English language teaching book

LONGMAN GRAMMAR SPOKEN "'" WRITTEN at ENGLISH ~ ,I Readers may wish to consult the above publications vvww.I')ngman.com ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING THIRD EDITION COMPLETELY REVISED AND UPDATED Jeremy Harmer - Contents page Preface ix Acknowledgements xi PART 1: LANGUAGE CHAPTER 1: THE WORLD OF EN GUSH A The place of English AI The numbers game How English got there A2 Where English fits A3 A4 The future of English B Varieties of English Three circles Bl Appropriate models of English B2 83 General and specific CHAPTER 2: DESCRIBING LANGUAGE Grammar A AI Spoken and written grammar Problems with grammar rules A2 Vocabulary B Bl Language corpora B2 Word meaning B3 Extending word use B4 Word combinations The grammar of words B5 Language in use C Purpose Cl C2 Appropriacy Languageasdfficour~ C3 Genre C4 D The sounds of the language DI Pitch D2 Intonation 1 6 12 13 15 16 16 18 19 20 21 23 23 24 25 27 28 28 28 E Individual sounds D3 D4 Sounds and spelling D5 Stress Paralinguistic features of language Vocal paralinguistic features EI Physical paralinguistic features E2 29 31 32 33 33 33 PART 2: LEARNERS AND TEACHERS CHAPTER 3: DESCRIBING LEARNERS A Age Young children Al Adolescents A2 Adult learners A3 Learner differences B BI Aptitude Good learner characteristics B2 Learner styles B3 Language levels B4 Individual variations B5 What to about individual differences B6 Motivation C Defining motivation CI Sources of motivation C2 ?Initiating and sustaining motivation C3 CHAPTER 4: DESCRIBING TEACHERS What is a teacher? A Teachers and learners Al The roles of a teacher B Controller BI Organiser B2 Assessor B3 Prompter B4 Participant B5 Resource B6 B7 Tutor Observer B8 Which role? 89 The teacher as performer C D The teacher as teaching aid Mime and gesture D1 Language model D2 D3 Provider of comprehensible input ii 37 38 38 40 41 41 41 42 44 45 48 51 51 51 52 56 56 57 58 58 59 60 60 61 62 62 63 63 64 64 65 Sot 66 PART 3: THEORIES, METHODS, AND TECHNIQUES CHAPTER 5: SOME BACKGROUND ISSUES A Pulling habits out of rats 'Language learning will take care of itself' B C Noticing The affective variable D Discovering language E CHAPTER 6: POPULAR METHODOLOGY Approaches methods, procedures, and techniques A Al Audio-lingualism Presentation, Practice, and Production A2 PPP and alternatives to PPP A3 A4 The Communicative approach AS Task-based learning A6 Four methods A7 Humanistic teaching A8 The Lexical approach B What methodology? Bl Methods and culture B2 Making choices CHAPTER 7: MISTAKES AND FEEDBACK A Students make mistakes B Assessing student performance Teachers assessing students Bl B2 Students assessing themselves Feedback during oral work C Accuracy and fluency CI C2 Feedback during accuracy work Feedback during fluency work C3 D Feedback on written work DI Written feedback techniques D2 Finishing the feedback process 68 70 73 74 7S 78 79 80 82 84 86 88 90 91 93 93 % 99 lOO 100 102 104 104 106 107 109 110 112 PART 4: MANAGING CLASSES CHAPTER 8; GROUPING STUDENTS A Different groups Al Whole-class teaching A2 Students on their own A3 Pairwork A4 Groupwork 114 114 115 116 117 iii B A5 Ringing the changes Organising pairwork and groupwork Making it work Bl B2 Creating pairs and groups B3 Procedures for pairwork and groupwork B4 Troubleshooting CHAPTER 9: PROBLEM BEHAVlOUR AND WHAT TO DO ABOUT IT A B C D Why problems occur Preventing problem behaviour Creating a code of conduct Bl B2 Teachers and students Reacting to problem behaviour cPJease speak English!' D1 Why students use the mother tongue in class D2 Attitudes to mother-tongue use in the classroom D3 What to about it 118 119 119 120 122 124 a 126 127 127 128 129 1.31 131 131 132 CHAPTER 