hanbook of research on k12 online and blended learning

Handbook of Research on K-12 Online and Blended Learning Handbook of Research on K-12 Online and Blended Learning Copyright © by Richard E Ferdig and Kathryn Kennedy and ETC Press 2014 Design Direction by Shirley Yee ISBN: 978-1-312-58708-3 Library of Congress Control Number: 2014953854 TEXT: The text of this work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NonDerivative 2.5 License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.5/) IMAGES: All images appearing in this work are property of the respective copyright owners, and are not released into the Creative Commons The respective owners reserve all rights For those who “learn to devote themselves to doing what is good, in order that they may provide for daily necessities and not live unproductive lives” (Titus 3:14, NIV) V PREFACE Introduction We were sitting in a hotel lobby in New Orleans at a technology and education conference We both had been working in the field of K-12 online and blended learning for some years Our coffee conversation focused mainly on the progress of research that had been published in the area since the inception of K-12 online education in the mid 1990’s We shared both our optimism for the continued research in the field as well as our relative frustration at a lack of awareness of that research Although most of the people doing work in the area knew each other (and even occasionally worked together), many new to the field thought that they were discovering K-12 online and blended instruction for the first time This wasn’t an egotistical exercise; this wasn’t another occasion where one academic was calling out peers for not including their citation or reference in a paper Rather, this was a problem as researchers—particularly those new to the field—seemed to be lacking the opportunity to proverbially ‘stand on the shoulders of giants.’ There is no clear reason why this happens Perhaps it has to with the fact that people in the field publish in a wide variety of journals Articles in K-12 online and blended instruction might appear in anything from the Journal of Technology and Teacher Education to The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning and from the Journal of Medical Internet Research to The Internet and Higher Education To be honest, we were less concerned about why this happened and more interested in how to fix it We recognized we needed one location to catalog—and more importantly to synthesize—the existing research in the field And so in that hotel lobby in New Orleans, the idea for this handbook was born We decided we wanted to create a handbook that would act as a key resource for existing and new researchers, practitioners, and policymakers in the field We later shared the idea with fellow researchers who reciprocated their interest We then had the blessing of beginning a conversation with Drew Davidson from Carnegie Mellon Drew is a professor at CMU as well as the founding editor of ETC Press ETC Press is interested in the participatory nature of publishing As such, they publish texts that are available electronically and openly with Creative Commons licenses Readers can choose to download the materials, thus making them more widely available Or, they can also pay to have a print VII version sent to them from Lulu.com What we enjoyed about working with Drew, Shirley Yee, and the rest of the ETC Press team is that they pushed us to think more deeply about the book For instance, was this handbook going to be full of op-ed articles? Was this going to be a catalog of existing research for that year? How would we ensure that it was representative of research in the field? The fact that we were asked these questions early in the process—as well as the fact that we were publishing a book about electronic technologies in an electronic format—helped us strengthen the quality and accessibility of this book What this book is…and what it is not This handbook is meant to be a resource for anyone interested in research, practice, or policy in the field of K-12 online and blended learning This book is not intended to be a collection of opinions on the field Nor is it meant to be a compendium of the top research articles for this past year It is not a list of