13 lawrence neuman basics of social research

Senior SeriesEd\tor: leff Lasser Editorial Assistant; Erikka Adams Senior Marketing Manager: KellyMay Production Editor: RobertaShernnn Composition Btyer: Linda Cox Manufacturing Buyer: JoAnn e Sweeney Irrc' Services, Editorial production Servicesand Electronic Composition: Prtlllshtrs'L)esignorul Production Cover Administrator: Kristina Mose-Libon For relatedtitlesand supportmaterials,visitour online catlloq 'l[ \\ \\ \\ 'lhlttngtnan'com' Copyright a 2007,2004 PearsonEducation,Inc' or utilized in A1lrights resened.No part of the materialprotectedby this copr r-ightt]ottcr-mav be rcproduced information an,v or bv recorclinc' inq, including mechanical, or electronic means, Photo.(rF\ an,ufor,-,ror by any I r\iner storageand retrievll system,rvithoutrvrittenpermissionfrpm th !lf \ Iiiht and Bacon, To obtain permission(s)to use material from this work, pleasesubnrit '.\\ rittE'nr!'qriestto Alh'n rL:rI!'.'rrc':tto 617-848-7320' \, f,rr t,t Ib 0ll NlA Bostotr, Street, Arlington L)epartment,75 Permissions for some sitesto have Betweenthe time Websiteinfbrmation is gatheredand then publishe.l.it i: rlot t-tttusual fhct'ublisherwouldappreciate r'rrLri: closed.Also,thetranscriptionofURLscanresultintlpographical notification where theseerrors occur so that they may be correcteclirl sub\!'qrtenteditions Cataloging-in-Publicationdata unavailableat presstime 0-205-48.137,9 BRIEF CONT ENT S PART ONE Foundations CHAPTERt Doing Social Research CHAPTERz Theory and Social Research CHAPTERs Ethics in Social Research cHAPTER+ Reviewingthe Scholarly Literature and Planninga Study CHAPTERS Qualitative and Quantitative Measurement cHAPTERe Qualitative and Quantitative Sampling PARTTwo ConductingQuantitativeResearch CHAPTERZ Survey Research CHAPTER8 ExperimentalResearch CHAPTER9 Nonreactive Researchand Secondary Analysis CHAPTER1 o PART THREr Analysisof Quantitative Data Conductin g Qualita t iv e Re s e a rc h cHAPTER 1l Field Rese a rch cHAPTER I2 Historical-Comparative Research CHAPTER 13 Analysisof QualitativeData PAR T FO U R Writing a Rese a rchRe p o rt cHAPTER 14 Writing the ResearchReport CONT ENT S Preface ;;-; xl Ethicsand the Scientific Community 59 -'"-'- Ethicsand the Sponsorsof Research 61 ;-; ## Foundations Politicsof Research 63 Value-Freeand Objective Research 64 CHA P T E R I Doing SocialResearch Conclusion l 6G Introduction Alternativesto SocialResearch How ScienceWorks Steps in the Researchprocess l Dimensionsof Research Conc lus ion 21 Introduction O 69 Usingthe Internet for Social Research 80 Theory and SocialResearch 23 24 What ls Theory? 24 C oncl usi on Qualitativeand Quantitative Measurement 108 44 45 Why Measure? CHA P T E R Ethicsin SocialResearch Why Be Ethical? 48 48 Power Relations 49 EthicallssuesInvolvingResearch Participants S0 9l 106 C H A P TE R Introduction Introduction gg QuantitativeDesignlssues 26 The AspectsofTheory Zg The Three Major Approaches to Social Science 41 Conc lus ion Qualitativeand euantitative Orientations toward Research g4 QualitativeDesignlssues The Parts ofTheory The DynamicDuo 69 Literature Review C HA P T E R lntroduction C H A P TE R Reviewingthe ScholarlyLiteratureand Planninga Study 68 47 'l 09 I 09 Quanti tati veand eual i tati ve Measurement II0 Partsof the Measurement Process 'l 't R el i abi l i tyand V al i di ty IIs A Guideto Quantitative Measurement I 2l vil VIII CONT ENT S lndex Construction Sc a l e s 126 Resultsof ExperimentalResearch:Making 219 C ompari sons 128 Conclusion A Word on Ethics 138 C oncl usi on 221 222 C H A PT E R C H A P TE R Qualitativeand Quantitative S amp lin g 140 fntroduction 141 N o n p ro b a b i l i tyS a m p l i ng 225 fntroduction 141 Pro b a b i l i tyS a m p l i n g Conclusion NonreactiveResearchand Secondary Analysis 224 NonreactiveMeasurement 145 227 Content Analysis 164 225 ExistingStatistics/Documents and 236 SecondaryAnalysis lssuesof lnference and Theory Testing 244 PA R T T W O l:i::::: Conducting Quantitative Research Conclusion C H A P TE R I O C H AP T ER SurveyResearch l n tro d u c ti o n Analysisof Quantitative 247 Data 155 167 ' r5 The Logicof SurveyResearch 169 Constructingthe Questionnaire Typesof Surveys:Advantagesand Disadvantages 86 lnterviewing Dealingwith Data 248 R esul tsw i th One V ari abl e More Than Two Variables lnferentialStatistics 196 C oncl usi on 197 251 257 263 268 272 PART THREE C H A PT E R ExperimentalResearch Introduction 248 fntroduction Resultswith Two Variables 190 The EthicalSurvey Conclusion 245 200 ii? ConductingQualitative Research 2O4 C H A P TE R I 201 Random Assignment 2O2 ExperimentalDesignLogic fnternal and ExternalValidity PracticalConsiderations 212 219 FieldResearch fntroduction 275 27 C ON TEN TS The Logicof FieldResearch Z7g c hoos inga s i te a n d' Ga ining - D Access Relationsin the Field Leavingthe Field FocusGroups Introduction 2gS Observingand CollectingData The Field ResearchInterview 287 296 300 Other Techniques 339 Softwarefor eualitative Data Conclusion 342 3OZ CHA P T E R I 3O4 Data and Evidencein Historical Context 312 317 \{riting the Research Report Introduction The ResearchReport Glossary Bibliography Ethics Name Index 325 344 Conclusion Equivalencein Historical-Comparative Research 322 Conclusion 34O C H A P TE R steps in a Historical-comparativeResearch Project 31 325 32g PART Fo u R iti\ Writinga Research Report The Logicof Historical-Comparative Research iO5 comparative Research ComparingMethods of Data Analysis 328 AnalyticStrategiesfor Qualitative Data 335 Historical-comparative Research 3O4 fntroduction 327 329 Coding and Concept Formation 2gg EthicalDilemmasof Field Research 301 Conclusion C H A P TE R I Analysisof eualitative Data 280 rx Subject Index 359 36'l 377 391 3g3 344 343 CHAPTER DoingSocialResearch Introduction Alternatives to Social Research Authority Tradition C o m m o nSe n se Me d i aMy th s P e rs o n aEl x p eri ence How ScienceWorks Sc i e n c e T h e S c i e n ti flCommuni c ty The Scientific Methodand Attitude JournalArticlesin Science Steps in the ResearchProcess Dimensionsof Research Useof Research Pu rp o s e o fa Study T i m eD i me n