handbook of MEAT processing

Handbook of Meat Processing Handbook of Meat Processing Fidel Toldrá EDITOR A John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Publication Edition first published 2010 © 2010 Blackwell Publishing Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007 Blackwell’s publishing program has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell Editorial Office 2121 State Avenue, Ames, Iowa 50014-8300, USA For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services, and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book, please see our website at www.wiley.com/ wiley-blackwell Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use, or the internal or personal use of specific clients, is granted by Blackwell Publishing, provided that the base fee is paid directly to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923 For those organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by CCC, a separate system of payments has been arranged The fee codes for users of the Transactional Reporting Service are ISBN-13: 978-0-8138-2182-5/2010 Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Handbook of meat processing / edited by Fidel Toldrá p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-8138-2182-5 (hardback : alk paper) Meat—Handbooks, manuals, etc Meat industry and trade—Handbooks, manuals, etc I Toldrá, Fidel TS1960.H36 2010 664′.9—dc22 2009037503 A catalog record for this book is available from the U.S Library of Congress Set in 10 on 12 pt Times by Toppan Best-set Premedia Limited Printed in Singapore Disclaimer The publisher and the author make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation warranties of fitness for a particular purpose No warranty may be created or extended by sales or promotional materials The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for every situation This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, accounting, or other professional services If professional assistance is required, the services of a competent professional person should be sought Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom The fact that an organization or Website is referred to in this work as a citation and/or a potential source of further information does not mean that the author or the publisher endorses the information the organization or Website may provide or recommendations it may make Further, readers should be aware that Internet Websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read 2010 Contents Preface List of Contributors About the Editor PART I Technologies Chemistry and Biochemistry of Meat Elisabeth Huff-Lonergan ix xi xv Technological Quality of Meat for Processing Susan Brewer 25 Meat Decontamination Panagiotis N Skandamis, George-John E Nychas, and John N Sofos 43 Aging/Tenderization Mechanisms Brian C Bowker, Janet S Eastridge, Ernie W Paroczay, Janice A Callahan, and Morse B Solomon 87 Freezing/Thawing Christian James and Stephen J James 105 Curing Karl O Honikel 125 Emulsification Irene Allais 143 Thermal Processing Jane Ann Boles 169 Fermentation: Microbiology and Biochemistry Spiros Paramithiotis, Eleftherios H Drosinos, John N Sofos, and George-John E Nychas 185 10 Starter Cultures for Meat Fermentation Pier Sandro Cocconcelli and Cecilia Fontana 199 11 Drying Endre Zukál and Kálmán Incze 219 v vi Contents 12 Smoking Zdzisław E Sikorski and Edward Kol ´ akowski 231 13 Meat Packaging Maurice G O’Sullivan and Joseph P Kerry 247 14 Novel Technologies for Microbial Spoilage Prevention Oleksandr Tokarskyy and Douglas L Marshall 263 15 Plant Cleaning and Sanitation Stefania Quintavalla 287 PART II Products 299 16 Cooked Ham Fidel Toldrá, Leticia Mora, and Mónica Flores 301 17 Cooked Sausages Eero Puolanne 313 18 Bacon Peter R Sheard 327 19 Canned Products and Pâté Isabel Guerrero Legarreta 337 20 Dry-Cured Ham Fidel Toldrá and M Concepción Aristoy 351 21 Mold-Ripened Sausages Kálmán Incze 363 22 Semidry and Dry Fermented Sausages Graciela Vignolo, Cecilia Fontana, and Silvina Fadda 379 23 Restructured Whole-Tissue Meats Mustafa M Farouk 399 24 Functional Meat Products Keizo Arihara and Motoko Ohata 423 PART III Controls 441 25 Physical Sensors for Quality Control during Processing Marta Castro-Giráldez, Pedro José Fito, Fidel Toldrá, and Pedro Fito 443 26 Sensory Evaluation of Meat Products Geoffrey R Nute 457 27 Detection of Chemical Hazards Milagro Reig and Fidel Toldrá 469 28 Microbial Hazards in Foods: Food-Borne Infections and Intoxications Daniel Y C Fung 481 Contents 29 30 Assessment of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) in Meat Products by PCR Marta Hernández, Alejandro Ferrando, and David Rodríguez-Lázaro HACCP: Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point Maria Jỗo Fraqueza and António Salvador Barreto vii 501 519 31 Quality Assurance Friedrich-Karl Lücke 547 Index 561 552 Chapter 31 • temperature and cleanliness within the transport vehicle • integrity of containers (if applicable) • overall appearance of the lean meat and fat (absence of sensory deviations) Experienced employees are capable of assessing the suitability of the raw material by inspection only (e.g., by checking the color, odor, surface properties, and texture of the tissues, parameters that correlate with water-binding capacity, pH1 and pH24 H24 values of lean meat, and with melting point and PUFA levels in fat, respectively) To avoid unnecessary paperwork, it is advisable to stamp and fill in a “miniature checklist” on the delivery note This list should refer to the appropriate plan (work instruction) and contain the date, batch, inspection results, and, if applicable, corrective measures taken Laboratory examination of samples of raw materials is important to verify and monitor the functioning of the quality-assurance