what is currently trending in K-12 online and blended schools And, it is not a list of ‘best pieces’ from leading researchers in the field Rather, this handbook is a collection of what we currently know about research in the field There are at least three main goals for completing this work: To continue to strengthen our field by providing clear evidence of what is known and what is yet to be known; To provide an empirical resource for researchers (new and experienced) as well as parents, media, administrators, and policy officials; and To set in motion a yearly close examination of our field The Book’s Outline Our first step in creating the layout for this handbook was to discern the major topics in the field There were three key ways we addressed this task First, we examined the existing research in the field We used that research to create categories If we found an article that did not fit within a category or one that challenged our existing structure, we revised our framework We continued with that process until we felt like we could comfortably fit existing research articles into the broad headings VIII The second step was to compare that framework with existing handbooks of research Obviously K-12 online and blended learning is a unique research area However, other handbooks—particularly those in education—contain frameworks that are useful in helping to frame our work We used those handbooks to determine areas of overlap as well as components that were missing from our framework The final step was to talk to experts in the field We shared our framework with researchers and practitioners in the field We asked them to evaluate the framework to see what we had gotten right and what we were missing The outcome of the entire process was a six-section framework that included the following broad headings: I A Background and Historical Perspective – What are the important background and historical markers that help contextualize research in K-12 online and blended environments? II Research on Learning and Learners – What does the research say about learning in K-12 online and blended environments? III K-12 Learning in the Content Domains – What does the research say about similarities and differences within content areas? IV Research on Teaching – What does the research say about preparing and mentoring current and future teachers? V Research on the Role of the Other – What does the research say about the role of the preparing and mentoring others who support K-12 online and blended environments? VI Research on Technological Innovations – What does the research suggest might be new and innovative technologies that will transform how we conduct and think about teaching and learning in K-12 online and blended learning? IX pedagogy 15, 45, 94, 101, 137, 172, 185, 193, 198, 213, 216, 229, 234, 237, 241, 246, 255, 260, 272, 288, 314, 355, 391-392, 405, 408, 412, 418-419, 432-434, 436, 438-439, 441, 443, 461, 474 Pediatrics 212, 218 Pennsylvania 2, 8-10, 69, 113, 264, 321, 475 perception 37, 39, 289, 313, 316, 359, 395 personalization 370, 381-382, 389-390, 394, 410, 447-448 personalized learning 59, 70, 77, 80, 390, 392, 394, 397, 405, 413, 448 personal learning environments 447-449, 453-455, 457-460, 462-463, 465-466, 473 personal learning networks 193 personnel 110, 115, 121, 124-125, 251, 293, 330, 336, 352, 381 philosophy 157, 290, 355, 458 physical 11-13, 16, 18, 66, 69, 96, 122, 162, 172, 183, 201-204, 206-221, 316, 327328, 330, 332, 343, 358-359, 367, 369-370, 373, 378, 392, 404, 419, 471-472 physically 68, 204, 206-207, 212, 218, 328, 331-332 physics 258 planning 45-47, 79, 109, 113, 116-117, 121, 128, 131-132, 156, 182, 204, 215, 247, 252, 274, 290, 299, 359, 368, 373, 395, 401, 404, 441, 477 platform, platforms 151, 153, 174, 183-184, 190, 299, 356, 379-381, 449 PLE 449, 451-453, 457-458, 465 policies 39-40, 47, 51-53, 56-58, 60, 62-65, 67-69, 71-74, 114, 123, 125, 141, 150, 156, 202, 211, 268, 304, 309, 316, 336, 359, 369, 400-401, 404, 427-430, 448, 453, 457-458, 462 policy 1-3, 6-7, 9, 14, 23, 42, 46, 48-49, 51-53, 55-66, 68-81, 85, 102-105, 107, 110, 113114, 124, 129, 131-132, 134-135, 142, 148-150, 157, 166, 171, 175, 177, 200-202, 211213, 218, 221, 225-226, 237, 241, 244-246, 254, 258, 264-265, 267-268, 277, 