s i on i n R esearcn D a taC o l l e c ti o n Techni ques Conclusion PART ONE ,/ F OUND A TION S IN T R OD U C T ION Socialresearchis all arounclus Educators,go\,ernment officials, businessmanagers,hutntrrt serviceproviders,and health care professionals regularlyuse socialresearchmethods anclfindings.Peopleusesocialresearchto raisechildren, reducecrime, irnprclvepublic health,sellproducts,clrjust understandone'slil-e.Reportsof researchappearon brclaclcast ne$,sprograms,it.t popuiar magazines,in nen,spapers, and on the lnternet Researchfindings can aftbct people'sdaily livesand public policies.For example,I recentll' heard a debateregrrrclirrg a U.S.lederaigovernment program to off-erteenagerssexualabstin e n c e c o u n s e l i n g A h i gh-l evel government official argued for sucl-rcounselingancl stror"rgl,v opposed offering teensbirth control inforirati o n A n i n d e p e n c l e n th eal th admi ni strator noted that there is no scientiflcevidenceshou,ing that abstinence-onlycounselingrvorks.Iie saidthat 80 percentoftcens arc alreadysexually activebythe ageof 18,thereforeit is essentialto provide birth control information Hc prointed to ma n y re s e a rc hs tu c l i esshorvi ngthi rt bi rth prcsnJncv control instruction for tecnslecluce's ratesand the spreadof scrr.rallrtr'.rr.rsnrittcti t1i:e a s e sT h e g o v e rn mc n ta Lrsti ncr.tcc or.i l r'.rrl rocatereiied on rnoral persurrsionLrcc.rr.rsc hc ir.r11 no researcheviclencc.lcieoloqr,iirith, urcipoliti c s s h a p ema n \' g o v e rn n rentprogranrsrather than solid researchcvidcnce,br,rtgood socialrcsearchcan help all of us make inlbrnred decisions The evidence also expltrins wh,y m.ury programs fail to accornplishmr.rchor m;ry more harm than gooc1 This book is about socialresearch.In simple tenxs, researchis a way of going about finding answersto questions.Prof-essors, prof-essional researchers, practitioners,and studentsin many fields cor-rdr.rct researchto scekansr\rersto questions about the socialworld You probably already have some notion clf whirt social reseal'ch entails.First,Iet me end sornepossiblemiscor.t- When i askedstudentsin my classes ceptior.rs ufiat they think socialreseirrchentails,they gave the lbllolr,ir-rgans\\rers: r r r r r r r r It is basedon firctsalone; there is no theory juclgrlrent or prersonal Onlr.expertsu,ith a Ph.D degreeor college professorsread it or it It meansgoing to the library and finding a lot of magazinearticlesor bookson a topic It is r,r,hensomeonehangsaround a group and observes It means conducting ir controlled experinlent Socialresearchis clrawinga sampleof peoto cornple and givingthem questionnaires plete It is looking up lots of statistical tables from oftrcial government and intbrn-ratior-r reports Llsecomputersto create To it, onc r.r.rr-Lst charts,and graphs stati sti cs, The flrst t\\'o urs\versare wrong, and the of what constitutessoothe-r's clcscribe or.rl.,.part to confuseone part cia] r'escarch.It is r-rr.rlvise rr ith the n.hole P eopl e conduct soci al resear cht o lear n nerv about the social world; or to sorr-rething hunches,or beliefs carefullydocunrentguesses, about it; or to refinetheir understandingofhow the sociaiworld works A researchercombines tl-reoriesor ideaslr,ith facts in a careful, systematic rvay and usescreativity He or she learns to orgirnizeand plan carefully and to selectthe appropriatetechniqr-re to addressa specifickind of alsomust treatthe people question.A rescarcher in a studi,in ethicaland moral ways.In addition, a researchern-rustfirlly ilnd clearlycommunicate the resultsofa study to others Socialreseirrchis ir processin which people combine a set of principles,outlooks,and ideas (i.c.,methodology)rvith a collectionof specific practi ces,techni ques,and strateg ies( i e , a rnethoclof inquiry) to produceknorvledge.It is C H AP TE R ,/ D OIN C SOC IA L R E S TdR C - an exciting processof discovery,but it requires persistence,personalintegrity, tolerancefor ambiguity, interaction with others,and pride in doing qualiry work Reading this book cannot transform you into an expert researcher,but it can teachyou to be a better consumerof researchresults,help you to understandhow the researchenterpriseworks, and prepareyou to conduct small researchprojects.After studying this book, you will be aware of what researchcan and cannot do, and why properly conductedresearchis important position of authority saysit is true or bec.ri:.c is in an authoritativepublication, )'ou are relvrn:on authority as a basisfor knowledge.Relr'inc on the wisdom of authoritiesis a quick, sirtrl.]3 and cheapway to learn something.Authoi-itie often spend time and effort to learn son.rething and_you can benefit from their experienceand worK There are also limitations to relying on allthority First, it is easyto overestimatethe expertise of other people.You may assumethat thev are right when they are not History is full of past expertswhom we now seeasbeing misinformed For example>some "experts" of the past n-reasured intelligenceby counting bumps on the AL T E RNA T I V E S T O S OC IA L skull; other "experts" usedbloodletting to try to R E S E A RCH cure diseases.Their errors seem obvious norl,, Unlessyou are unusual, most of r,vhatyou know but can you be certain that today's expertswill about the socialworld is not basedon doins sonot becometomorrow's fools?Second,authorrcial research.You probably learnedmost of i,hat ties may not agree,and all authoritiesmay not be you know using an alternativeto socialresearcl-r equally dependable.Whom should we believeif It is basedon what your parentsand other people authorities disagree?Third, authorities may (e.g.,friends, teachers)have told you You also speakon fields they know little about or be plaru have knowledgebasedon your personalexperiwrong An expert who is very informed about ences,the books and magazinesyou have read, one area may use his or her authority in an unand the movies and televisionyou havewatched related area Also, using the halo effect (disYou may also useplain old "common sense." cussedlater), expertisein one areamay spill over More than a collection of technioues,social illegitimatelyto