10: EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND OTHER TEACHING EQUIPMENT Pictures and images B The overhead projector C The board D Bits and pieces E The language laboratory El Advantages of the language laboratory E2 Activities in language laboratories F What computers are for G Homegrown materials production A 1.34 1.36 1.3 139 141 142 143 145 151 PART 5: FOCUSING ON LANGUAGE CHAPTER 11: STUDYING LANGUAGE A B Studying structure and use Al Language study techniques A2 Language study in lesson sequences A3 Known or unknown language? A4 Choosing study activities Examples of language study activities Introducing new language B1 B2 Discovery activities 83 Remembering 154 154 156 157 158 159 159 161 163 CHAPTER 12: RESEARCHING LANGUAGE What dictionaries are for Al Reference and production dictionaries Training students to use dictionaries A2 What grammar books are for B C What language corpora are for Cl Typical or divergent? Examples of language n;:M:arch D 171 173 175 177 178 CHAPTER 13: TEACHING PRONUNCIATION Pronunciation issues A Perfection versus intelligibility Al A2 Problems A3 The phonemic alphabet: to use or not to use? When to teach pronunciation A4 B Examples of pronunciation teaching Bl Working with sounds Working with stress B2 Working with intonation B3 B4 Sounds and spelling B5 Connected speech and fluency 183 184 184 185 186 187 187 191 194 196 197 A 168 169 PART 6: RECEPTIVE AND PRODUCTIVE SKILLS CHAPTER 14: TEACHING RECEPTNE SKILLS How we read and listen A Al What we bring to the task Reasons for reading and listening A2 Top-down and bottom-up A3 A4 Different skills B Problems and solutions Bl Language B2 Topic and genre B3 Comprehension tasks Negative expectations B4 CHAPTER 15: READING A Extensive and intensive reading Extensive reading Al A2 Intensive reading: the roles of the teacher A3 Intensive reading: the vocabuJary question B Reading lesson sequences BI Examples of reading sequences 199 199 200 201 201 203 203 205 207 208 210 210 213 213 215 215 v CHAPTER 16: USTENING Extensive and intensive listening A Al Extensive listening A2 Intensive listening: using taped material Intensive listening: 'live' listening A3 A4 Intensive listening: the roles of the teacher B Listening lesson sequences Examples of listening sequences Bl The sound of music C CHAPTER 17: TEACHING PRODUCTIVE SKILLS A Productive skills Structuring discourse Al Following the rules A2 Different styles, different genres A3 Interacting with an audience A4 Dealing with difficulty A5 B Productive skills in the classroom Reception and production Bl Problems and solutions C Cl Language Topic and genre C2 CHAPTER 18: WRITING A Writing conventions AI Handwriting A2 Spelling A3 Layout and punctuation B Approaches to student writing Process and product Bl B2 Writing and genre Creative writing B3 Writing as a cooperative activity B4 Using the computer B5 The roles of the teacher B6 Writing lesson sequences C CHAPTER 19: SPEAKING Elements of speaking A Al Language features Mental/social processing A2 Classroom speaking activities B Bl Acting from a script CornrnW1ication games B2 W 228 228 229 230 231 232 233 242 246 246 246 247 248 249 249 250 251 252 252 255 255 256 256 257 257 258 259 260 260 261 262 269 269 271 271 271 271 C Discussion B3 Prepared talks B4 Questionnaires 85 Simulation and role-play B6 The roles of the teacher B7 Speaking lesson sequences CHAPTER 20: TEACHING WITH VIDEO A Using video in language learning Why use video? Al Video problems A2 Video types A3 Whole-lesson video A4 Video as part of a lesson AS Self-access video A6 Common video teaching techniques B Viewing techniques BI Listening (and mixed) techniques B2 Video watching activities C General comprehension Cl Working with