293-297, 303-304, 311, 316-317, 319-321, 323, 325, 335-337, 340, 342, 345, 354, 356, 360, 362, 374, 390, 394, 399, 401-403, 406-407, 415-416, 418, 420, 422-423, 427-430, 435, 437, 440-442, 447-448, 454, 457-458, 463, 474-482 political 51, 74, 211, 459 politics 46, 53, 77-78, 323 population 5, 10-11, 52, 66, 89-93, 118, 124, 126, 135-136, 138, 146, 207, 307-308, 319, 335, 352 portfolios 183, 288, 395 practice, practices 2, 3, 22, 23, 25, 37, 42, 45, 46, 48-49, 58, 70, 72, 73-74, 77, 78, 80, 85, 91, 94, 97, 99-100, 100-102,103-105, 107, 110, 112-119, 113-115, 121, 123, 124, 125504 126, 129-133, 130, 132, 134, 137-138, 148, 150, 151,153,159, 161, 163, 164,166, 170, 172, 176, 177, 179-180, 182-183,184, 187-189, 190-193, 195, 196-198, 200-203, 211212, 312- 218, 214, 221, 225-227, 237, 239- 240, 242- 243, 244, 246-249, 251, 252, 253256, 254-255, 258-262, 263-265, 268-269, 268-272, 271-272, 274, 276-277, 279-281, 284, 285, 286, 290, 294-299, 296-297, 304- 306, 313-314, 316-317, 318 -322, 323, 335, 341- 342, 345, 348-349, 353-358, 360-363, 361, 365, 366-369, 374-375, 377-379, 381384, 385-386, 389-390, 394-397, 400, 403-405, 407, 411, 413, 415-416, 418-424, 422, 426-432, 430-432, 434, 436-437, 439, 441-442, 444, 447-450, 452-453, 456-458, 461, 464, 474,-476, 477-480 practicing 37, 245, 248, 270, 276, 287, 294, 347, 351, 353, 360-361, 374, 404, 453, 455 practicum 122, 288, 300 predict 52, 93, 182 predictors 64, 132-133 prepare 71, 73, 92, 122, 162, 182, 188, 213, 216, 223, 226, 228, 234, 238-240, 242, 292, 316, 341, 348, 361, 367, 371, 374, 377, 392, 396, 398, 400, 434, 462 prepared 66, 71, 92, 122, 126, 223, 226-227, 238, 241, 276-277, 292, 352, 374, 376, 391, 406, 450, 462, 465 preschool 347, 402 preservice 71, 130, 192, 197, 223, 225, 227-228, 234-243, 248, 262-265, 276, 280, 286293, 343, 362 preservice administrators 287-289, 291 preservice preparation 236 Preventing 130-131, 157, 336, 362, 434 prevention 109, 111, 126, 128, 130-131, 218, 284, 348, 359-360, 362, 473 primary 8, 27-31, 34-35, 41-42, 47-48, 53, 65, 74, 78, 116, 140, 164, 167, 170, 200, 206207, 211, 218, 227, 290, 295, 305-306, 328, 339, 342, 347, 349, 381, 394-395, 397, 402, 451, 470, 477 principal, principals 140, 260, 285-288, 286, 290-295, 292-293, 297-301, 300, 363, 366, 478 principal preparation 292-293 principle, principles 31, 33-34, 38, 58, 88, 123, 126, 130, 161, 165, 171, 174, 176, 196, 204, 227-228, 234, 244, 255, 273, 290, 342, 348-349, 354-357, 360-363, 418, 424, 436, 456-457 prisons 108 privacy 62, 77, 80, 431, 435, 459 private 2-3, 5-6, 11, 19, 25, 64-65, 69, 76, 84, 102, 170, 173, 321, 330, 356-357, 476, 505 480-481 process 15, 42, 61, 96, 116, 135, 138, 140-141, 156, 175, 181, 183-186, 188-191, 200, 214, 227, 234, 247-248, 250, 252, 260, 268-269, 271, 273-274, 276-280, 287, 290, 293, 304, 337, 350-353, 358, 380, 389, 391, 396, 404-405, 423, 432-434, 447-449, 451, 453457, 459-461, 472, 475 processes 65, 156, 183, 185, 197, 243, 249, 280, 290, 363, 379, 390, 394, 405, 407, 412, 425, 435, 441, 447, 453, 455, 457, 459-462, 473 processing 184, 189, 200 professional development 2-3, 5, 10, 22, 47, 57, 71, 78, 90-91, 94, 102-103, 113, 115, 119, 122-123, 125-126, 129, 132, 192, 223-224, 237, 239-240, 242-243, 245-265, 267, 275-279, 293, 295, 297-298, 325, 337, 347, 354, 356, 360-361, 383, 392, 402-406, 411, 420, 424, 427, 430, 452, 458, 461-463, 469, 471-472, 475-476, 480 professional learning 71, 246-247, 249-250, 253-254, 256, 261-262, 289, 294, 371, 377, 402, 405 professor, professors 214-215, 296, 298-299, 299-300, 301, 451, 469-481 program, programs 1-4, 3-14, 6-9, 11-13, 18-21, 25-33, 27-30, 35, 36, 37-40, 44, 48, 52, 54, 55-58, 56-57, 61, 63-74, 68, 70-71, 73, 76, 78, 79, 84, 86, 90, 93-94, 96, 99, 101102, 104, 107, 109-110, 112, 114-115, 117-118, 120-126, 123, 130-133, 136, 138, 151, 153,158, 162, 165,169, 175-176, 181-182, 184, 190, 195-197, 199, 201, 203, 210-211, 215, 217, 223-228, 223-228, 234-241, 238-240, 243-245, 247-248,247, 250, 252-253, 258-260, 262-263, 265, 267-269, 272-273, 275, 279-281, 283, 286-289, 292, 297, 286296, 298-299, 299-300, 301, 304, 305, 310, 325-330, 331-332, 334-335, 336, 337, 338339, 341-342, 343-344, 348, 350-351, 355-357, 358, 360-362, 366, 368, 374-378, 382, 392, 394-395, 398, 400-402, 403-404, 405, 408, 415-416, 