be authority in a totally different researchis a processfor producing knowledge.It area.Have you everseentelevisioncommercials is a more structured, organized,and systematic where a movie star useshis or her fame as auprocessthan the alternativesthat most of us use thority to convinceyou to buy a car?We r.reecl tcr in daily life Knowledge from the alternativesis ask:Who is or is not an authority? often correct, but knowledge basedon research An additionalissueis the misuseof authoris more likely to be true and have fewer errors ity Sometimes organizations or indii'iduals Although researchdoesnot alwaysproduce pergive an appearanceof authority so thev ciut coltfect knowledge,compared to the alternativesit is vince others to agree to something that thel' rnuch lesslikely to be flawed Let us review the might not otherwiseagreeto A relateclsituation alternativesbefore examining socialresearch occurswhen a personwith little trairringi.rndexpertiseis named as a "seniorfbllon"'or."adiunct scholar" in a private "think trrnk" r,ith in inrAuthority pressivename, such as the Center tbr the Study You have acquired knowledge from parents, of X or the Institute on Y Research Somethink teachers,and expertsaswell as from books, teletanks are Iegitimateresearchcenters,but rnany vision, and other media When you accept are mere fronts createdby,.rveirlthv special-intersomething as being true becausesomeone in a estgroupsto engagein advocao.politics.Think o a RT O\E \)rl o\5 t.r1rk:a,ii t.r.,ri it]\r)uai.t"scholar"to facilitare ti rc :r ' r' i r l ,r.i a a c p ti n qthe pcrsonas al t auti t!j t.i i ' L rtt.:tt l :rL l c l rt real i ty,the perS onmay ir(rtir.r,.I rir, l rl!'\pertise.lAlso, too much re:r.r:ta !)i !' t ,tu th ()fl ti c sc a n b e dangeroustO a dei ]]r,.i rti c o c re t)' E x p e rtsmay promote i deas il.l.rt:trr'nqthentheir own power and position \\'ltcrt rrc'.lcCeptthe authority of experts,but rr)t kuo\\' l.rolvthey arrived at their knowledge, rlc Ltrscthe ability to evaluatewhat the experts savancilosecontrol of our destiny T d i ti o n Peoplesometimesrely on tradition fbr knowledge.Tradition is a specialcaseof authoritythe authority of the past Tradition means you acceptsomethingasbeing true because"it's the \\ray things have always been." For example, my father-in-law saysthat drinking a shot of u'hiskeycures a cold When I askedabout hrs statement,he said that he had learnedit from his father when he was a child, and it had come down from past generations.Tradition lvas the basisof the knowledge for the cure Here is an examplefrom the socialworld: Many peoplebelieve that children who are raised at home by their mothers grow up to be better adjustedand have fewer personalproblems than those raised in other settings.People "know" this, but how did they learn it? Most acceptit becausethey believe (rightly or wrongly) that it rvastrue in the past or is the way things have alwaysbeen done Sorne traditional social knowledge begins as simple prejudice.You might rely on tradition rvithor-rtbeing fully awareof it with a belief such as "Peoprlefrom that side of the trackswill never arnoLlntto anvthing" or "You never can trust that tvpe oi person"or "That's the way men (or u,omen) are." El,enif traditional knowledgewas oncetrue, it can becomedistortedas it is passed on, and soon it is no longer true Peoplemay cling to traditional knowledgewithout real understanding;they assumethat becausesomething may haveworked or been true in the past, it rvill continueto be true C ommon S ense You knorv a lot about the socialworld from your everydayreasoningor cornmon sense.You rely on what everyoneknows and what "just makes sense."For example,it "just makessense"that murder rates are higher in nations that not have a death penalty, becausepeople are less likely to kill if they face execution for doing so This and other widely held commonsensebeliefs, such as that poor youth are more likely to commit deviantactsthan thosefrom the middle classor that most Catholics not use birth control,are false Comrnon senseis valuable in daily living, but it irilolvslogicalfallaciesto slip into thinking For example,the so-calledgambler'sfallacysays: "If I hai'e a long string of lossesplaying a lottery, the nert tine I play, my chancesof winning lvill be better."In terms of probabilityand the facts, this is Ialse.Also, cclmmon sensecontainscor.rtradictory ideastl-ratoften go unnoticed because people use the ideas irt different times, such as "opposites attract" and "birds of a feather flock together."Common sensecan originate in tradition It is useful and sometimescorrect,but it alsocontainserrors,misinformation,contradiction, and prejudice Media Myths Television shows, movies, and newspaper and magazinearticiesare important sourcesof information For example, most people have no contactwith criminalsbut leam about crime by watching televisionshows and movies and by reading newspapers.However, the television portrayalsof crime, and of many other things, not accuratelyreflect socialreality The writers who create or "adapt" images from life for television sholvsand movie scripts distort reality either out of ignorance or becausethey rely on authority, tradition, and common sense Their primary goal is to entertain,llot to representreality accurately.Although many journaliststry to presenta realisticpicture of the world, 38 BrBLt oc RApHy Vallier, Ivan (1971b) Empirical comparisons of social structure In Comparative methods in sociologlt, edited by I Vallier, pp 203-263 Berkeley: University of California Press Van den Berg, Harry, and CeesVan der Veer (1985) Measuring ideological frames of references Quality and Quantity, 19:105-118 Van Laar, Colette, ShanaLevin, StaceySinclair, and ]im Sidanius (2005) The effect of university roommate contact on ethnic attitudes and behavior Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 4l:329-345 Van Maanen, Iohn (1982) Fieldwork on the beat In Varieties of qualitative research,edited by J Van Maanen, J Dabbs, Jr., and R Faulkner, pp 103-151.BeverlyHills, CA: Sage Van Maanen, John (1988) Talesof thefield Chicago University of Chicago Press Van Poppel, Frans, and L Day (1996) A test of Durkheim's theory of suicide-Without committing the "ecological fallaqr." American Sociological Review,61:500-507 Vaquera, Elizabeth,and Grace Kao (2005) Private and public displays of affection among interracial and intra-racial adolescent couples Social Science Quarterly, 86:484-508 Vidich, Arthur |oseph, and foseph Bensman.