aspects of language C2 Video as a springboard to creativity C3 D Video-making activities Video simulations Dl Creative ideas D2 Working with language D3 Getting everyone involved D4 What to with the videos D5 Video and the teacher D6 271 274 274 274 275 276 282 282 283 284 284 285 286 286 286 287 287 287 288 289 290 290 290 291 292 292 293 PART 7: DESIGN AND PLANNING CHAPTER 21: SYLUt.BUSES AND COURSEBOOKS A Syllabus design Syllabus design criteria Al Different syllabuses A2 The multi-syllabus syllabus A3 B Choosing coursebooks Criteria for assessment Bl 82 Evaluation measures C Using coursebooks Coursebook or no course book? Cl Options for coursebook use C2 295 295 296 299 301 301 302 304 304 305 vii FOLLOW-UPTASKS Chapter 14 Find a text designed for competent language users What schemata are necessary for readers to understand it without difficulty? List examples of the kind of texts you might want to read or listen to for (a) gist (b) specific information and (c) detailed information Find a written or spoken text What level can you use it with? Will you pre-teach any vocabulary? Could you rewrite it to make it more suitable for a lower level whilst at the same time maintaining its realism? Find a written or spoken text for students at an intermediate level What wi.lI you to try and ensure their interest in it? Take any article from a newspaper and/or record an extract from the radio Write appropriate comprehension tasks for students at different levels Chapter 15 Take any of the reading texts from Section B1 of Chapter 15 Design completely different lesson sequences for them from the ones detailed Ihere Choose a topic that might be of interest to a young intermediate learner Find a text in that topic area and design a lesson sequence around it Write your own text for adult beginners and design questions and activities to go with it Chapter 16 Take a listening eJCI:ract from Chapter 16 - or from a coursebook you know What different ways can you think of for exploiting it? Make your own taped eJCI:ract for use in class Say what level it is for and design the exploitation to go with it Find two contrasting pieces of music which you could use in class What would you ask students to while they listened to them? Chapter 17 Take any transcript of speaking (or a written text) and analyse how the speaker or writer has organised their ideas, and the cohesive devices they have used Describe a group of students and then say what topics for production activities they might be interested in How would you try and find out which those topics are? Consider any spoken interaction type your are familiar with in your own working or social life How culturally specific is the behaviour of the people involved in the interaction type? What would someone from another culture find difficult to understand in it? Chapter 18 Write an unpunctuated teJCI: which would be appropriate for elementary students to practise their punctuation on Find a poem that would be suitable for a running dictation What level could you use it with, and why? Write me questions for a 'newspaper article analysing kit' Write a first sentence which you could use to start off a story circle S Find a text or listening eJCI:ract mat will be useful for practising note-taking Design the lesson sequence you would use with it Chapter 19 Design a situation with a number of alternatives which could be used for a consensusreaching discussion (see Chapter 19 B3) What games from the radio or any other source which you know could be adapted for use in language classes? 