437, 441, 449, 452, 458, 461, 470-471, 473, 476-478, 480-481 progress 20, 120, 152, 182, 217, 228, 237, 239, 276, 313, 327, 341, 351, 353, 355, 407, 424, 458-459, 463 project, projects 2, 4, 20, 22, 29, 35, 40, 45, 47, 49, 68, 71, 76, 98,132, 141, 200, 235, 243, 260, 264, 272, 287, 355, 370, 382, 385, 404, 422, 436-437, 430, 436, 443, 449, 453-455, 464, 469, 470, 472, 474, 476, 480-481 protocols 73-74, 94, 142, 154, 249, 263, 356 proven 40, 119, 126, 207, 240, 319 provider, providers 3, 5-8, 6, 11, 15, 18-20, 30, 35, 61, 65, 69-70, 84-85, 87, 90, 94, 93, 98-99, 241, 255, 293-294, 336, 356, 373, 375, 405 province 28, 30-31, 33-34 psychology 197-199, 219, 284, 320-321, 347-349, 353-357, 360-363, 384, 408, 439, 506 441, 443, 469-470, 473, 479, 481 publishing 40, 155, 194, 196, 342-343, 345, 410, 412, 422, 429, 469 purpose 39, 63, 110, 136, 139, 141, 183-184, 188, 201, 204, 245, 267, 293, 298, 305, 354, 379, 419, 434, 455-456 qualified 57, 65, 70, 108, 164, 223, 238, 314, 336, 356, 375, 399, 401 quality 22-23, 33, 37, 43-44, 54, 57-59, 61-63, 66, 69, 71-73, 76, 97, 102, 105, 107-108, 114, 122, 129, 142, 154-156, 180, 202, 213-214, 216, 219, 226-228, 234, 237, 239-240, 242, 246, 248, 251-254, 261-262, 264, 267, 283, 287-288, 292-296, 298, 317, 319, 337, 343, 354, 370, 372-373, 378, 380-382, 396, 398, 402, 412-413, 436, 460-461, 471, 475, 478 questions 64, 70, 72, 84, 91-92, 95-96, 98, 100, 138, 154-155, 210-212, 214-217, 248, 256, 259, 271, 273-274, 286, 288, 290-291, 294, 297, 322-323, 330-331, 403-404, 425, 429, 450, 460 quizzes 98, 165, 206 reading 11, 60-61, 129, 135, 140, 152-153, 157, 179-181, 183, 186-192, 194-200, 212, 241-243, 248, 374, 377, 395, 400-401, 408-410, 425, 428, 431, 434, 439, 441, 449, 454, 465 reading instruction 179-181, 190, 195 record 60, 76, 129, 136, 151, 200, 217, 258-259, 263-264, 320-321, 360, 410, 441 recovery 2, 11, 102, 110, 129, 134, 136, 164, 293, 334, 341, 344, 361 Recreation 120, 202, 218-220, 471 reflect 73, 187, 193, 227, 235, 253, 269, 271, 290, 370, 374, 396-397, 434, 456-457 reflection 227, 242, 248, 273, 276, 289, 300, 325, 373, 378, 395-396, 456 reflective 188, 259-261, 269, 281, 288, 379, 431, 434 reform 38, 51-54, 56, 58-60, 62, 64, 66-67, 72, 74-76, 78-80, 132, 249, 259, 262-263, 281, 294, 362, 400, 417, 479 regional 11, 28, 30-31, 44, 48, 101, 194-195, 228, 244, 252, 264, 415, 417, 422, 428, 475, 477, 481 regulation 40, 76, 102, 321, 460 religious 58 remote 19, 27, 46, 202, 399, 460 report, reports 8-10, 11,13, 15, 21-22, 23, 30, 32-33, 37-38, 39, 41, 43, 47, 49, 52-54, 5660, 59, 66, 69, 72, 74, 75-78, 79, 80, 84-86, 101, 103, 108, 128, 132, 136, 140-142, 155, 163, 173-174, 176-177, 194, 200, 202, 247, 250-253, 255, 261, 269, 275, 279, 287, 290, 298, 304, 311, 322, 332, 336, 342, 366, 388, 399, 407, 418, 420, 424, 428, 437, 439, 442-443, 448, 454, 464, 478, 482 507 reported 7, 15, 35, 56, 90, 103, 112, 122, 139, 145, 148, 154-156, 164, 166-169, 171, 176, 208-209, 235, 251, 288, 292-294, 310-312, 315, 334-335, 358, 371 reporting 14, 62, 68, 75, 92, 112, 155, 252, 335, 473-474 repository 343, 451 research 15-17, 21-23, 25, 29, 33, 38-42, 44-46, 48-49, 51, 61, 67, 73-75, 77-78, 83-86, 88-89, 91, 93-96, 100-101, 105-107, 110, 112, 114-115, 117, 120-121, 124-127, 132, 134-142, 144, 148, 150-159, 161, 163-167, 169-177, 179-184, 186, 188-204, 209, 211, 214-219, 223-226, 234-235, 239-251, 253-256, 258-265, 267-270, 275-281, 283-287, 289-290, 294-301, 303-305, 307-313, 316-321, 323, 325, 329-331, 333-348, 352-353, 355, 358-363, 365-375, 377-387, 389-392, 394-398, 403-413, 415-416, 418-422, 427, 430-432, 434-440, 442-444, 447-449, 451, 453-454, 457, 459-466, 469-481 research design 141, 144, 167 researched 40, 115, 216, 454, 475 researcher 22, 39, 96, 156-157, 172, 241, 258, 260-261, 279, 342, 378, 412, 442, 469-470, 475, 478, 482 Research Framework 125 research methods 83, 150, 158, 256, 405 resource 11, 66-67, 71, 77, 84, 166, 185, 188, 280, 292-293, 327, 366, 372-373, 397, 423424, 462, 482 resources 8, 19-20, 28, 36, 39-40, 43, 57, 77, 95, 123, 164-166, 182, 185, 193, 215, 220, 226, 242, 284, 290, 314, 337, 359, 365-369, 372-373, 375-381, 383-389, 391-392, 394, 396, 400, 415-416, 418-425, 427-428, 430, 435-440, 443-445, 447-452, 454-455, 459-460, 463-464, 470, 474-475, 480 respect 71, 