(1968) Small town in masssociety,rev ed Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, Wade, Nicholas (1976) IQ and heredity Science,194l 9t6-9r9 Walton, |ohn (1973) Standardized casecomparison ln Comparatiye social research, edited by M Armer and A Grimshaw, pp 173-191 New York: Wiley Warwick, Donald P (1982) Types of harm in social scienceresearch.In Ethical issuesin social science research,edited by T Beauchamp, R Faden, R J Wallace,and L Walters,pp l0l-123 Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press Warwick, Donald P., and Charles A Lininger (1975) The samplesurvey.NewYork McGraw-Hill Wax, RosalieH (197l) Doing fieldnork: Warnings and advice.Chicago: University ofChicago Press Wax, Rosalie H (L979) Gender and age in fieldwork and fieldwork education Social Problems, 26:509-522 Webb, Eugene |., Donald T Campbell, Richard D Schwartz, Lee Sechrest,and Ianet Belew Grove (1981) Nonreactiyemeasuresin the socialscience 2nd ed Boston: Houghton Mifflin Weber, Robert P (1983) Measurement models for content analysis Quality and Quantity, L7:127-I49 Weber, Robert P (1984) Computer assistedcontent analysis: A short primer Qualitative Sociology 7:126-149 Weber, Robert P (1985) Basiccontentanalysls.Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Weeks,M F., and R P Moore (1981).Ethnicity of interviewer effects on ethnic respondents Public Opinio n Quarterly, 45:245-249 Weinstein, Deena (1979) Fraud in science.Social Science Quarterly, 59:639-652 Weiss, Carol H (1997) Evaluation Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Weiss, Janet A., and Judith E Gruber (1987) The managed irrelevance of educational statistics In The politics of numbers,edited by W Alonso and P Starr, pp 363-39I New York Russell Sage Foundation Weitzer, Ronald, and Steven Tuch (2004) Race and perceptions of police miscondtct SocialProblems 51:305-325 Weitzer, Ronald, and StevenTuch (2005) Raciallybiasedpolicing SocialForces,83:1009-1030 Weitzman, Lenore, D Eifler, E Hokada, and C Ross, ( 1972) Sexrole socialization in picture books for preschool chrldren.American Journal of Sociology 77:1125-1150 Whiting, lohn W M (1968) Methods and problems in cross-cultural research.ln The handbook of social psycholoy,2nd ed., edited by G Lindzey and E Aronson, pp.693-728 Reading,MA: AddisonWesley Whyte, William Foote (1955) Streetcornersociety:The socialstructureof an Italian slum, 2nd ed.Chicago: University of Chicago Press \i\hyte, William Foote (1982) Interviewing in field research.In Field research,edited by R G Burgess, pp.llL-122 Boston: GeorgeAllen and Unwin Whyte, William Foote (1984) Learningfrom thefield Beverly Hills: Sage Williams, Peter, and David Wallace (1989) Unit 731: Japan's setet biological warfare in World War II New York Free Press Willimack, Diane K., Howard SchumanlBeth-Ellen Pennell, and fames M Lepkowski (1995) Effects of prepaid non-monetary incentives on response B IB LIOGR A P H Y 3t9 rates.and responsequali:tyin face-to-facesurvey' Public Opinion Quarterly,59:78-92' Wood, ElizabethAnne (2000).Working in the fantasy factory Iournal of ContemporaryEthnography' 29:5-32 Zane,Anne,and EuthemiaMatsoukas'(1979)'Different settings,different results?A comparisonof PublicOpinionQuarschoolandhomeresponses terlY,43:550-557 child' Zelizer,Yiiana A (1985).Pricingthepriceless NewYork BasicBooks' Ziman, |ohn (August 19, Lggg)' Social rules of the gamein doing science.Nattl q 400:721' Zimbardo, Philip G (1972) Pathology of imprisonment.SocietY,9:4-6 Zimbardo,Philip G (1973).On the ethicsof intervention in human psychologicalresearch'Cognitiot" 2:243-256 Zimbardo'Philip G.,et al (April 8, 1973)'Themind is a formidable jarlet New York TimesMagazinq L22:3M0 Zimbardo,Philip G., etal'-$97D The psychologyof imprisonment: Privation, power and patholoqy' ln Doing unto others,edited by Z Rubin' Englewood ClifFs,Nf: Prentice-Hall A Andolina, M., 19 Draus,P.,58,160 Duneier,M., 30, 40,286,292, 294 Durkheim, E., 25, 92, 97, 305 B Hyrnan,H., 195 Hyrnes,D.,323 I |eflreys,A., 11 |unker,8.,279 Banaszak, L., 305 Bearman,P.,81 Becker,H., 353 Bendix,R., 337 Blee,K., 307,314 Bond, C., 214,2I9 Bradburn,N., 175-176 B r as e, G , 33, 37 ,2 Briggs,C.,297 Burawoy, M., 65 Burt, C.,49 E Foster,G,225 Fowler,F., 171 Freeman,H., 13 Kalmijn,M.,32-33,40 Katzer,J.,79 Kissane,R., 144,298 Kleg,M., 133 Kriesi,H.,305 Kuhn, T.,41-42 c G L Canter,D.,340 Chafetz,l.,28 Chavez,L.,23l Cherlin,A., 17 Cogan,J.,323 Crozat,M., I37 Galton,F.,319 Gamson,W., I43 Garza,C., 16 Goar,C., 103-104,205 Gorden,D., 191 Gordon, P., 135 Gurney,I.,285 Lamont,M.,317 Lauzen,M., 103-104, 228-230 LeMasters,E., 331 Lieberson, 5.,244 Lofland,I.,354 Lu, S.,105-106 Edelman,L.,4041,115 E l d e r,G.,3 Eliasoph,N., 281 F M D Dasgupta,N., 217 Davis,f , L54,I58,240 Denz in,N , 279 ,2 DeVaus,D., 177 Diener,E.,58 Dillman, D., 184 Douglas,l.,297 Downey,L.,236-237 K H Harper,D.,354 Hawkes,D., 136,206,2LI-212 Heberlein,T., 186 Hemingway,8.,349 H i l l , M.,3 H o l t, R ,3 17 Humphreys,L., 52-53, 57 Marx, A., 34,305 Marx, K., 25,305-306 Mastro,D.,232 McKelvie,S.,225 Merton,R.,31 Miles,M.,340 Milgram,S.,51,53 Mill, J.,336 391 392 NAMEtND,Ex Misher,8.,297 Molotch,H., 105-106 Musick,M., 103-104 N Rind, B.,209 Roscigno,V.,34 Rueschemeyer,D.,2T T ', : Taylor,S.,52 Tyldum,G., 160 ,l.i;l S V4r Neuman,W.,77 o Oesterle, S.,19,39 Ong,A.,211 P l Paige, f.,338 Piliavin,1.,5I,57 Popper, K.,93 R Ragin,C.,90 Rathje, W.,226 riliiiir iilfii r,llh; Sanders,I., 39 Sassen, S.,305 Scarce,R., 58 Schatzmann,L.,299 Schuman,H., 180, 183 Scribner,R.,220 Skocpol,T.,305,311 Smith,T., 181 Sniderman,P., 130 Snow,D.,20 Solomon,R.,210 Spradley,l.,297 Stac\ S., l6-17 Starr, P., 305 Strauss,A., 3l Sudman,S., 183,191 Sutton,l.,322 Vanlaar, C., 130, I32,ZIB VanMaanen,1.,52,354 VanPoppel,F.,97 Vaquera,E., 159 Vidich, A., 57 w Wax,R.,285 