system of the suppliers, thereby enabling their assessment and selection For example, it may be advisable to test incoming carcasses for the microbiological performance parameters (total viable counts, Enterobacteriaceae, salmonellae) indicated in Regulation (EC) 2073/2005 It should be clear from the above discussion that purchase of raw materials is a complex process that should involve responsible staff from the processing, purchase, and quality-assurance department It is essential that experienced, qualified staff perform checks of incoming material, as well as sort it according to its intended use, because many parameters can only be assessed through grading by “subjective” methods (sensory examination) rather than “objective” measurements A standard operation procedure (SOP) should be in place to organize the purchase and receipt of raw materials After receipt, the goods should be stored at appropriate temperatures For lean meat and fat, the temperature must never exceed 7°C, whereas poultry and prepared meats, edible offal (e.g., liver), and minced meat must be stored below 4°C, 3°C and 2°C, respectively (see Regulation [EC] 853/2004, Appendix III) Hence, cold rooms are usually adjusted to 0° to 2°C A device registering temperature over time should be installed in cold rooms Quality Assurance Plans for Production: General Aspects Quality-assurance plans for production may be either “horizontal” (i.e., applicable to all processes) or “vertical” (i.e., process- and/or product-specific) Typical horizontal documents are those on basic hygiene that address factory environment, buildings, facilities and equipment, personnel hygiene, cleaning and disinfection, pest monitoring and control, waste disposal, temperature controls in storage or processing rooms, separation between “clean” and “unclean” processes, and staff training (see earlier in this chapter and Fig 31.1) Process-specific plans may include: • recipes for individual products • detailed flow charts, with links to work instructions, critical limits, and relevant standards • HACCP documents (see previous chapter) • forms for production plans • monitoring plans (including forms for recording results and instructions on control of measurement devices) • a plan for corrective actions to be taken if a process gets out of control Monitoring of processes is also required by standards such as ISO 9001:2008 Parameters to be recorded may include output Quality Assurance 553 Table 31.3 Example for the structure of a process documentation: (1) Preparation of sausage mixture Input documents: Work instruction and links Process Output documents: Records Type and preparation of equipment Preparation of sausage mixture Signed check list Selection of ingredients: Specifications for Lean meat Weighing protocol Fat Salt Curing agents Spices Water Other Recipe Instruction for comminution and mixing Sequence and timing of ingredient addition Target particle size and degree of mixing Final temperature Batch identification Batch no Table 31.4 Example for the structure of a process documentation: (2) Heat processing Input documents: Work instruction and links Equipment Type and preparation Calibration of monitoring devices (thermometer, timer) Sausages to be heated Diameter Process Heat processing of sausages in casings Output documents: Records Signed check list Calibration protocol No of batch of mixture Initial temperature Critical values for heating process Target F value (70°C, z = 10) Time-temperature protocol Adjustments of heating device (time, temperature) Core temperature to be reached before cooling Cooling rate/method Smoke application Relative humidity in chamber Batch identification per hour, deficiency rates, capacity utilization, and downtime of equipment To reduce paperwork, it may be advisable to develop documents specific to unit operations (Vasconcellos 2004) Tables 31.3 and 31.4 give examples for the structure of documents relevant to the unit operations “preparation of sausage mix” and “heating.” Batch no Quality-Assurance Plans for Different Processes and Product Groups Meat products can be divided into different product groups, as done earlier in this volume The following part of this chapter specifically addresses these product groups 554 Chapter 31 Retail Cuts, Minced Meat, and Ready-to-Cook Fresh Meats There is a growing market for “convenience” meat preparations, which not only include minced meat but also meats pretreated with spices and marinades in order to supply an oven-ready product to both caterers and private households For quality assurance, however, it is important to note that any mechanical treatment is likely to transfer microorganisms from the surface into the interior, and that spices and marinades have little if any effect on the shelf life of the meat Instead, they are likely to mask microbial spoilage, fat deterioration, and the intrinsic properties of the raw material Moreover, in some countries, minced meat may be eaten without prior heating (as in Germany) or as “rare-cooked” hamburgers (as in the United States, despite all efforts to discourage this practice) Taken together, this means that the selection of suppliers, the choice and checks of raw material, the basic hygiene during preparation and handling, the maintenance of the cold chain (below 4°C, for minced meat below 2°C) and labeling giving clear “consume-by” dates, and storage and cooking instructions are the essential elements of quality assurance Heat-Processed Meat Products Some critical values for the manufacture of cooked ham and shoulder, and of heat-processed sausages and pâtés are given in Tables 31.5 and 31.6, respectively Most products are filled into casings and molds, heated to core temperatures between 68° and 80°C, and subsequently handled and sliced Hence, their shelf life is