80, 271, 274 response, responses 7, 9-10, 33, 54, 60, 65-66, 69, 89-93, 97, 98,146, 148, 155, 181, 184, 200-201, 203, 209, 235-236, 300, 309, 325, 331, 334, 351, 358-359, 361-362, 443, 454 responsive 287, 294, 355, 382, 392 retention 59, 94, 126, 201, 208, 342, 359, 363, 372 revision 58, 182, 184, 189-190, 198, 211, 247 rigorous 54-55, 135, 193, 255, 376, 406, 476 safety 66, 118, 217, 308, 347, 358-360, 390, 426-427, 429, 459 scaffold 153, 167, 185, 187,189, 192, 273, 382, 448 scaffolded 184, 227, 455 scarcity 138, 161, 195, 294, 296 schedule, schedules 13, 74, 209, 212, 215, 308, 314, 334 scheduling 56, 58, 107, 109, 217 508 scholarly 155, 285, 295, 297, 439, 445, 451, 456, 480 scholars 224, 246, 256, 258, 277, 286, 288, 295-297, 338 school, schools 1-3, 5-6, 8-16, 1-15, 18-22, 25-36, 28-29, 33-36, 38, 39-49, 42-49, 51-58, 59-73, 63-69, 72, 74-75, 76-79, 80, 84, 85-87, 90-99, 101-104, 107-110, 112-115, 117119, 120-134, 136, 140, 144-145, 150-151, 153-154, 156-159, 163-166, 170, 173-177, 179-181, 180-183, 186-187, 189-191, 194-196, 199-201, 203-204, 207-214, 211, 213, 215, 216, 218-220, 225, 228, 235-236, 238, 240-243, 245-246, 248-250, 252, 254-255, 258-260, 262-263, 264- 265, 267, 268, 272-274, 275, 276, 278, 280, 283-301, 303-304, 306-321, 311, 313, 315-323, 323, 327-337, 340-345, 347-363, 365-371, 373-388, 391392, 394-395, 397-401, 402-405, 408-410, 413,415-416, 424, 428-430, 435, 437-439, 441-444, 453-454, 457-460, 462-466, 469-473, 472-476, 475-482 school administration 286, 289 school administrators 71, 94, 118, 211, 285-286, 289, 291-298, 301, 316, 336, 362, 477 schooling 34, 43-44, 47, 49, 55, 76, 84, 92, 101-102, 126-128, 131, 153, 163, 170, 216, 225, 235, 241-242, 254, 260-261, 295, 297, 299, 303-306, 308, 310-313, 316, 318322, 338, 340-342, 359, 362, 398, 400, 405, 407, 469-470, 476, 478 school leaders 286-291, 293-294, 296-298, 439, 477 school leadership 260, 262, 286-291, 295-297, 299-300, 410 school psychology 284, 347-349, 353-357, 361-363, 473, 479, 481 school psychology training 355 school reform 62, 80, 132, 249, 259, 262-263 science 45-46, 54, 60, 66, 78, 90, 101-103, 157, 161-162, 174-176, 194, 198, 219, 258, 263, 265, 300, 345, 397, 408-409, 413, 428, 442, 444-445, 449, 458, 460, 463-465, sciences 118-119, 122, 128, 130, 174, 177, 322, 388, 394-395, 408, 411, 439, 469, 477478 scores 8, 15, 62, 86, 88, 93, 113, 151, 207, 400, 406, 461 secondary 22, 25-26, 28-29, 31, 35-36, 38, 41-43, 45-47, 54-55, 57, 60-61, 70, 77-79, 90-91, 101-103, 112, 125, 133, 140, 161, 163, 166, 172-174, 176, 201, 206, 208, 211212, 214, 217-219, 293, 296-297, 304, 344, 373, 394-395, 397-398, 408, 426, 451, 478480 self-paced 85, 96, 208, 216, 392 self-regulation 131, 228, 325, 327, 449, 455, 457, 460, 466 seminal 57, 165, 208 semiotic 185, 194, 196-197, 438 services 20, 31, 35, 48, 54, 62, 65, 79, 113-114, 115, 118-119, 120, 122, 123, 133, 136, 138, 148, 284, 307, 343, 347-349, 351, 353-358, 360-362, 365-367, 369-372, 374-378, 509 381-384, 387-388, 392, 398, 423, 452, 474, 478, 480-481 setting, settings 11, 86, 88, 94, 112-113, 115, 118-119, 123, 125, 135-138, 140, 145,150151, 154-156, 164-165, 171-172, 179-180, 182-183, 186, 189, 191-192, 223, 225-226, 228, 234, 237, 239, 241, 265, 283-284, 286, 291, 295-297, 303-304, 307-313, 310, 316317, 319-320, 328-330, 338, 340, 347, 348, 352-354, 356-357, 361, 362, 366-368, 370, 371, 374-376, 381, 383, 397, 419, 422, 425, 427, 432, 435-436, 447, 455, 465, 470, 473 sharing 3, 165, 188, 209, 248, 381, 403, 406-407, 421, 423-424, 428-430, 435, 440, 452, 456 Singapore 29, 34, 37, 45, 480 situated cognition 226-227, 234, 237, 241, 279 skills 2, 11, 53, 61, 63, 67, 71, 73-74, 77, 113-115, 119, 123, 151-153, 157, 175, 182, 184-185, 187-188, 191-192, 201, 204, 207, 210-211, 213, 215-219, 226-229, 234, 237240, 248, 251-252, 269-270, 273, 275, 290-292, 294, 307, 312, 316-317, 326-327, 336, 349-350, 352, 355, 363, 366-368, 371-372, 374-375, 379, 381-382, 384, 386-387, 391, 394-397, 399-400, 404-406, 417, 419, 424-426, 430-431, 434, 436-437, 442, 449-450, 453-455, 459, 461-462, 466, 471 Sloan-C 442 Slovakia 400 social 43, 56, 58, 74, 97, 118, 129, 151, 153, 157-158, 161-162, 166-167, 169, 172, 182187, 189-190, 194-198, 200, 204, 211-214, 218, 249, 261-263, 268, 271, 289, 292, 298, 307, 322, 327, 