Weber,M.,25,305,336 Weitzer,R., 29,32,38,73, l3Z Whyte,W., 12,354 z Zelizer,V.,305 Zimbardo,P.,51,53 D EX A Abstract ofarticleor report,73,77,80,351 aslocation tool for articles,T5-77 Abstraction, level of, 31, 45 Abuse (seeHarm to researchsubjects) Accessto field site,280-283 Account, secondary(seeInterpretation, secondorder) Accretion measures(seeMeasures,accretion) Aggregates,24 Analysis blame,25,45 casestudy (seeResearch,casestudy) cohort, l8-I9,22 content,20,227-236, 246 data(seeD ataanalysis) Ievelof, 95-97,107 network,339 scalogram,138 secondary,239-241 time allocation,339 units of, 95-97, 107,228,231-232,240 Analltic memos (seeNotes, analytic notes/memos;Notes,field) Anonl.rnity, 57-58,66 Appearanceof interest,287 Archives,3l3 Associationof variables,36, 45,263 measuresof,263-264 requirement for causalry,36-37 Assumptions (seeTheory, assumptionsof) s, 284,302 Attitude of strangenes (see Variables,attributes o0 Attributes Audience for researchreport, 344-345 Authenticity, 120 Authority, as alternativeto science,3, Available data(seeResearch,nonreactive) Average(seeMean; Median;Mode) Axial coding (seeCoding, in qualitative research, axial) B Back translation, 32!, 323, 326 Bad Blood, 50 173 Balance,in questionresponses, Bar chart (seeStatistics,univariate) Bell-shapedcurve (seeNormal distribution) Beta (seeRegression,multiple) Bias(seealsoUnbiased) interviewer in surveys,194 Galton'sproblem (seeGalton'sproblem) prestige,170-171,I98 random processto avoid, 203 responseset(seeResponse, set) selection,2I2-2I3, 223 socialdesirabrlity, 176, L98 Blind peer review, Body of table (seeT able,parts of cross-tabulation table) BogardusSocialDistanceScale(seeScale, BogardusSocialDistance) Bracketing,3l5 C Casing,330 telephone C ATI (seeComputer-assisted interviewing) 393 394 s uB J E c r rN D EX Causalor Causality(seealsoExplanation, causal; Relationship,causal) mechanism,38 temporal order, 35-36 Cell oftable (seeTable,parts ofcross-tabulation table) Census,l4l,24l Centrallimit theorem,I49, L5L,16I Central tendencymeasures(seeMean; Median; Mode) Citation, 73-75,81, 107 Classification(seeConcepts,classifications) Codebook, 248-249,273 Code cleaning,possible(seeData,quantitative, cleaning) Codeofethics,49,59-60 Code sheets(seeData,quantitative entry) Coding in content analysis form (seeRecordingsheet) 1atent,229*230,246 manifest,229,246 system,228-229,246 in qualitative research aial,33l-333,342 open,33I-333,342 selective, 33I-333,342 in quantitative research precoding,248 procedure, 248-250 Cohort study or analysis(seeAnalysis,cohort) Comparative-historicalresearch(seeResearch, historical-comparative) Composing (seeWriting, processof) Computer-assistedtelephoneinterviewing (CATI), 194-195, t98 Computer software (seealsoHypertext) for qualitative data,340-342 for quantitative data,272 Concepts building blocks of theory 26 classifications ,27 , 45 clusters,27,45 cross-cultural(seeEquivalence,conceptual) scope,28 Conceptualization,I I 1-1 15, 139,329-330 Confederates,20T(seealsoDeception) Confidenceinterval, I5lI52, 164-165 Confidentialitr, 58-59, 66, 30I (seealsoEthics) Conflict theory $eeTheory, conflict) Consistenryin field research external,294,302 internal,294,303 Constructs(seeConcepts) Contamination in experiments(seeValidiry internal) Content,in contentanalysis(seeTextin content analysis) Content analysis(seeAnalysis,content) Context in qualitative research,88-89 (seealso Effect,context, in surveyresearch; contextual) Equivalence, Contingency cleaning 250,273 (seealsoData, quantitative, cleaning) question (seeQuestion, contingency) table (seeCross-tabulation) usedin writing (seeWriting, in historicalcomparativeresearch) Contrast ofcontexts in ideal types(seeIdeal type, contrastcontexts) Control in causalstatement,3T in experiments,206-207 group,204-206,222 variables(seeVariables,control) Correlation (seePearsonproduct moment correlation coefficient) Correlation study (seeResearch,cross-sectional) Covariation (seeAssociationof variables) Cover sheetin surveyresearch,184, 198 Covert research(seeResearch,covert) Credibility of membersin field research,294 Critical socialscience,44 Criticism in historical research,external and internal,3l6,326 Cross-overdesign (seeExperimental design, cross-over) Cross-sectional(seeResearch,cross-sectional) Cross-tabulation,259-263,273 Curvilinear relationship (seeRelationship, curvilinear) suB fE cr IN D E X D Data,7,22 qualitative, 7, 16,2L-22 quantitative, 7, 16,2012 cleaning,250 entry,248-250 records,248-250 Data analysis qualitative, 328-342 quantitative, 248-272 Debrief,206,2I9,222 Deception,53,207,219,222,301 (seealsoEthics) Deductive reasoning(seeExplanation, deductive) theory (seeExplanation, deductive) Definition conceptual,1i 1-1 i5, 139 operational, lI2-1I5, I39 theoretical111-1 15, 139 Descriptive question (seeQuestion, descriptive) research(seeResearch,descriptive) statistics(seeStatistics,descriptive) Design notation (seeExperimental design, notation) Diagrams in qualitative data analysis flowchart, 339-340 other,340 Diffirsion of treatment as internal validity threat, 2t 5, 2t 8, 2 Direct-entry method (seeData, quantitative, entry) Direct-observationnotes (seeNotes, field) Direction of relationship (seeRelationship, negative,Positive) Dissertations,Ph.D., 8, 74-7 Double-barreledquestion (seeQuestion, doublebarreled) Double-blind experiment (seeExperiment' double-blind) Double-negative(seeQuestion, double-negative) E Ecological falTaq (seeFallacy, ecological) 395 validity (seeValidity, in field research) Editing (seeWriting, processof) Effect 182-184'198 context,in surveyresearch, halo,6,22 Hawthorne,217-218, 223 history internal validity threat, 2I3, 218, 223 instrumentation, internal validity threat' 207, 2lr interaction,214 LakeWobegon,6L mai n,210 maturation, internal validity threat, 214' 218, 223 order ofsurveyquestions,182,198 testing,internal validity threat, 214,218 wording of surveyquestions,181,198 Elaboration paradigm, 265-267, 273 Empathy in field research(seeVerstehen) Empirical evidence,7, 22, 25,35' I 15 generalization,3 l-32, 46 hypothesis(seeHypothesis,empirical) Empty boxes (seeIllustrative