357 FOLLOW-UPTASKS - Find a dialogue from a coursebook or a play extract Say what level you would use it for, and what suprasegmental elements you would concentrate on when coaching students to perform it What typical work situation could you use for a simulation? What functional or other language will it be helpful for your students to have at their command? Chapter 20 Find a video sequence which could be used for prediction using typical video-watching techniques What activities would follow a second and third viewing? Video your favourite programme from the television How much of it could you use for what level of student? How would you exploit it? Choose a dialogue from a coursebook you know that would be appropriate for filming How could you help students film it successfully? Chapter 21 Find three coursebooks - if possible published at different times over the last thirty years and say what kind of syllabus they are based on Select an area for coursebook assessment (apart from layout and design) Write down four 'belief statements' and use them to assess two or more coursebooks Design a questionnaire to find out iflhow much a group of students have enjoyed using their coursebook Take a lesson from a coursebook What different options are there for using or not using it? How might you add to it, rewrite it, replace parts of it, re-order it or reduce it? Chapter 22 Design a lesson for a group of students you know andlor can describe Find a group of learners and describe them as you might in a formal lesson plan With a particular group in mind plan a sequence of four classes What thematic and linguistic links will you build into the sequence? How can you ensure a suitable balance between variety and coherence? Chapter 23 Choose a vocabulary or grammar area, and write indirect discrete-point items to test it Find a text for a particular test level and adapt it using a 'rational' or 'modified' cloze procedure Design a choice of writing topics which constitute a 'level playing field' for candidates at a specified level to choose from Find a reading or listening text and write questions designed to test students' comprehension of it S Design a speaking task for the assessment of oral performance Write global assessment scales and analytic profiles for scorers to use Chapter 24 Write 'learning hints' (see Chapter 24 AI) for intermediate students about either reading techniques or fluent speaking Design or find a reading activity and a grammar practice activity for use in a self-access centre What instructions would you include? How (if at all) would you provide answers? What future pathway hints would you include? How would you label the activity? Choose a specific class and write a general work plan to give to them at the end of the course Choose an area of doubt or interest in your teaching How would you set about gathering data on the topic as part of an action research plan? If you were part of an informal teachers' group, what three topics related to any aspect of teaching and learning would you most like to discuss? If you had to present a paper or workshop at a teachers' conference what would your topic be, and how would you structure your presentation? 358 Bibliography Addam, R 1994 The role of the coursebook Proalctl/ Engltsb Te;uhlng 1413 Adnan Vallance, D 1986 Oral practice actiVItieS In Meridian Teacher's GUIde Pearson Education Ltd Ahrens, P 1993a Dwy of a language learner/teacher Mtldern Eng/WI Teacher 2/2 Ahren$, P 1993b Dlsplaymg VISUalS Made'n El1gllsh T"acher2f4 Aitchison, J 1994 >ti:>rd$ In The Mind 2nd edn Blackwell Al Anshl A 1994 Role-play, real play, and surreal play In the ESOL classroom BIT Journal 48/4 Alderson, 11996 The tesllng of reading In NUt/all, C Alderson, J, Clapham C and Wall D 1995LAngUlige Tesf ConstrlidJon and EYtlluafWn Q;mbnd!JC University Press Alderson, i and Wall, D 1993 Does washback ensF Appbed Lmgl/lstrcs 14/2 Alexander, L 1988 The