limited to a few weeks under refrigeration, and they are usually spoiled by recontaminant bacteria For products with extended shelf life, even at ambient temperatures, additional factors are important For cooked dried sausages, these include formulation (water, fat, salt) and water loss during Table 31.5 Examples for critical values for the manufacture of cooked ham and shoulder (Lücke and Troeger 2007; Müller 2007) Process step Critical values Raw material pH below 6.2; temperature below 7°C Brine injection and mechanical treatment – Brine concentration adjusted to reach target water activity and nitrite content – Temperature during brine injection below 12°C – Temperature in curing room and during mechanical treatment: below 5°C Heat treatment Core temperature above 68°C and/or F70 above 30 (z = 10) Storage below 5°C processing to make sure that the water activity is below 0.95 Sausages and hams, as well as uncured/unsalted meat, may also be cooked in hermetically sealed containers For such meats, the integrity of the containers (seams, seals), the heat treatment (F value, pressure), and the cooling conditions (cooling rates, water quality) must be precisely controlled With shelf-stable canned cured meats, the formulation is also important to ascertain the correct combination between water activity, pH, curing agents, and heat treatment It must also be considered that products heated in hermetically sealed containers are often stored under insufficient refrigeration Therefore, the need for chill storage should be indicated very clearly on the label, and the product should be sufficiently stable during temperature abuse Fermented Sausages Critical values for the manufacture of fermented sausages have been summarized by Lücke (2007), and details on quality control and HACCP systems for these products have been published by Fraqueza et al (2007) and Toldrá et al (2007) Table 31.7 gives an example for a product common in Germany Quality Assurance 555 Table 31.6 Examples for critical values for the manufacture of heat-processed sausages (modified from Lücke and Troeger 2007; Lautenschläger and Troeger 2007; Fischer and Hilmes 2007) Process step Selection of raw material (lean meat) Selection of liver, blood, rinds and blood (if applicable) Pre-heating of lean meat and fat Comminution Filling Heat treatment Chilling Storage Critical values for Brühwurst1 Kochwurst2 pH value between 5.6 and 6.2; temperature below 7°C Temperature below 2°C Not applicable Temperature above 65°C Final temperature below 15°C Final temperature 35–40°C Adjustment of filling equipment device to avoid air inclusion Core temperature above 75°C; Core temperature above 70°C; F70 (z = 10°) above 40 F70 (z = 10°) above 30 To below 7°C within 12 hours below 5°C Bologna- or frankfurter-type sausages Liver sausages and pâtés; sausages containing blood and/or rinds (blood sausages, brawns etc.) Particular attention should be paid to the quality and pretreatment of the raw material (lean meat and fat), because a high load of undesirable microorganisms, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and derived peroxides markedly affect the safety and quality of the final product Extended chill storage results in poor microbiological quality, and extended frozen storage results in fat deterioration To inhibit fat deterioration and to favor drying of the sausages, it is also important that temperatures during comminution are kept low (below 0°C in the cutter, below 5°C in the meat grinder) The exact dosage of nonmeat ingredients, such as salt, nitrite, ascorbate, sugars, starter cultures, and spices, is also critical for the quality and safety of the final product, and must be strictly controlled and recorded The same applies for the casings These must comply with specifications on microbiological quality, permeability to moisture, mechanical behavior (stability, shrinkage during drying), and adherence to the sausage Table 31.7 Examples for critical values for the manufacture of a typical German semi-dry fermented sausage (modified from Lücke, 2007; Stiebing 2007) Process step Critical values Selection of lean meat pH value between 5.6 and 6.2; temperature below 2°C Selection of fat frozen, white, firm, less than 15% polyunsaturated fatty acids Weighing of ingredients – – – – – Curing salt 2.5–3%, equivalent to 100–150 mg sodium nitrite/kg fermentable sugar 0.5–1% active starter cultures (lactic acid bacteria, catalase-positive cocci) ascorbate 0.05% spices Comminution and mixing (in cutter) Final temperature below 0°C Filling Adjustment of filling equipment device to avoid air inclusion Fermentation 20–25°C, 2–3 days, until pH below 5.3 Smoking charring temperature below 700°C Drying 12–15°C, 70–80% relative humidity, until water activity below 0.93 Storage below 15°C 556 Chapter 31 mix Filling is also critical for product quality, because any holes remaining may be starting points for rancidity, discolorations, and growth of undesired microorganisms The microbiological quality and safety depends very much on the correct fermentation and drying/aging conditions (temperature, relative humidity, air velocity), which should be clearly specified and monitored To protect the surface from undesired oxidative or microbiological changes, most sausages are either smoked after fermentation or surface inoculated with selected mold (sometimes also yeast) strains To obtain the desired aroma and to minimize the levels of toxic residues, the smoking process should be well controlled by specifying and recording the type of the wood (or liquid-smoke preparations), the charring temperature, and the time and temperature during smoking Mold starters should be able to rapidly colonize the surface after completion of lactic fermentation Process records should include, among other items, weighing