method) Equivalence in comparative r esearch, 322 conceptual,324-326 contextual,232-324, 326 lexicon, 322,326 (seealsoBacktranslation) measurement,325-326 Erosionmeasures(seeMeasures,erosion) Error (seealsoBias;Fallacy) of reductionism (seeReductionism) sampling, 148-149, I5l, 164-165 of segregation ,353, 359 TypeI, II,270-27I,273 Ethics,2,13,48-65 in experimentalresearch,207,221 222 in field research,301-302 in historical-comparativeresearch,325 in nonreactive r esearch,245 in survey resear ch, 196-197 Ethnography, 276-27 8, 302 Ethnomethodology, 277-27 8, 302 Evaluation research(seeResearch,evaluationi 396 s uB J E c r tN D E x Evidence,empirical (seeEmpirical, evidence) Exchangetheory(seeTheory exchange) Executivesummary 351, 359 Existin g statistics,2 22 Expectanry,experimenter,2 15 Experiment, 20I-223 (seealsoExperimental, research) double-blind,2t5-216, 222 field,277-218,223 laboratory2I7,223 Experimental group, 204J05,223 mortality, internal validity threat, 214, 2lg, zzJ posttest,205-209,223 pretest,205-209,223 research,20, 22, 200-223 treatment,205,208,2I2, 2lg, 223 Experimental design,207 classical,207-209, 222 cross-over,56,65 equivalenttime series,209- 210, 213,223 factorial, 210, 213, 223 interrupted time series,209, 213,223 Latin square,2I0, 2I3, 223 not at ion,212,2 I3 ,2 2 one-group pretest-posttest,209_209,213 one-shot casestudy, 208109, 213, 223 preexperimental, 207-208, 223 quasi-experiment, 208-209, 223 Solomon four-group, 2I0-2I3, 223 static group comparison, 209109, 213 two-group posttest-only,2 13 Explanation, 34-35 alternative,34-36 (seealsoHlpothesis, alternative) causal,35-39,45 deductive, 29-30,46 idiographic,46 inductive,30,46 interpretative, 40-41 nomothetic,4246 ordinary,35 pattern (seeElaboration paradigm) structural, 39-40 theoretical,35 Explanatoryresearch(seeResearch, explanatory) Exploratory research(seeResearch,exploratory) Externalconsistenry(seeConsistenryin field research,external) External criticism (seeCriticism in historical research,external) External validity (seeY alidity, external) F Fallary ecological,97-98, I02, I07 ethnographic,294, 302 of misplacedconcreteness,240, 246 ofnonequivalence,99 Feminist research(seeResearch,feminist) Field (seealsoField research) experiment (seeExperiment, field) site,280-281,302 Field research , 2112,276-302 comparative,319-320 comparedwith historical-comparative, 307-309 focusingin,295196 interviews (seeInterview, field) overinvolvement in, 282, 286, 303 presentationof self in, 283 rapport in,284-285 roles in 285-287 samplingin,295-296 small favors in,286 Findings, suppressionof(see Sponsorsof research,ethical concerns) First-order interpretation (seeInterpretation, first-order) Floater in surveyresearch,180, l9g Focusgroups, 300, 303 Focusing(seeField research,focusing in) Freewriting (seeWriting, processof) Frequenry distribution (seeStatistics,univariate) polygon (seeStatistics,univariate) Functional theory $ee Theory, functional) Funnel sequencein questionnaires,182, l9g S U B JE CIN T DEX G Galton's problem, 319-320, 326 Gamma (seeAssociationof variables,measures ofl Gatekeeper,in field rcsearch,282 GeneralSocialSurvey(GSS),158,239-240,246 "Go native" (seeField research,overinvolvement in) Grantsmanship, 357, 359 Grounded theory (seeTheory grounded) GSS(seeGeneralSocialSurvey) Guilty knowl edge(seeKnowledge, guilty) Guttman Scale(seeScale,Guttman) H Halo effect (seeEffect,halo) Harm to researchsubjects,51-53 Hawthorne effect (seeEffect, Hawthorne) Histogram (seeStatistics,univariate) Historical-comparativeresearch(seeResearch, historical-comparative) Historiography, 312 History effect (seeEffect, history internal validity threat) HRAF (seeHuman Area RelationsFiles) Human Area RelationsFiles (HRAF),320,326 Hyper1.ert,342 Hlpothesis, 29,L07 alternative,95,107 causal,92-93 conceptual,113-115, 139 empirical,113-115, 139 null,93-95,107 I Ideal type, 27-28, 46, 336-337 analogiesin,337 contrast contexts,337 Idiographic explanation (seeExplanation, ideographic) Illustrative method, 338, 342 Independencein statisticalrelationship (see Relationship,independence) 397 Index aslocation tool to find articles (seeAbstract, as location tool for articles) asmethod of measuremenl,124-128,139 unweighted, 127 weighted,127 Indicator multiple, 116-117,139 socra7,237 Inductive approachto theory (seeExplanation,inductive) reasoning(seeExplanation, inductive) Inference in content analysis,236 fr om nonreactive data,244 samples,162-164 separationof,29l Inferential statistics(seeStatistics,inferential) Informant in field research.299 Informed consent,5+-55, 66 Institutional ReviewBoard (IRB), 54, 59, 66, 358 Interaction effect (seeEffect,interaction) Intercoder reliability (seeReliability, intercoder) Interlibrary loan service,73 Internal consistency(seeConsistencyin field research, internal) criticism (seeCriticism in historical research, internal) validity (seeValidity, internal) Internet (seealsoSurvey,web) usein literature search,80, 82-84 Interpretation first-order, 90, 107 second-order,90,L07 of secondarysources,historical-comparatite research.314-315 third-order, 90,107 in trivariate data analysis (seeElaboration paradigm) Interpretative socialscience(ISS),43-14 Interval-levelmeasures(seeMeasurement,ler"el< o0 Interview comparison of survey and ordinanconversation.190-191 398 s uB J Ec r T N D EX Interview (continued) in cross-nationalsurveyresearch,32l face-to-facesurvey,I 8g-1 90 field,296-299 postexperimental,2Ig scheduleof, 168,198 stagesof, 192 survey, 190-194 telephone,188-189 training for,192-193 IRB (seeInstitutional ReviewBoard) T /ournals personal (seeNotes, field, personaljournal) scholarlyarticles,9, I-7 4, 76-7 K Knowledge explicit,277 guilty,301-302 questionsin surveys,176-177 tacit,277 L Lake Wobegon effect (seeEffect,Lake Wobegon) Lambda (Associationof variables,measuresof) Latent coding (seeCoding, in content analysis, latent) Latin squaredesign(seeExperimental design, Latin square) Layout (seeQuestionnaire,layout of) Level of analysis(seeAnalysis,level of) ot measurement(seeMeasurement,levelsofl of significance(seeStatistical,significance) Lexicon equivalent(seeEquivalence,lexicon) Likert