330-331, 336, 343, 349-350, 352, 355-357, 359, 371-372, 375-377, 381382, 390, 395, 398-399, 411, 413, 417, 427, 429, 431, 437-441, 449-450, 452-453, 456, 458, 465, 471, 473, 475-479 Society 29, 33, 41, 43, 51, 74-76, 78, 102-103, 107-108, 129-130, 132, 187, 198, 200, 203, 221, 225, 228, 238, 241-243, 259, 264, 280, 320, 322, 342, 355, 367, 385, 398-399, 409, 412, 416, 421, 430, 439-440, 442, 445, 447, 449, 464, 466, 469-470, 478-479 Sociology 322-323 software 10, 151, 165, 169, 172, 177, 189, 389-390, 408, 412, 418, 421-423, 427, 465 solution 68, 69, 73, 129, 203, 215-217, 220, 300, 335, 338, 357, 380, 385, 411, 417, 425, 476 solutions 68-69, 129, 203, 215, 357, 380, 385, 476 South Carolina 71, 177 South Dakota 2, 71 South Korea 29-30, 34, 36-37, 40 spaces 88, 96, 162, 179, 188, 191-193, 280, 286-287, 291, 295-297, 367, 370, 373, 376377, 379, 381-382, 384-385, 429, 434, 461, 478 510 Spanish 40, 86 specialist 46, 107, 153, 348, 375, 478, 480 standard, standards 18, 20, 41, 54-55, 59-61, 67, 71-74, 76-77, 84,102, 109, 113-114, 120, 122, 125, 129-130, 142, 162, 165, 171, 173-174, 176, 195, 201, 203-204, 206-207, 209-214, 216-217, 219-221, 228-229, 234, 237-240, 242, 247, 252, 254, 261-262, 264, 269, 290, 342, 354, 355-356, 363, 367, 373-374, 377, 379, 382-383, 385-386, 422-423, 428, 430, 434, 436, 438, 440, 442, 474-475, 477-479 states 1-3, 5-12, 14-16, 18-20, 25-36, 38-39, 44, 52, 54-55, 57-61, 64-65, 67-69, 71-72, 74, 90, 94, 101, 107-109, 114, 122, 128, 136, 148, 150, 163-164, 173, 177, 179-181, 193-194, 202-203, 208-209, 211, 215, 219, 235, 238-239, 246, 248, 270, 291-293, 299, 337, 343, 347-348, 356-357, 360-361, 376, 384, 395, 408, 422, 428, 448, 471 statewide 2-3, 5-6, 9-10, 15, 19, 38, 99, 175, 237 strategic 46, 66, 124, 189, 192, 381, 395, 443, 458-459, 477 strategies 23, 42, 94, 107, 110, 115, 119, 122, 124, 126, 131, 134, 137-138, 140-141, 157, 161, 171, 182-183, 186, 188, 191, 195, 202, 204, 216-217, 226-228, 234, 237, 239-241, 246, 250-252, 267-269, 272-278, 280, 284, 314, 316, 333, 336-337, 340-341, 344-345, 350, 361, 363, 381-382, 387, 389-390, 395, 400, 418, 428, 434, 440, 450, 474, 479 strategy 44, 47-49, 74, 128, 141, 144, 151, 154, 157, 199, 267, 274, 298, 317, 476 strengths 189, 349-350, 356, 370, 379, 420 stressed 112, 290, 370, 372 strong 32, 64, 107, 120, 247, 268-269, 271-273, 278, 292, 301, 331, 367-369, 371, 374, 391 structure, structures 64, 72-73, 105, 135, 186-187, 190-191, 208, 214, 240, 239, 249, 250, 288, 290, 297, 318, 328, 436, 460-461, 452, 454, 462 structured 74, 216, 249, 419-420, 427, 447 struggling 95, 105, 131, 199, 308, 311, 319, 332, 348 student, students 1-15, 4-13, 18-22, 25, 26-36, 30, 32-33, 35-38, 40- 43, 45-48,52, 5455, 57-61, 62, 63-67, 64, 68-70, 72-74, 75, 77-79, 83-96, 86, 92-103, 98-110, 105, 109, 112-113, 112-142, 115-122, 124, 126-129, 131-135, 144-146, 148, 150-159, 151, 156158, 162-176,165, 167-168, 170, 176-177, 179-194,182, 184-185, 190, 192, 194, 196, 198-199, 201-204, 202-203, 206-208, 206-221, 210-220, 223, 226-228, 227-229, 234, 236-240,241, 244-247, 249-250, 251-252, 254, 256, 259, 262-263, 268-269, 271, 272, 276, 278-279, 283-289, 291, 293-294, 295, 298-299, 301, 303-312, 307-321,314-321, 325-328, 325-344, 331-332, 334-336, 338-344, 346, 347-349, 348-354, 355, 357-360, 361-363, 365, 366-370, 368-369, 372-374, 372-380, 385-387, 378, 380-381, 384-385, 387, 390-392, 394-400, 402, 404-411, 408-409, 411-412, 413, 418-421, 423-425, 427511 432, 429-430, 434-437, 439-441, 443, 447-460, 448-449, 451, 453-463, 462-463, 470471, 472-473, 475-477, 478, 479, 480-482 student achievement 1, 15, 38, 41, 43, 55, 57, 64, 121-122, 128, 135, 176-177, 213, 220, 245, 247, 262, 269, 283-285, 303-304, 308, 311-312, 314, 317-320, 341, 343, 365, 368369, 394, 419 student control 4, 13, 36, 105, 167-168, 305, 448 student relationships 289 studies 11, 15-16, 22, 39, 42-43, 45-46, 73, 83-86, 88-89, 94-100, 104, 112, 115, 117, 124-125, 131, 135, 137-139, 141-147, 149-151, 153-157, 161-162, 164, 166-172, 175, 181-183, 191, 198, 200, 203-204, 206-209, 211, 214-216, 234, 236-237, 239-240, 244, 248-250, 252, 256, 258, 260, 274, 278, 284, 286, 289-291, 293-294, 300, 303, 307-313, 316-320, 322, 338, 345, 352-353, 359, 365, 368, 371-373, 375, 380-382, 391, 394-398, 405-406, 410, 413, 418, 435, 441, 443, 