protocols, and the time course for temperature, relative humidity, and weight loss Continuous measurement of pH during fermentation is difficult, but it should be done at regular intervals, to verify that process parameters (activity of starters, sugar addition, fermentation conditions) are adjusted correctly Raw Dry Hams Fraqueza et al (2007), Lücke (2007), and Toldrá et al (2007) have compiled data on the safe manufacture of high-quality, raw dry ham Table 31.8 gives an example for a product common in Germany For raw hams, it is even more important to specify the origin and the quality of the raw material For premium quality, the pigs’ feeding regime, breed, and age at slaughter are important and must be specified and controlled This is only possible within a supply chain with fair cooperation between all partners At delivery, cuts must be inspected carefully for integrity and absence of any signs of spoilage and fat deterioration High pH meat has a high water-binding capacity and needs very long salting times; hence, the pH of the ham before salting should generally not exceed 5.8 Only in certain pork muscles, may pH values up to 6.0 be tolerated The presence of spoilage or food-poisoning bacteria (including nonproteolytic strains of Clostridium botulinum) in the interior of the ham can be minimized by appropriate Table 31.8 Examples for critical values for the manufacture of a typical German raw dry ham (modified from Lücke, 2007; Lautenschläger 2007) Process step Critical values Selection of lean meat pH value (lean meat) between 5.6 and 6.2; fatty tissue white, firm, less than 15% polyunsaturated fatty acids; temperature below 2°C; defined size, geometry and integrity of the cut Weighing of ingredients – Salt 40–50 g/kg meat – Curing agents, input level sufficiently low to comply with maximum levels for nitrite and nitrate as specified by law Dry salting Salt equilibration Temperature below 5°C, relative humidity above 80%, until water activity in core below 0.96 Preparation for smoking Temperature below 18°C, no longer than day Smoking Temperature below 22°C; charring temperature below 700°C Aging Temperature 12–15°C, 70–80% relative humidity, until water activity below 0.93 Storage below 15°C Quality Assurance slaughtering and butchering hygiene, but it cannot be completely ruled out Hence, the need for salting and salt equilibration; these processes must be carried out at 5°C or below and continued until the target water activity of 0.96 is reached in all parts of the ham The levels of salt must be specified and carefully controlled, in order to inhibit growth of undesired microorganisms while avoiding over-salting, especially of the surface layers The same applies to the levels of curing agents (nitrite, nitrate) in the salt, which should be high enough for the desired sensory properties but low enough to comply with the maximum residual levels specified by official regulations Appropriate work instructions should specify the composition of the salt (in particular, the levels of nitrite and/or nitrate in the salt), the salt content of the brine (if applicable), the amount of salt and/or brine to be added per kg of meat, the size of the cut (maximum distance from the surface to the geometric center), the temperature (≤5°C), and the minimal time for salting and salt equilibration Records should include weighing and time-temperature protocols Also, the results of visual inspections and/or measurements of the final salt content or aw value in the core should be recorded, because the salt diffusion rate may vary between individual cuts After salting and salt equilibration, it is important to avoid undesired changes at the surface of the hams For quality and safety of the product, extensive washing should be avoided, and the surface should be dried at low temperatures Smoking should be controlled as in the production of fermented sausages (see above) In particular, Mediterranean-type raw hams are usually subjected to extensive aging, to leave enough time for enzymatic processes, which makes the hams tender and tasty Aging normally takes place at temperatures above 15°C The hams are stable at ambient temperatures if the water activity is below 0.90 Aging time, temperature, and 557 relative humidity, as well as the intended and measured weight loss, should be specified and recorded Bacon Bacon differs from other raw cured meats in many aspects: • Other cuts are used for curing (e.g., whole pork sides or bellies rather than ham) • Curing is by brine injection • Maturing lasts only a few days • The product is sometimes heat-treated (hot smoked) after curing and almost always cooked before consumption For details, see earlier chapters of this volume For the quality and safety of the product, the quality of the raw material (especially the fat quality), the composition of the curing brine, the proper maintenance of the multineedle injectors (to ascertain even distribution of the brine and to avoid introduction of physical hazards), and the times and temperatures during curing and further processing are essential Quality Assurance during Packaging, Storage, Distribution The climate in the slicing and packaging room should be adjusted so as to avoid moisture condensation and the undesired surface growth of microorganisms As a rule, the relative humidity in the slicing and packaging room should be below 60% The temperature depends on the type of product and the time the product is held in the packaging room To avoid contamination of the product by psychrotrophic spoilage bacteria and by listeriae, hygienic design of the slicing and packaging machinery is essential, and an appropriate cleaning and disinfection plan for it should be in place To prevent mold growth and to delay oxidative deterioration, the residual oxygen level in the package