Scale(seeScale,Likert) Literature (seealsoJournals,scholarlvarticles) reviews,69-7 1, 79-80, 82, 107 Logic of disconfirming hypothesis,g3-94 (seealso Hypothesis,null) of historical-comparativeresearch,306_3l0 M Macro-level theory $ee Theory, macro-level) Manifest coding (seeCoding in content analysis, manifest) Maps (seealsoDiagramsin qualitative data analysis) social,292193 (seealsoSociograms) spatial,292-293 temporal, 292-293 Marginals (seeTable,parts of cross-tabulation table) Matching vs random assignment,203-:204 Maturation effect(seeEffect,maturation, internal validity threat) Mean,25I-253, 273 Measurement,108-129 equivalence(seeEquivalence,measurement) levelsof, 722-124, 139,264 validity (seeY alidity, measurement) Measures accretion,225-226 246 of association(seeAssociationof variables, measuresofl of central tendency (seeMean;Median;Mode) erosion,225-226,246 unobtrusive (seeResearch,nonreactive) of variation (seeStandarddeviation) Media m1ths, 4-7 Median, 251-253,273 Member in field research,267 validation (seeYalidity,in field research) Micro-level theory $ee Theory,microlevel) Milgram Obediencestudy, 51, 53 Missing data in existingstatisticsresearch,249 in index construction, 127 Mode,25I-253, 273 Mortality, experimental (seeExperimental mortality, internal validity threat) Multiple indicators (seeIndicator, multiple) regression(seeRegression,multiple) sorting procedure, 339-340 Mutual exclusiveness(seeVariables,mutually exclusive) Outlining (seeWriting, Processo0 Overgeneralization, 6, 22 N Narrative history,315 mode of qualitative data analysis335-336'342' 355 National Opinion ResearchCenter (NORC)' 8' 239-240 National ResearchAct, 59 Natural history, 295, 335, 354 Naturalism, 278,303 Negativerelationship (seeRelationship,negative) Notinal-level measures(seeMeasurement'levels of) Nonresponsein surveyresearch,186 NORC (seeNational Opinion ResearchCenter) Normal distribution, 253 (seeako Skewed distribution) Normalize, in field research,286,303 Norming (seeStandardization) Notes analytic notes/memos,291-292, 302,332-334 fie\d.289-294 direct observati on, 289-292, 303 inference'291 jotted,289-290, 303 personaljournal, 29I-292 personal,289-294 Nuremburg Code, 59-60 o Objective,64-65 Observation in field research,287 selective,6,22 structured, 228,246 One-shot casestudy (seeExperimental design' one-shot casestudY) Open coding (seeCoding, in qualitative research' open) Ouerationalization'I 12-115' 139 Optical scansheets(seeData, quantitative' entry) Oral history, 314,326 Ordinal-level measures(seeMeasurement'levels o0 P Panelstudy, I7-I9,22 Paradigm,4142,46 Parameterof population , L47, l5l, 165 Paraphrase,348,359 Partials,tablesin trivariate analysis'265-267, 273 Participant observationin field teseatch,287 Pearsonproduct moment correlation coefficient, 37.264 Peerreview (seeBlind peer review) Percentagedtable (seeCross-tabulation) Percentile,254 Ph'D') Ph.D (seeDissertations, (see univariate) Statistics' Pie chart Pilot study,117 test,179,219 Placebo,216-223 Plagiarism, 49, 66, 348,359 Population, 146,165 hidden,160-161,165 parameter (seeParameterof population) special,55-56,66 target,146,165 Positivism,42-43 Posttest(seeExperimental,posttest) PPS(seeSampling,probability proportionate to size) Prais,44,46 Precisionin statisticalrelationship, 258-259 Precoding (seeCoding in quantitative research,Precoding) Prediction, 34-35,46 Preexperimentaldesigns(seeExperimental design,PreexPerimental) Premature closure, 6, 22 Pretest,improving measures'll7 (seeako ExPerimental,Pretest) Principal investigator (PI)' 358-359 Principle ofvoluntary consent,53' 59,66 Privacy,57 400 s uB JEc r rN D E X Probability,24 proportionate to size(seeSampling,probability proportionate to size) theory (seeTheory, probability) Probes,179,192-193,1,98 Proofreading (seeWriting, processof) Proposition (seeTheory,proposition in) Pseudosurvey(seeSurvey,pseudo) Publicopinion (seeResearch, survey) Purposivesampling (seeSampling,purposive) a Qualitative data(seeData, qualitative) Quantitative data (seeData, quantitative) Question closed-ended,177-178,198 contingency,17l-172,198 contrast, 298,302 descriptive,298,302 double-barreled,171,198 double-negative,I73 full-filter, 179, I98 leading,lT2 loaded,lT2 matrix, 185-186,198 open-ended,177-179,198 order(seeEffect,orderofsurveyquestions) partially open, 179, 198 quasi-filter,180,198 research(seeResearch, question) slop,77I-1.72, 198 standardformat,180*181,i98 structural, 298*299, 303 threatening, 175-L78, 198 Questionnaire,169 layout of, 181-185 length of, 18 1-182 mail, 186-188 R Random assignment,202-204,223 number table,148,153,165 sampling,148*149,161,165 RandomDigit Dialing (RDD), 158-159,165 Range in statistics,253,273 in theory (seeTheory, range) Rates(seeStandardization) Ratio-levelmeasures(seeMeasurement, levelsof) RDD (seeRandom Digit Dialing) Reactive(seeReactivity) Reactivity,54,2L7,223 Recall,aiding respondent, 173-174 Recollections, 3I4, 326 Recordingsheet in contentanalysis,223-225,246 in quantitative data analysis,248 250 Reductionism,gS-99, I02, 107 Refusals,in surveyresearch(seeNonresponse,in surveyresearch) Regression multiple, 266-267 statistical(threat to internal validity),2ls Relationship bivariate,257-263 causal,35-39 curvilinear,258,262 direction,258 form ol 258 independence,257-258,273 linear,37,258-259,262,273 negative,39, 46, 258 nonlinear,258 positive,39,46,258 precision in (seePrecisionin statistical relationship) recursive,37 theory,in,29 Reliability, II5-117, LI9-120, 139 in existingstatisticsresearch,243-244 in field research,294-295 intercoder,230 relation to validity, 120-I2l Replication (seealsoElaboration paradigm) of other'smeasures.117 ofresearchfindings,42,46 Requestfor Proposals(RFP),356,359 Research academic,IL-I3,2L action,13,22 suB JE C rTN D E X Research(continued) applied,Ll-13,22 bas ic 11, 13, casestudy,l8-19,20, 22,306 covert, 54 cross-section al, 17-18, 22 descriptive,L5-L6,22 evaluation, 12-13,22 existingstatistics(seeExisting statistics) experimental (seeExperimental,research) explanatory L5-16,22 exploratory 15-16,22 feminist, 14,336 field (seeField research) fraud in (seeScientific,fraud) historical-comparative,2I 22, 305-326 longitudinal, 17-I8, 22 nonreactive,225-246 path linear,85,107 nonlinear,85,107 problem,86-88, 101-103 proposal, 355-359 quantitative and qualitative comparcd, 7, 20, 86-88 question,86-88, 101-103 report, 344 (seeako Writing, organization of) secondaryanalysis(seeAnalysis,secondary) social,2,22 survey,20,22, 167-798 time series,L7-I8,22 Respondents,167 Response, 130-131,181,198 in surveyresearch,186 Revising(seeWriting, processof) Rewriting (seeWriting, processofl RFP (seeRequestfor Proposals) Rho (seeAssociationof variables,measureso0 Running records,226,314,326(seea/soExisting statistics) S Sampling accidental,142-143,165 cluster,154-158,161,165 content analysis,233 4{tl convenience,142-143, 165 deviantcase,145,165 distribution, 149-151,165 element, L46, L65 error (seeError, sampling) extremecase,145,165 field research(seeField Research,sampling in) frame,I46-L47, L5l-I52,155, 165 haphazard, | 42- | 43, | 65 interval,l5l-154, 16l, 165 judgmental,I42-I43, 165 nonprobability, | 41, 765 nonrandom,I4l, 765 probability (seeRandom, sampling) probability proportionate to size (ppS), 157-158,165 purposive,I42-I43, 165 quota,742, 165 ratio, 146,151,165 sequential,I45,165 simple random (seeRandom, sampling) size,I6L-I62 snowball, 144-145,165 stratified, 152-154,161, 165 systematic, 151-154,161,165 Scale,124-125, I28-I39 BogardusSocialDistan ce,132-135, 139 Guttman,135-139 Likert, 129-132,139 semanticdifferential,135-136,139 Scalogramanalysis(seeAnalysis,scalogram) Scattergram,257-258, 273 Scholarlyjournals (see|ournals, scholarh articles) Science,7 Scientific community, 7-9,22 fraud,49,66 method, S-9,22 misconduct, 4849,66 Secondary account (seeInterpretation, second-orderI analysis(seeAnalysis,secondary) Selective coding (seeCoding in qualitative researcb" selective) observation(seeObservation,selecth-e 4O s uBJ Ec r T N D E X Semanticdifferential (seeScale,semantic suppression,196 differential) web, 187-189 Separationof inference(seeInference, separation Symbolic interactionism (seeTheory,symbolic ofl interactionism) Skeweddistribution, 253_254,273 Systematicsample (seeSampling,systematic) Social impact assessment,14_15.22 T indicator (seeIndicator,social) Sociograms,144,165 Table Solomon four-group design (seeExperimental in bivariate statistics(seeCross_tabulation) design) partsof cross-tabulationtable,260,273 Sourcesin historical research trivariate,265-267 primary, 312-317, 326 Tau (seeAssociationof variables,measures ofl secondary314_316,326 Tearoom Trade study, 52_53,57 Specialpopulations (seepopulation, special) Telephoneinterviewing (seeInterview, telephone) Specificationpattern (seeElaborationparadigm) Temporal order (seeCausal,temporal order) Sponsorsof research,ethical.on nr, l_63" Text in content analysis,227, 246 Spuriousness , 37,99_102,I07, 263,322 Theoreticalframeworks,32_33 Standarddeviation,254_256,273 Theory Standardization, !27 -129, I39 assumptionsof,2g,45 Standardizedscore(seeZ_score) causal(seeExplanation, causal) Statistic(contrastedwith parameter), 147,165 conflict,33 Statistical exchange,33 regression(seey alidity, internal) functional, 32-33, 40,46 significance,269-270,273 grounded, 3I, 46, gg, 309 validity (seey alidity,statistical) , level of 33 StatisticalAbstractof the (Jnited States, _23g, 237 macro-level,34, 46 246 meso-level,34,46 Statistics micro-level, 33, 46 bivariate,257J65, 269,273 middle-range,3l-32 descriptive,25lJ6g, 273 network,3g inferential, 162, 765, 16g17 I probabiliry 148_149 univariate,251157, 269,273 proposition in,29,46 Stepsin research,9-10 range,31 Structural rational choice,33 explanation (seeExplanation, structural) sequential,39 fu nctionalism (seeTheory,structural social,7,24 functional) structural functional, 32_33,40,46 question (seeeuestion, structural) substantive,3l-32 Stylein writing, 345 symbolic interactionism, 33 Successive approximation, 337_33g,342 Threateningquestion (seeeuestion, threatening) Suppressionof researchfindings,62_63 Time series Survey equivalentdesign(seeExperimental design) cross-national,321 interrupted design (seeExperimental d.rrg"l pseudo,196 research(seeResearch,time series) research(seeResearch,survey) Tone in writing, 345,353 S U B JE CIN T DEX Tradition, asalternativeto science,4 Treatment in experiments(seeExperimental design) Trivariatetables(seeTable,trivariate) Tlpe I, II error (seeError, Type I' II) U Unbiased,203 Understanding (seeVerstehen) Unidimensio nality, L25,739 Unit of analysis(seeAnalysis' units o0 Universal Declaration of Human Rights' 60 Universe,87,107,146 Unobtrusive measures(seeResearch,nonreactive) Unweighted index (seeIndex, asmethod of measurement,unweighted) V Validity, ll5-12r,139 concurrent,l18,139 content,118,139 criterion, 118' 139 external, l2L, 139,216-2L8 face,118-120,139 in field research competent insider' 295 ecological,295,302 member valid ation, 295, 303 natural history 295 internal, l2l, 139,212-216, 2I9 measurement,115,i 18' 139,t64 predictive,i 18-l 19, 139 relation of reliability to, lL9-120 statistical,12l typesof, 121 Value freedom,42,64 Variables,107 attributesof,91, 107 continuous, 122-123,139 control, 37, 263-268,273 defined,91 4O3 dependent,I07,205 discrete,122-123, I39 exhaustiveattributes, 125,139, 173, 314 independent, gI-92, 107(seealsoExperimental design) intervening, 92, I07 mutually exclusive,125, 139, 173, 314 suppressor(seeElaboration paradigm) Variance (seeStandarddeviation) Variation, concomitant (seeAssociationof variables) Verstehen(empatheticunderstanding) 44, 46, 285 Voice, in writing, 350 w Web survey (seeSurvey, web) Weighted index (seeIndex, as method of measurement,weighted) Whistle-blower, 61,66 Wording effects(seeEffect,wording of survey questions) Writer's block, 349 Writing, organization of, 345-354 in field researchreports, 302, 352-355 in historical-comparativeresearch,354-355 metaphor,350 outlines, 345-346 in quantitative researchreports, 35L-352 Writing, processof composing, 348-349 editing,349,359 freewriting,349 prewriting, 348,359 revising, 349,359 rewriting, 349-351, 359 Z Zimbardo Prison Experiment, 51, 53 Zoom lens, 302,352-355 Z-scorc,255-256,273