460, 470, 478 subject, subjects 4, 9, 13, 60, 64-65, 86, 92, 94-96, 99, 103, 120, 139, 142, 144, 176, 188, 201-203, 206, 208, 212, 215, 247, 251, 305, 314, 337, 428, 433, 452, 454, 460-461 succeed 92-93, 124, 152, 223, 254, 325-326, 337, 347, 352 successful 18, 21, 40-41, 56, 72-74, 94, 98, 100, 104, 116, 120, 124-125, 130, 132, 164, 179, 189, 194, 215, 218, 226, 229, 234, 237-238, 240, 263, 269, 271-272, 274, 280, 288, 299, 307, 312, 315-316, 327, 331, 339, 344, 367, 375, 391, 403, 405-406, 428, 436, 451, 470-471, 477 superintendent preparation 286 superintendents 285-288, 291-292, 294, 297-298 supplemental 2-7, 11-12, 19, 25, 27, 29-30, 38, 52, 56, 58, 64-65, 68-69, 88, 250, 293, 307, 319, 334, 344 support 2, 12, 20, 32, 34, 39-40, 52, 54, 57-62, 66-67, 70, 86, 88, 93, 102, 105, 107, 110, 114-115, 117-118, 121-122, 124-125, 129, 131, 142, 144, 151-153, 156, 165, 168, 174, 176, 184, 186, 188-190, 192-193, 199, 208, 214, 227, 234, 239, 246, 250, 252-253, 255, 262, 265, 267-270, 272-273, 275-276, 280-281, 283-284, 290-291, 296, 301, 306, 308319, 325-327, 330, 333-339, 341, 343, 347-349, 352, 355, 365-366, 370-372, 378-381, 383, 394-395, 401, 403, 405-411, 421, 423, 428-429, 431-432, 434, 447, 449, 451-453, 455-456, 458, 460-463, 470, 473 supporting 6, 52, 62, 94, 108, 119, 128, 169, 192-193, 196, 252, 260, 265, 275-277, 279, 307, 313-314, 317, 319, 332, 334, 342, 367, 370-371, 379, 382, 385, 426-428, 439, 453, 455, 460 supports 12, 114, 121, 123, 152, 154, 227, 246, 254, 274, 295, 317, 348-349, 352, 373, 377, 418, 420, 449, 456-457, 461 512 support systems 470 survey 42, 47, 76, 89-93, 96, 99, 130, 132, 145-146, 148, 155, 157, 197, 235, 242-243, 245, 250-251, 258, 288, 300, 334, 343, 362, 371, 374, 442 surveyed 88-89, 91, 93, 228, 235, 291-293, 329, 333 surveys 83, 89-94, 98-100, 155, 235, 242, 256, 288, 292-293 synthesis 112, 115, 137, 141, 164, 180-181, 183, 202, 204, 211, 234, 250, 256, 258, 267268, 275, 286, 304, 329, 345, 353, 369-370, 396, 409, 418, 447-448, 452, 454 systematic 35, 58, 126, 128, 154, 156, 228, 246, 248, 260, 304, 350-351, 361, 383 systems 34, 46, 48, 52, 56, 58-59, 62, 65, 67, 72, 75, 80, 96, 99, 152, 168, 171, 176, 195196, 198, 239, 280, 285, 294, 296, 314, 342, 346, 355, 366, 368-369, 371, 373, 379-380, 395-396, 399-400, 409-411, 418, 470, 478 tablet 392, 397, 409, 412 tablet computing 397 taxonomy 278, 305 teacher 3, 11, 12, 15,19, 29, 33-34, 37, 40-41, 42, 44-46, 45, 47, 49, 51, 53, 56-58, 59, 60, 63-64, 65-66, 68, 70-76, 78, 83-84, 86-96, 88, 92-93, 96-104, 98 100-104, 109, 110, 114-115, 122, 127-132, 137, 145, 151-154, 162, 164-168, 170-171, 174-176, 177, 181184, 186-187, 188, 189-192, 194-197, 199-200, 202-204, 206-211, 213-219, 221, 223229, 234-256, 246-250, 253, 256, 258-265, 267-272, 270, 274-280, 275, 278-281, 285, 290-295, 297-299, 308-309, 309-312, 314, 316, 318-322, 326-327, 328-333, 331-333, 336-344, 339-341, 343-344, 347-348, 349-351, 355, 355, 358, 360, 362, 366, 371, 373373, 377, 379, 381, 383-386, 388, 392, 394, 397-399, 401-408, 408-410, 412-413, 419421, 423-424, 426, 427-430, 432, 434-436, 438-441, 448-450, 452-464, 457-459, 461463, 465, 466, 469-476, 472, 474-477, 478-480 teacher preparation 51, 70-71, 73, 114-115, 122, 181-182, 213, 225-226, 234, 237-240, 248, 259, 291, 299, 336, 349, 355, 408, 470, 478 teaching 3, 15, 34, 36-37, 42, 46, 58, 61, 64, 71-74, 76-77, 80, 83-98, 100-104, 107, 109, 114, 119, 122, 127, 129-130, 132-133, 151-152, 157, 161, 163-165, 167, 169, 172-177, 179, 182-185, 187, 191-192, 194-199, 201-204, 206, 208, 213-214, 216, 218-219, 221, 223, 225-229, 234, 236-244, 247-249, 251-255, 259-265, 267, 269-272, 275-281, 286287, 291-292, 294-295, 298-299, 301, 304, 321-322, 329-330, 333-334, 337, 340-341, 355, 361, 363, 366, 368, 371, 374, 376, 380, 383, 387, 394, 397, 402-403, 405, 407-409, 411-413, 418, 421, 425, 431, 433-434, 438, 440, 443, 447-448, 450-452, 455, 458, 461, 464, 469-472, 474, 476-480 teamwork 288, 290 technology enhanced learning 386, 455 513 technology for learning 202, 462, 474 telephone 27, 63, 357 television 16, 22, 26-27, 437, 449 Tennessee 6, 61, 65, 67, 481-482 testing 8, 47, 70, 86, 165, 351, 381, 458 Texas 6, 18, 133, 292, 298, 437, 480 textbook 87-88, 152, 206 textbooks 419, 421, 424-425, 428, 451 theory 7, 75, 157, 167, 185, 189, 