should be kept below 1% 558 Chapter 31 (preferably below 0.5%) This is achieved by packaging under vacuum or under a modified atmosphere containing about 70% N2 and 30% CO2 Moreover, the oxygen permeability of the packaging material should be below 25 ml m−2 d−1, or even lower if a shelf life of more than month is desired (Stiebing 1992) However, mold-ripened, raw dry products should be packaged in material sufficiently permeable to oxygen The integrity of the packages should be checked by testing samples for leakage and/ or inspecting their seams Appropriate labeling is important, not only to inform the consumer but also for tracking the batch “downstream.” If problems occur, the batch concerned may be recalled specifically, and the damage to the processor is limited High-throughput slicing and packaging lines often include a check weigher and a metal detector Both should be regularly checked for proper performance The necessary storage temperature depends on the type of products Retail cuts, minced meat, and ready-to-cook fresh meats should be stored below 2°C Cooked perishable products should be stored at 5°C, preferably at 2°C, to extend shelf life Most fermented sausages and hams are stored at 10° to 15°C; undried fermented sausages may require a storage temperature at 7°C or below, whereas products dried to lower water activities (e.g., sausages with aw below 0.90) or commercially sterile (canned) products may be stored at ambient temperatures (≤25°C) Illumination in display cabinets may be detrimental to fat quality, and the light intensity should be adjusted to below 600 lux End Product Specifications and Testing A detailed description of all products is part of the HACCP procedure and is also required by various standards They shall be “up to date, unambiguous, available and always in conformance with legal requirements … The recipe mentioned in the customer finished product specification shall be complied with … There shall be a procedure for the amendment and approval of specifications” (IFS 2007) A typical specification for the final products should address: • compliance with legal requirements and standards • pH and water activity (or weight loss), where appropriate (in particular with fermented and/or dried products) • selected sensory properties (such as color, firmness) • macronutrients (protein, moisture, fat, carbohydrates, collagen, ash), with tolerances and methods of analysis • micronutrients (where appropriate) • packaging material • instructions to the customer (intended use, shelf life, storage conditions, etc) Systematic testing of whether the final products meet their specifications is also required by various standards (e.g., IFS 2007) and is useful to verify that the production process was under control, but endproduct testing can never replace control measures and process monitoring Sampling plans should be risk based, and the parameters used for end-product testing should be fit for purpose (i.e., provide a maximum of information with minimum input); standards referring to the absence of pathogens (salmonellae, Listeria monocytogenes) from the final products are, for example, defined in the Regulation (EC) 2073/2005 on microbiological criteria for foodstuffs A product quarantine until test results are available may be useful if the product is sufficiently stable and the time for analysis is sufficiently short Concluding Remarks A functional quality-assurance system provides many benefits to the meat processor It Quality Assurance reduces the risk of supplying meat products to the customer that are either unsafe or not compliant with other standards or with the expectations of the customers A well-organized documentation is also important to demonstrate “due diligence” in cases when unjustified statements and claims are made by customers or authorities Last, establishment of a quality-assurance system requires analysis of existing processes, which again may lead to discovery and elimination of “idle” or “fail” processes, thus making the business more efficient and proficient However, there are various factors impeding the acceptance of quality assurance, particularly in small- and medium-sized enterprises These include: • the wealth of sometimes competing auditing schemes (see, e.g., Van der Spiegel et al 2003) addressing the same issues with only minor differences • audits by auditors who, due to lack of training and experience, tend to follow a schematic rather than a risk-based approach (see, e.g., Vandendriessche 2008) • the trend among consultants to let all issues appear more complicated than they actually are It is to be hoped that these obstacles can be eliminated in the future, so that small- and medium-sized enterprises—which form a large part of the food industry and are essential for product diversity and quality—are not put at a disadvantage References Anonymous 1999 Performance standards for the production of certain meat and poultry products Federal Register (Rules and Regulations) 64(3):732–749 Brown, M H 2000a Implementing HACCP in a meat plant In HACCP in the Meat Industry, edited by M H Brown Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing Ltd Brown, M H 2000b Validation and verification of HACCP plans In HACCP in the Meat Industry, edited by M H Brown Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing Ltd 559 Codex Alimentarius Commission 2005 Code of Hygienic Practice for Meat, Codex Document CAC/ RCP 58–2005 Rome: FAO/WHO IFS 2007 International Food Standard, Version Berlin: HDE Trade Services E.C 2002 Regulation (EC) no 178/2002 of 28 January 2002 laying down the general principles and requirements of food law, establishing the European Food Safety Authority and laying down procedures in matters of food safety Official Journal of the EU L31:1–24 E.C 2004a Regulation (EC) no 