three best kept secrets about grammar fract/Ctli Engl'$N TttlcI!mg 9/2 Allen M 1986 Ttilc/,.mg PlIgllsh wIth VI/ito Pearson Educanon ltd Allwnght R 1971 Motlvatlon -lhe teacher's responslblhty> ELT Journal 31/4 Allwnght, R 1979 Language leaflllng through cornmurucatlon practice In Brumfit, C and Johnson, K (eds) The Comrmmicol/Ve Approach to Language TeachmgOxford UOlve£Sl\)' Press AlIwnghl, R 1981 What we want teadung matenals fori ELT JOllrllal 3-6/1 and 1.11 Rossner and Bohtho (eds) AlpleJun C 1993 Target language culturt 10 EFL matt rials ELTJoumal4712 Amer A 1997 The e/'fuct of the teacber's reading aloud on the reading compreheOSJon of EFL studenls ELI Journn/5111 Anderson, A and Lynch, T 1988 Ll$tmrngOxford Um versny Press Appel, J 1995 DIary of a LA,tgIJ4ge TelUher Macmillan Hememann Arnold, J 1998 PolOt and counterpollil Towards more humamsllc English leachmg F-LT !o~mll152/3 Arnold.' (ed) 1999 Affea III La~guage Teachmg Glmbndge Umversity Press Asher, /1977 Learrung Another Language Through AChons The Complere Teache'~ Gwdebook Sky Oaks ProductIOns As$lnder, W 1991 Peer teachmg, peer learmng ont model ELT Journal 4513 Aston G 1993 The learner's contnbul!on 10 the self access centre ELI !ourr/4l14 7/3 Atlomon, D 1987 The mother longue In the cly, Sand BreeI, P 1983 Usmg methodology notebooks on In service leacher-lrammg O, 99,112,113 (_also assessmg srudent performance) 365 SUBJECT INDEX - durmg accuracy work 106-7 after hste1llng task, 232 after readmg tasks 213 codmg ill-12 dUrlflg fluency work 107-9,276 JOurnals and letters 133, 339-40 dUring oral work 104-9,250,276 recording rm,rakes 108-9 respondmg 110-11 on V1deo-malung 292 on Wrlnen work 10'1-12, ISO, 262 fluency 104-6 feedback 101-9.276 teaclung 197 269 funwonal phrases 21 functIons 24 36 lllterl.anguage 100, \13 Internet 150 (see al~o computers) as cours.ehook aifernallve 307 e-mad 14JJ 153.247-8.261 268 language of users 3,4 'H>, 6f mouse-pals 148 153.261.268 netlquene 247 asrct'erence tool 146, 148-5Q 152-3.221-2 search engines 153 self-study courses 307 teachers' ma.tlmg lists 3SO 353 web Sltes 147.143-50 152-:1 268,307.353 rnton3t10n 23-9,33.184 185, 194-6 games 13::> 139 139f 140 190-1, J'g>aw t.e.:hruqU6-7 pbonetruc charts 189 90 pictures and unages 134-6, 152, 153 reaIJ3 140 reconJ-keepmg 151-2,228 tesltng 334 acluevement tests 321 analytIC pro/iles 330-1 apbtude 54 doze procedures 323-4, 334 comprehensIon tasks 207 computer programs 147-8, 147f dugn06uc tests 321 direct Items 322.325-7 dlscrete-pomt tesnng 323 falIness 325 global assessment scales 329-30 U1Wrect Items 322, 323-5 mtegratlYe testmg 323 mternatlOnal exams 333-4 marktng tests 328-31.334 moderalion 329 multiple chOice questions (MCQs) 323 oraltesrs 331 334 placement tests 321 323 profiCIency tests 321-2.333-4 real-hfe IUteracuon 326-7 receptive slulJ testmg 227,325 reliability 322,325-6 327 sentence re-ordermg 324-5 teachmg for 331-3 transformation and paraphrase 324 vahdlCY 322,325-6 welghtmg 328 wntmg tests 327-8 [Ones of voIce 33 topICS 25,45,205-6,252-4,298-9, 306,30~ Total Phystcal Response (TPlt) 90, ~8 (see also methodologv) TIT (teacher-t.alIungnme) 66.67 132 verbal expresSIOns sge lex:lcal phrases verbs 22 mtranSlnve 22 performatlve< 23.3I'i phrasal 21 transIt Me 22 VIdeotapes fur wmpreheIlSlon 287-9 coPY-TIght 294 dIsplay 292-3 feedbad: 292 involVIng whole dass 292 fur language focus 288-9,291-2 bstemng technIques 230,282,287 as part of lesson 285-6 problems 283 reasons for use 282, 293 self-access 286 as spnngboartl to (featlv"y 289-9O.29J and teacher development 293, 294 types 284 Vldeo-malang actlVlIIes 282, 291}-3 VlewJJlg tedmlques 286-7,294 watchmg actIVIties 287-90,293 whole lessons 284-5 VIsual aIds see teachmg aIds vocabulary