs see parent–teacher associations public investment (i) public mood (i) public policy (i) American neglect (i) British blind panic (i) overview (i), (ii) post-recession agenda (i), (ii) Putnam, Robert (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) quantitative easing (i), (ii) race (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Rawls, John (i) RBS (Royal Bank of Scotland) (i) Reagan, Ronald (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) real wages (i), (ii), (iii) recessions (i), (ii), (iii) see also Great Recession Red Cross (i) redistribution low-grade jobs (i) polarised public opinion (i), (ii), (iii) post-recession agenda (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) redundancy employment protection (i) human unhappiness (i), (ii), (iii) long shadow of recession (i), (ii), (iii) long-term unemployment (i) Marienthal (i) polarised public opinion (i) post-recession agenda (i), (ii), (iii) public policy (i) regional divide (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Reich, Robert (i) Relate (i) relative poverty (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) religion (i) rents (i), (ii), (iii) replacement ratio (i), (ii) repossessions (i) resentments (i), (ii) Resolution Foundation (i) retirement age (i) retrenchment (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii) The Road to Wigan Pier (Orwell) (i) Romney, Mitt (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Roosevelt, Franklin D (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x) Round About a Pound a Week (i) Rudd, Kevin (i) Rutgers (i), (ii) Ryan, Paul (i) Safe Anchor Trust (i) sanctions on benefits (i), (ii), (iii) Save the Children (i) savings (i), (ii) school dropouts (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) Scout Association (i), (ii) Seefeldt, Kristin (i) Sen, Amartya (i) ‘setpoint theory’ of happiness (i) sex life (i), (ii) single mothers (i), (ii) slump-hit and slump-proof (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Smith, Adam (i), (ii), (iii) social capital (i), (ii) social housing (i) social insurance (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) social mobility (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) social networks and groups (i) community organisations (i) life satisfaction (i) social engagement (i), (ii) unemployment (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) social recession (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) social security Great Depression and Great Recession (i) polarised public opinion (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) post-recession agenda (i), (ii) public policy (i), (ii), (iii) US/UK contrasts (i), (ii) Social Security Act (i), (ii) solidarity (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii) soup kitchens (i) Spain (i) sports clubs (i), (ii), (iii) Steinbeck, John (i), (ii), (iii) Stiglitz, Joseph (i), (ii), (iii) Stuckler, David (i) student debt (i), (ii), (iii) suicide (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Tate museums (i) taxation polarised public opinion (i), (ii), (iii) post-recession agenda (i), (ii), (iii) public policy (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) tax credits (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) technology (i), (ii) Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) (i) ‘temporary help’ agencies (i) Thatcher, Margaret (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Tōhoku earthquake (i) Tocqueville, Alexis de (i), (ii) Trades Union Congress (i) trade unions (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) trust (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) ‘U6’ unemployment measure (i), (ii) underemployment (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Understanding Society study (i) unemployment (i) education divide (i), (ii) eurozone (i), (ii) female (i), (ii) gender divide (i), (ii) generational divide (i) graduates (i) Great Depression (i) heritability of (i) human unhappiness anxiety (i) family life (i), (ii), (iii) suicide (i) well-being data (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) identity (i), (ii) inequality (i) Japan (i) Komarovsky study (i) life satisfaction (i), (ii), (iii) long shadow of (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) long-term unemployment (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) low-grade jobs (i) male (i), (ii) Marienthal (i), (ii) polarised public opinion (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) post-recession agenda (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) public policy (i), (ii) race divide (i), (ii), (iii) regional divide (i), (ii) Roosevelt on (i) school dropouts (i) social mobility (i) social networks (i), (ii) social security (i), (ii), (iii) start of Great Recession (i) ‘U6’ unemployment measure (i), (ii) UK (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) underemployment (i), (ii) unequal impact of (i) US (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix) young people (i), (ii), (iii) unemployment benefit (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii) unhappiness see human unhappiness United Kingdom (UK) austerity (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) change in GDP (i), (ii) credit crunch (i) crime rates (i) double-dip recession (i) economic gap (i) employment protection (i) expansionary fiscal contraction (i) growth and national income (i), (ii) housing (i), (ii), (iii) human unhappiness (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) income distribution (i) job insecurity (i), (ii) life expectancy (i) living standards (i) long shadow of recession (i), (ii), (iii) low-grade jobs (i), (ii), (iii) polarised public opinion (i), (ii), (iii) post-recession agenda (i), (ii), (iii) poverty (i), (ii), (iii) public policy (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) regional differences (i) riots (i), (ii) social mobility (i) social networks (i), (ii), (iii) social security (i), (ii) start of Great Recession (i), (ii) unemployment (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) United States (US) change in GDP (i), (ii) credit crunch (i) crime rates (i) economic gap (i), (ii) employment protection (i) growth and national income (i), (ii) housing (i), (ii), (iii) human unhappiness (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) income distribution (i), (ii), (iii) inequality (i) investment and wages (i) job insecurity (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) life expectancy (i) living standards (i) long shadow of recession (i), (ii), (iii) low-grade jobs (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) marriage rates (i) minimum wage (i) parallels with Depression (i) polarised public opinion (i), (ii) post-recession agenda (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) poverty (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) public policy (i), (ii), (iii) regional differences (i) social mobility (i) social networks (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii) social security (i), (ii), (iii) start of Great Recession (i) unemployment (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix) universal credit (i) university fees (i) The Unwinding (Packer) (i) veil of complacency (i), (ii) veil of ignorance (i), (ii), (iii) Verba, Sidney (i) volunteering (i) effect of insecure/unpredictable work (i), (ii) formal (or organised) volunteering (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) helping (informal volunteering) (i), (ii), (iii) in Japan (i) post-recession agenda (i), (ii) post-recession trends (i), (ii) social networks and groups (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) unemployment (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) US/UK differences (i) wages (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix) Walkerdine, Valerie (i) Wall Street Crash (i) war (i) Washington Mutual Bank (i) wealth (i), (ii) The Wealth of Nations (Smith) (i) welfare polarised public opinion (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) post-recession agenda (i), (ii) public policy (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) social security (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) ‘welfare dependency’ theory (i), (ii) welfare economics (i) ‘Welfare Queen’ (i) welfare state (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) welfare-to-work programmes (i) well-being class divide (i), (ii) human unhappiness (i), (ii) inequality (i) post-recession agenda (i), (ii), (iii) poverty (i) unemployment (i) white population (i), (ii) Wilensky, Harold (i) Willetts, David (i) Wisconsin Longitudinal Survey (i), (ii) work ethic (i), (ii), (iii) working class (i), (ii) working poor (i), (ii), (iii) working population (i) human unhappiness (i) job insecurity (i), (ii) life satisfaction (i) low-grade jobs (i) pay gap (i) polarised public opinion (i) real wages (i) relative expectations (i) unemployment (i), (ii) volunteering (i) workplace benefits (i), (ii) Yamada, Yasuteru (i) YouGov polls (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x) young people (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Zedlewski, Sheila (i), (ii) ‘zero-hours’ contracts (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) ... to ask whether we collectively sank into a Marienthal-style social slump – the sort of slump to snuff out the happiness of the individual, the life of the community and the dreams of the next... International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Clark, Tom, 1976– Hard times : the divisive toll of the economic slump / Tom Clark, with Anthony Heath pages cm Includes... anything, worse than the Depression The figure below compares the profile of the decline in the UK's national income since 2008 with what unfolded at the beginning of the 1930s The great contraction