196-197, 200, 234, 243, 278, 280, 290, 321, 342-343, 361, 411, 418, 424, 430-432, 440-441, 443, 456, 464, 469, 471, 474 tracking 14, 56, 337, 346 trained 88, 182, 223, 236, 275, 292, 335, 337, 348, 352, 354, 358, 481 trainers 90, 278, 481 training 53, 58, 65, 71, 88, 93, 113, 117, 119, 122-123, 126, 137, 153, 182, 189, 204, 207, 209, 211, 213, 219, 226, 236, 239-241, 251, 258, 278, 280, 290-292, 314, 316, 319, 335-337, 347-348, 351, 354-357, 359-363, 374-375, 398, 403, 420, 455, 459, 473, 482 transfer 55, 69, 173, 246, 256, 268, 280, 301, 367, 373, 382, 407, 449 transition 64, 72, 107, 113-114, 116-117, 121, 127-134, 152, 157, 239, 284, 288, 291, 327, 371, 380, 479-481 treatment 88, 163, 167, 170, 172, 292, 335, 352 trends 19, 21, 35, 43-45, 47, 49, 53, 59, 66, 70, 103, 127, 164, 166, 181, 193-194, 196, 244, 258, 322, 342, 345, 413, 421, 428, 439 Turkey 29, 34, 36, 44 tutorials 198, 366, 369, 372, 376, 378-380, 382-383, 451 tutoring 176, 280, 326 tutors 29, 122 Twitter 190, 378, 452, 471, 474, 478, 480 UNESCO 399, 407, 412, 428, 444, 465 UNICEF 412 Utah 3, 7, 18, 25, 66, 71, 77, 428, 444 values 75, 112, 115, 120, 204, 211, 308 variables 30, 88, 93, 99, 129, 156, 318, 338, 350, 465 Vermont 6, 71, 482 Virginia 14-15, 68-69, 234, 474 virtual 1-8, 10-12, 15-16, 18-22, 26, 28-29, 34-37, 39, 41-49, 52, 55-58, 61, 65, 67, 69-70, 77-78, 84-85, 90-99, 101-104, 112, 121, 127-129, 131-133, 136, 151-153, 156, 158, 161, 514 163-165, 169, 171-174, 176, 179-183, 189-195, 203, 208, 218-221, 225, 228, 235-238, 241-243, 245, 250, 254, 258-261, 263-264, 267-268, 275-276, 278-280, 283, 286-287, 289-291, 293-301, 304-307, 309-312, 316, 320, 322-323, 329-330, 334-336, 340-345, 349, 352, 354, 358-359, 361, 363, 366-371, 373, 375-379, 381-387, 390, 403, 405, 407408, 411, 419, 438-439, 459-460, 469-472, 478-479, 481 virtual learning commons 366-367, 386 virtual library 366, 368-370, 375, 378-379, 381-382, 384 virtual manipulatives 161, 165, 169, 171-172, 176 virtual physical education 220-221 virtual schooling 43-44, 47, 84, 101-102, 127-128, 131, 235, 241-242, 260-261, 295, 297, 299, 304, 306, 312, 316, 320, 322, 340-342, 407, 469-470, 478 virtual schools 1-3, 5-6, 10, 12, 18-21, 35-36, 41, 43-45, 47, 52, 55-58, 61, 65, 67, 69, 7778, 84-85, 93-94, 99, 102-103, 121, 131, 158, 179-181, 183, 189-190, 192-194, 236-238, 241, 245, 250, 268, 275, 278, 290-291, 294-295, 297, 299, 301, 304, 316, 320, 322-323, 345, 354, 386, 408, 438, 460, 469, 471, 481 vision 37, 73, 165, 194, 234, 237, 264, 270, 379, 394, 399, 402-403, 442, 476 visual 134, 136, 182, 185, 187, 189 vocabulary 186-187, 190, 195, 199, 395-396 vocational 47, 65, 132, 134, 162, 176 Washington 14, 43-44, 46, 77, 79-80, 103-104, 127-128, 130-132, 134, 173-174, 176, 194, 198, 200, 243, 264, 279-280, 301, 322, 341, 344-345, 386, 388, 407-408, 410, 413, 438, 471 weaknesses 85, 217, 309, 333, 379, 420 wealth 155, 250, 256, 272, 276 web-based 36, 41, 57, 66, 80, 101, 130, 158, 165, 176, 180, 228, 235, 411, 442, 450, 452, 456-457, 464 websites 90, 93, 190, 212, 357, 375, 378, 429, 451, 453, 458 West Virginia 15, 68 Wikipedia 79, 299, 425, 439, 443 Wisconsin 9, 19, 27, 71, 198, 239, 290, 299 workflow 378, 381 working 47, 85, 90, 95, 105, 122-123, 151, 192, 209, 238, 247, 252-253, 255, 273, 277, 296, 298, 312, 326, 328, 332, 349-350, 354, 356, 372, 404, 442, 455-456, 470-471, 474, 478 workshop 246-247, 412, 477 Worldwide 35, 40, 43, 385, 387, 391, 394, 398, 419, 465, 471, 476 515 writing 11, 71, 106, 113, 152, 162, 169, 179-181, 183-186, 188-192, 194, 196-200, 224, 241, 262, 284, 365, 369, 390, 395-396, 412, 425, 429, 432, 434, 438-439, 471, 473, 475, 478-479 writing instruction 179-181, 184, 189-190, 197-198 YouTube 190, 454 516 ... Handbook of Research on K-12 Online and Blended Learning Handbook of Research on K-12 Online and Blended Learning Copyright © by Richard E Ferdig and Kathryn Kennedy and ETC Press... field of K-12 online and blended learning for some years Our coffee conversation focused mainly on the progress of research that had been published in the area since the inception of K-12 online. .. development of online and blended learning are also addressed, including online learning requirements, student achievement, and funding Introduction Many of the early adopters in K-12 online learning