connotations 19 grammarolwords 21-2 language corpora 16-17,35-6 175-7.182 readJng 203-4,213-15 word combinations 21}-1 word meaning 18-19,22.35 214-15 rrl" 19-?.O, \1', wocaI lord processors 1I0, ISO, UI}-l, 268 '\'oords sa vocabulary wnnng (Set als.o spelling) as cooperallve aCtiVity 260, 264-5, 266-8 creatIVl; wntmg 135, 25~ d.u;1.auon 264, 268 struaurmg discourse 246 ~es 247-8,256-7.259 teacher roles 261-2 teachers to students 133,339-40 tOpiCS 252-4 VISual atds 13 5, 13(; word processors 110.150, 261}-J, 268 e-r1Wl 148,153,247-8 261, 268 feedbad: 109-12, 1SO 262 focusmg 112 Author index Note references to figures ate Ausan,R 153 Brown, S 126, 129 Bcumnl, C 307 Badger, R 268 Balgent, M 21,98 Bamford, J 204 210, 212, 227 Bandler, R 55 BarloYl M 36 Barnen L 352 Batstone, R 73-4 77 Bruton,A 69 indICated as, for example, 8S/ Addam R 307 Adam.E 112 Adnan-VaUanc£ D 144 Ahrens P 153 Allchlson, J 19,35 AI Ansh., A 281 Alderson, J C 227 324, 334 Alexander, L 16.35,174 Allen, M 293 Allwflght R 53, 71}-1 , 72 Alptekm, C 306 Amer.A67 Anderson, A 245 Appel,) 352 Arndt V 110, 258,258f Arnold J 77 Asher, J 90, 98 Assmder, W 353 Aston G 341 Aclctnsan D 77, 131-2 Ausrm, J 23, 36 Bunneg, P 294 Burden R 40, 51 54, 55, 75, 76,97, 101,114 Burke,K300 BYgIlle, M 254 Byrne D 83,97, III Bax,S 352 Bell,,237 BertoldI, K 352 Caffyn, R 101 CanagaraJah.A 10 BIber, D et nl 35 246 Btsng, I Block, D 153 Bohrho, R 77, 112 Boughey, C 260 Bowler, B 167 Braymen N 352 Bn>et, S 352 Brewster, J 54 Bnllen, D 353 Brooks" 300 Brown H D 51, 54, 113 Canabn, C 307 Capone, P 281 Carroll J 54 Carter, R 14, 15.25,35.83 205, 241,245 Celce-MIlTCliI, M 98 Chatwtn B 224 Chomsky N 20, 69 ChriStiSOn, R 55 Cmtron, K 152 Caffrey, S 245 Camms R 351 353 369 AUTHOR INDEX -Cook,G36.76,199,209,245 Oloper R 293, 294 Oltterall S 352 Coulthard, M 36 Olurmey, M 125 Olx K 112 Cranmer, D 242 245.275 Crookes G 55,98 Crouch.C63 Crystal, D 1-2 5, to, 11,20,21, 33 Cundale, N 152 Cunmngham, G 262 Cunmngbam, S 163, 164, 193 Cunmngsworth, A 307 Cureau,l98 Curran, C 98 Dalton C 36 198 DaVIS P 91 268 Davls,C204 Day R 204, 2)0 212, 227 DeCarnu>./26,35 Domo!1ey, L 245 Dlclanson L 352 Dornyel Z 55 Dudley Evans T 11 Dunford, H 105 Early, M 152 Eastrnent, D 353 Edge./26,99.112.345,348,3S2 Eldridge, I 131, n2 EllL., G 94,98 352 Elhs R 54 72, 76, 105,30 I 307 ELsworth S 220 Ely, P 153 Eflk.son E 54 Eyre J 112 Farrell, T 205 FIeld, I 209 230.245 Fletcher C 188.196.268 Flowerdew L 98 117 Foot M 331 Fortune A 76 155 Fox,G 35 Fr;U1clS, G 182 FreeooU'n, I 307 _i _" , ~ -""" .1 ~ Gnnder I 55 Grundy, P 23, 36 Hadfield, J 125 152 Hames S l25 279 HaJeem, S 152 Hall N 7/, 165 Halliwell S 38, 54 Hancock M 191-2 Harbord,) 131.132 HardIsty, D 152 Hargreaves P 329 Harmer.l 39,63 76.97,98 106 /33 Harru,M 113 Hams.S245 Hayward, K 281 Head K 34-8 351 352, 35~ Healey, D 153 Henmgan, H 153, 268 Hewlngs, M 195 HIgham N 294 HIII,D227 Haey, M 26 Hopluns, A 82 Hopkms.M 77 Horner, D 153 Hughes, A 334 HUlldelhy, S 352 Hutdunson, T 187 239 240 IllJch, 170 Jacob M 307 JarvIS H 153 JarvIS, I 352 Jenkln$, I 198 JOhns T JS 36 lohnson K 82 307 lones.D7 Jones, J 341 lones, K 274,281 Jordan G 352 Gadd,N77 Gaffie\d·Vtl ... xi PART 1: LANGUAGE CHAPTER 1: THE WORLD OF EN GUSH A The place of English AI The numbers game How English got there A2 Where English fits A3 A4 The future of English B Varieties of English Three... we see it move' A book about language teaching methodology has to change too, to take account of all this movement Since the last edition of The Practice of English Language Teaching, there have... (RajagopaJan 1999: 200) Most English language teaching in the world is not carried out by native speakers, but despite this, as we shall see in Chapter 6, Bl, English language teaching methodology -