852/2004 of the European Parliament and Council of 29 April 2004 on the hygiene of foodstuffs Official Journal of the EU L226:3–21 E.C 2004b Regulation (EC) no 853/2004 of the European Parliament and Council of 29 April 2004 laying down specific hygiene rules for food of animal origin Official Journal of the EU L226:22–82 E.C 2005 Regulation (EC) no 2073/2005 of 15 November 2005 on microbiological criteria for foodstuffs Official Journal of the EU L332:12–26 Fischer, A., and C Hilmes 2007 Kochwurst In Qualität von Fleisch und Fleischwaren, 2nd ed., edited by W Branscheid, K Honikel, G von Lengerken, and K Troeger Frankfurt, Germany: Deutscher Fachverlag Fraqueza, M J., A S Barreto, and A M Ribeiro 2007 HACCP In Handbook of Fermented Meat and Poultry, edited by F Toldrá Ames, Iowa: Blackwell Publishing International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 2005 ISO 22000:2005 Standard on Food Safety Management Systems—Requirements for Any Organization in the Food Chain Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 2005 ISO 9000:2005 Standard on Quality Management Systems—Fundamentals and Vocabulary Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 2008 ISO 9001:2008 Standard on Quality Management Systems—Requirements Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization Lautenschläger, R 2007 Rohpökelware In Qualität von Fleisch und Fleischwaren, 2nd ed., edited by W Branscheid, K Honikel, G von Lengerken, and K Troeger Frankfurt, Germany: Deutscher Fachverlag Lautenschläger, R., and K Troeger 2007 Brühwurst In Qualität von Fleisch und Fleischwaren, 2nd ed., edited by W Branscheid, K Honikel, G von Lengerken, and K Troeger Frankfurt, Germany: Deutscher Fachverlag Lücke, F K 2007 Quality assurance plan In Handbook of Fermented Meat and Poultry, edited by F Toldrá Ames, Iowa: Blackwell Publishing Lücke, F K., and K Troeger 2007 Mikrobiologische risiken In Qualität von Fleisch und Fleischwaren, 2nd ed., edited by W Branscheid, K Honikel, G von Lengerken, and K Troeger Frankfurt, Germany: Deutscher Fachverlag 560 Chapter 31 Müller, W D 2007 Kochpökelware In Qualität von Fleisch und Fleischwaren, 2nd ed., edited by W Branscheid, K Honikel, G von Lengerken, and K Troeger Frankfurt, Germany: Deutscher Fachverlag Qualität und Sicherheit GmbH 2008 Leitfaden Verarbeitung—Fleisch und Fleischwaren http:// www.q-s.info Sheridan, J J 2000 Monitoring CCPs in HACCP systems In HACCP in the Meat Industry, edited by M H Brown Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing Ltd Stiebing, A 1992 Verpackung—Anforderung bei Fleisch und Fleischerzeugnissen Fleischwirtschaft 72:564–575 Stiebing, A 2007 Rohwurst In Qualität von Fleisch und Fleischwaren, 2nd ed., edited by W Branscheid, K Honikel, G von Lengerken, and K Troeger Frankfurt: Deutscher Fachverlag Toldrá, F., M C Aristoy, M Flores, and M Sentandreu 2007 Quality Control In Handbook of Fermented Meat and Poultry, edited by F Toldrá Ames, Iowa: Blackwell Publishing Untermann, F., and U Dura 1996 Das HACCPkonzept: theorie und praxis Fleischwirtschaft 76:700–702, 705–706 USDA-FSIS 1999a Guidebook for the Preparation of HACCP Plans and Generic HACCP Models http:// www.fsis.usda.gov/Science/Generic_HACCP_ Models/index.asp USDA-FSIS 1999b Compliance guidelines for meeting lethality performance standards for certain meat and poultry products http://www.fsis.usda.gov/oa/ fr/95033F-a.htm Vandendriessche, F 2008 Meat products in the past, today and in the future Meat Science 78:104– 113 Van der Spiegel, M., P A Luning, G W Ziggers, and W M F Jongen 2003 Towards a conceptual model to measure effectiveness of food quality systems Trends in Food Science & Technology 14:424– 431 Vasconcellos, J A 2004 Quality Assurance for the Food Industry—A Practical Approach Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press Index Acetate, 270–272, 278 Aeromonas hidrophila, 497–498 Aging, 36–37, 87–99, 556 Aldehydes, 308 Allergen, 427, 533 Allergy, 153 Amines, 137–139, 190, 193, 211, 394, 427, 469–472 Amino acids, 129, 190, 307–308, 358 Anserine See Peptides Antibiotic, 475–477 Antibiotic resistance, 211–212 Antihypertensive peptides, 429–433 Antimicrobial, 193, 209, 237–238, 255– 256, 269–277 Antioxidants, 256, 429–431 Aroma See Flavor Ascorbate, 302–303, 471 Ascorbic acid See Ascorbate Aseptic processing, 343 Aspergillus, 486–487 ATP, 6, 9–11, 16, 27, 30–32, 147–148, 154, 293, 449–450 Bacillus cereus, 266, 491–492 Bacillus subtilis, 337, 450 B thermosphacta, 261–280, 309 Bacon, 249, 327–335, 463–464, 557 dry-cured, 330–331 Bacterial, 484–499 intoxication, 484–487 infection, 487–499 Bacteriocins See Antimicrobial Bacteriophages, 266–268 Batter, 130–131, 135, 144, 346 Biofilm, 294 Biogenic amines See Amines Bioimpedance See Electric impedance spectroscopy Blood sausage, 316 Boar taint See Off-flavor Bologna, 315 Bratwurst, 314–315 Breakfast sausage, 315–316 Breed, 25–27 Brine, 327–330 BSE, 550 Calpains, 13–14, 18–19, 25–26, 87–89, 92–95 Campylobacter jejuni, 492–493 Campylobacter sp., 43, 170–172, 220, 266–267, 287, 337–339, 393–394, 526–527 Candida See Yeasts Canned meat, 337–348 Carbohydrates, 6, 364, 382, 558 Carbon dioxide, 247–251, 256–257, 263–265, 332, 375–376 Carboxymyoglobin, 251 Carnitine, 427 Carnosine See Peptides Case hardening, 225 Casings, 314, 385–386 Caspase, 92–93 Catalase, 206–208 Cathepsins, 30, 87–89, 190 Certification, Chemical decontaminants, 280–281 acidified sodium chloride, 64–66, 263, 274 cetylpyridinium chloride, 281 561 562 Index Chemical decontaminants (continued) chlorine, 64–66, 293 chlorine dioxide, 64–66, 264, 281 electrolized water, 275 lactoferricin B, 66, 280 organic acids, 55–64, 68–70, 263 ozone, 65, 263, 274–275 peroxyacetic acid, 65–66, 274, 281, 292, 296 sodium hypochlorite, 292–293, 296 trisodium phosphate, 64–66, 263, 274–275 Chitosan, 272, 278 Cholesterol, 27, 424 cholesterol oxides, 474 Chromatography, 475–477 CLA, 427–428 Cleaning, 287–296 Clostridium botulinum, 126, 134, 170–172, 220, 265, 270–280, 308, 323–324, 337–339, 342, 359, 367, 370–372, 393–394, 484–485, 493–495, 556 Clostridium perfringes, 272, 343, 487–488 Clostridium sporogenes, 339 Cold plasmas, 263 Collagen See Proteins Collagenase, 405 Color, 37–38, 110–111, 139–140, 169, 174–175, 192, 236, 247–258, 303, 306, 308, 328, 353, 357–358, 375–376, 413, 451, 457–465, 474 Comminution, 319–320 Conduction, 340 Conductivity, 443–450 Conjugated linoleic acid, 427–428 Contaminants, environmental, 470, 477, 533 See also Nitrosamines; Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; Veterinary drug residues Convection, 340–341 Cooked ham, 132, 301–309, 524–543 types of, 301–302 Cooked sausages, 313–324 Cooking, 304 Creatine, 6, 27 Creatinine, Critical control points See HACCP Cross contamination, 287 Cured meat see Curing Curing, 125–140 Deamidation See Amino acids Debaryomices See Yeasts Decarboxylation, 211, 469 Decontamination, 43–76 carcass washing, 50–52 chemical decontamination, 55–66 chilling, 69 concerns and risks, 72–74 de-hairing, 47–48 hot water decontamination, 52–54 knife trimming, 48–49 legislative aspects, 74–75 multiple interventions, 66–68 post-chilling treatments, 69–70 pre-evisceration, 50 spot carcass decontamination, 48–50 steam hot water vacuuming, 49–50 steam pasteurization, 54 thermal decontamination, 52–55 Dehydration See Drying Dehydrogenation See Amino acids Desmin, 14, 93 DFD meat, 303, 353, 381, 449 Diacetate See Acetate Dielectric dispersion, 448 mechanisms, 445–447 Drip, 108–109 Dry-cured ham, 132–133, 351–360, 458–461, 556–557 types of, 351–353 Dry-fermented sausages, 363–376, 379–395 See also Sausages types of, 387–394 Drying, 219–228, 355–357, 384–387, 555 quick dry slice, 228 surface, 179–180, 223–224 D value, 341 EFSA See European Food Safety Authority Electric impedance spectroscopy, 447–450 Index Electromagnetic, 443–445 Electrophoresis, 12, 97–98 two-dimensional, 98 ELISA, 475–477 Emulsification See Emulsion Emulsion, 130–132, 136, 143–162, 319–320, 345–348, 399 control, 159–162 formulation, 146–156, 319 process, 156–158 technology, 158–159 Enterobacteriaceae, 189, 523 Epidemiology, 483 Escherichia coli O157:H7, 43–75, 185, 220, 266, 271–280, 287–292, 337–339, 394, 450, 481, 526–527, 549 Essential oils, 272 Esterases See Lipases European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), 73, 75, 210 Fat, 27, 148–151, 160–162, 194, 222, 317, 319, 324, 345–348, 363, 365–366, 381, 427, 448–451, 465, 553–554, 558 Fatty acids See under Lipids FAO, 519 FDA See U.S Food and Drug Administration Fermentation, 185–195, 363–375, 379–395, 432–433 Fiber, 425–426, 434 Fibrimex, 415 Ficin, 406 Filamin, 14–15 Flavor, 26, 32–35, 109–110, 204, 208–209, 219, 236–237, 306–307, 328, 353, 355, 357–359, 371, 375–376, 382, 415–417, 457–465 See also Off-flavor; Warmed-over flavor Foodborne disease, 483 Foodborne infection, 483 Foodborne intoxication, 483–484 Foodborne outbreak, 483 Foodborne poisoning, 483 FOP, 451 FOSHU, 424 Frankfurter, 162, 313–314 563 Freezing, 105–122, 127, 359 air freezing, 112 contact freezing, 112–113 cross freezing, 120–121 tempering, 120–121 Frozen storage, 114–117 FSIS, 43–44, 64–65, 70–72, 75, 280, 476 FT-NIR, 451 Functional foods, 424 Functional meat, 423–435 F value, 341–342, 554 Genes, 508–511 Genetically modified organisms (GMO), 501–514, 550 analysis, 511–514 DNA-based analysis, 502–508 strategies for detection, 508–511 Genetics, 25–27 Glucono-delta-lactone, 318 Glutamate, 318 Glycogen, 10–11 Glycolysis, 10–11, 16–17, 383 GMO See Genetically modified organisms Growth promoters, 470, 475–477 HACCP, 43, 70–75, 195, 375–376, 481, 519–544, 547–552 principles, 522–523 Halotane, 335 Ham See Cooked ham; Dry-cured ham Hazard analysis See HACCP Herbs, 345–348 Heterocyclic amines, 472 High intensity light, 263 High pressure, 158–159, 263, 268–269 Histamine See Amines Humidity See Water Hydrodynamic shockwave, 263 Hygiene package, 519 Impedancemetry, 448 Irradiation, 464 ionizing, 263, 265–266 Isoascorbate See Ascorbate Kocuria, 185, 367, 374 564 Index Lactate See Lactic acid Lactic acid, 16–17, 68–70, 200, 258, 270–272, 275, 279, 332, 364, 380–382 Lactic acid bacteria, 185–190, 199–213, 220, 309, 332, 337, 359, 367, 379, 382–384, 395 Lactobacillus See Lactic acid bacteria Lactoferrin, 255 Lethality, 342 Lipases, 190–192 Lipolysis, 191–192, 201, 307–308, 351, 358, 371 Lipids, 6, 15, 180, 381, 474 See also Fats fatty acids, 34, 26–29, 250, 307, 358, 365, 371, 381, 395, 462, 474, 552 lipid oxidation, 250, 469–470, 474 phospholipids, 6, 28, 154, 358 triacylglycerols, 6, 33, 192, 358 Lisozyme, 273–274 Listeria monocytogenes, 43–75, 170–172, 185, 220, 266, 270–280, 287–296, 308, 366–367, 370–372, 393–394, 496–497, 526–527, 558 Liver sausage, 316, 320 Loss factor, 447 Maillard reations, 308 Marbling, 29 Massaging, 303–304 Maxwell-Wagner dispersion, 448–449 Meat biochemistry, 5–20, 25–38 compositional aspects, 5–9 meat color, 37–38 Mechanically deboned meat, 148 Metmyoglobin See Myoglobin Microarray analysis, 507–508, 513–514 Microbial fermentation, 185, 190, 199–213 Microbial hazards, 481–499 Micrococaceae, 185, 188–189, 337, 367 Microorganisms See Pathogens; Starter cultures Microstructure, 159–160 Microwave, 176, 443–444, 447, 450 Molds, 200, 228, 359, 363–376, 556 Muscle, 5–20 anisotropy, 450 composition, 5–6 metabolism, 9–11, 35–38 structure, 6–9, 146–147 Mycotoxins See Toxins Myofibrils, 5–17, 320 Myoglobin, 37–38, 110–111, 125–126, 139–140, 192, 247–258, 306, 330, 353, 357, 382, 471 Near infrared (NIR), 443, 450–451 Nebulin, 12–13 NIR See Near infrared Nisin, 255–256, 269–270, 277–280 Nitrate, 125–140, 199, 328, 333, 353–354, 357, 359, 365–366, 381, 556–557 Nitrate reduction, 208, 359 Nitric oxide, 19–20, 306, 330, 357, 383 Nitric oxide myoglobin See Myoglobin Nitrite, 125–140, 199, 302–303, 306, 308, 318, 322–324, 327–335, 347, 353–354, 357, 359, 365–366, 381–382, 469–471, 556–557 legislation, 134–135 Nitrosamines, 137–138, 303, 318, 363, 469–471 Nitrosomyoglobin See Myoglobin Nitrosylation, 19–20 NO-porphyring system See Myoglobin Non-thermal, 277 Nuclear magnetic resonance, 443 Off-flavor, 35, 247, 253, 309, 334, 357, 459 Oregano, 278 Organochlorine pesticide, 477 Osmotic pressure, 96–97, Oxidation, 268, 277, 346, 364, 371, 474–475 Oximyoglobin See Myoglobin Packaging, 116–117, 139, 247–258, 263–265, 331–332, 405, 408–409, 527–532, 550, 558 active packaging, 255 controlled atmosphere pack, 247, 252–254, 263 Index modified atmosphere packaging, 247–251, 256–257, 263–265, 332, 357, 374–375, 558 polylactic, 258 vacuum packaging, 247, 254–255, 257, 263, 331, 357, 374–375, 458, 558 Palatability, 170–173 Papain, 406 Paté, 133, 337–348, 464–465, 475 Pathogens, 126, 134, 170–172, 220, 265, 270–280, 308, 323–324, 337–339, 342, 359, 367, 370–372, 393–394, 484–485, 493–495, 556 PCR, 185–189, 502–514 Pediocin, 270, 277–280 Penicillium See Molds Peptides, 358, 371, 395, 424–435, 475 ACE inhibitor, 429–433 Persistant organic pollutant, 477 Phages See Bacteriophages Phosphates, 302, 318–319, 330, 457 Phosphocreatine, 10 Phospholipase See Lipases Phospholipids See under Lipids Physical sensors, 443–452 Pigment See Myoglobin Plesiomonas shigelloides, 498 Polychlorinated biphenyl, 477 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons See under Smoke Polypropylene See Packaging Polystyrene See Packaging Polyphosphates See Phosphates Polysaccharides, 155–156, 205–206, 222, 424 , 434 Postmortem changes, 17–20, 30–32 Prebiotic, 433–434 Probiotic, 194, 209–210, 425, 432–433 Prosciutto See Dry-cured ham Proteases See Proteolysis Proteasome, 90 Proteinases See Proteases Proteins collagen, 26, 177, 317–318, 323, 558 dairy, 155, 318,346 myofibrillar proteins, 5–20, 31, 97–98, 157, 191, 199, 321, 358, 403 565 protein oxidation, 18–19, 470, 474–475 sarcoplasmic, 5–6, 18, 30–32, 97, 191, 199, 358 soy, 302, 318, 346, 403 structure, 178–179 Proteolysis, 87–98, 201, 307, 351, 358, 371, 430, 461 Proteomics, 97–99 Protozoa, 498–499 PSE meat, 27, 29–32, 37–38, 128, 302, 330, 334–335, 353, 356, 358, 381, 449, 550 Pseudomonas spp., 266–267, 270–280, 337, 370, 450 Public health, 194–195 Pulsed electric fields, 263 PVC See Packaging Quality, 25–38 assurance, 547–559 breed effect, 25–27 control, 547 diet effect, 27–29 marbling effects, 29 meat production line, 25–38 Radio frequency, 447 Rancidity, 250, 464 Redox potential, 338 Rigor, 30–32, 70 Ripening, 355–357 Restructured meat, 399–418, 465–466 Safety, 469–477, 519–544 standards, 377 Sakacin, 270 Salami, 535 Salmonella, 43–75, 170–172, 271–280, 287, 393–394, 450, 482, 488–490, 526–527, 552 Salt, 126–134, 140, 152–153, 194, 224– 225, 302–303, 317–318, 322, 327–335, 353–354, 359–360, 363, 366, 371, 381, 462, 527, 534, 553, 556 Sanitation, 287–296 Sanitizers See Chemical decontaminants Sarcomere, 6–8 566 Index Sausages, 132–133, 159, 363–376, 379– 395, 461–463, 475, 524–543, 553–555, 558 Semi-dry fermented sausages See Dryfermented sausages Sensory, 457–467 Sensors, 443–452 Shigella, 490 Slaughter, 44–46 Smoke, 231–244, 327, 472–474, 556 health risks, 238–240, 472–473 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 234, 238–240, 469–470, 472–474, 527 Smokehouses See Smoking Smoking, 231–244, 306, 321–322, 331, 351, 355, 367–368, 370, 381, 386–387, 555–556 smoke generators, 240–244 Sodium chloride See Salt Sodium lactate See Lactic acid Spices, 345–348, 371, 463, 527, 553 Spoilage, 263–281, 451, 482 Staphylococcus, 188–189, 199–213, 367, 382–384 Staphylococcus aureus, 185, 220, 266–280, 287, 337–339, 367, 370–372, 393–394, 485–486, 526–527 Starter cultures, 192–195, 199–213, 226, 363, 366–367, 371, 382–384 Sterilization, 343 Strecker degradation, 307–308 Sugars See Polysaccharides Synbiotics, 433–434 Tenderization, 404–406 Tenderness, 11–15, 27, 35–37, 87–99, 106–108, 169, 204, 219, 269, 306, 330, 348, 358, 406, 414–415, 448, 457–466 Texture See Tenderness Thawing, 117–120, 359 electrical, 119–120 thermal, 119 Thermal processing, 169–181, 341–347 novel, 277–280 Titin, 11–12 Toughness See Tenderness Toxins, 212–213, 338–339, 373–374, 477, 487, 527 Transglutaminase, 403 Triacylglycerols See under Lipids Troponin, 13–14 Tumbling, 303–304 Tyramine See Amines U.S Department of Agriculture (USDA), 43–44, 64–65, 70–72, 74, 280, 477 U.S Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 251, 269, 276, 477 Veterinary drug residues, 470, 475–477, 527 Vibrio choleare, 490 Vibrio parahemolyticus, 491 Vibrio sp., 337–339 Vibrio vulnificus, 491 Virus, 498 Vitamins, 180–181, 193, 323, 395 C (see Ascorbic acid) D, 29 E, 28 Volatile compounds See Flavor Warmed-over-flavor, 180, 417 Water activity, 219–223, 338, 359, 364, 372–375, 379–395, 534, 557–558 holding capacity, 15–17, 30–32, 147–148, 302, 318–319, 451 losses, 15–17, 458 in muscle, 5–9, 449–450 quality, 294 Wiener, 313–314 Wiltshire, 301–302, 327–329 X-rays, 443–444 Yeast, 185–190, 200, 359, 374, 393–394, 556 Yersinia enterocolitica, 495–496 York, 301 Z-disc See Z-line Z-line, 7–8, 87, 126–127, 334 Z value, 341 ... of Muscle Foods Analysis and Handbook of Processed Meats and Poultry Analysis (2009), Meat Biotechnology and Safety of Meat and Processed Meat (2008, 2009), Handbook of Food Product Manufacturing... Handbook of Meat Processing Handbook of Meat Processing Fidel Toldrá EDITOR A John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Publication Edition... List of Contributors About the Editor PART I Technologies Chemistry and Biochemistry of Meat Elisabeth Huff-Lonergan ix xi xv Technological Quality of Meat for Processing Susan Brewer 25 Meat