ALSO BY JONATHAN SCHNEER Ben Tillett: Portrait of a Labour Leader Labour’s Conscience: The Labour Left, 1945–51 George Lansbury London 1900 The Thames This book is dedicated in loving memory to my parents In his indignation Cadmus killed the dragon, and by the advice of Athena sowed its teeth When they were sown there rose from the ground armed men.… APOLLODORUS 3.4.1 (Transl J G Frazer) Contents Other Books by this Author Title Page Dedication Glossary of Names List of Maps Postlude as Prelude PART I Sirocco CHAPTER Palestine Before World War I CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER Ottomanism, Arabism, and Sharif Hussein First Steps Toward the Arab Revolt The Next Steps The Hussein-McMahon Correspondence The Sykes-Picot Agreement The Arab Revolt Begins PART II London and Zion CHAPTER Prewar British Jews CHAPTER CHAPTER 10 CHAPTER 11 Weizmann’s First Steps The Assimilationists The Road Forks PART III The Battle for the Ear of the Foreign Office CHAPTER 12 Forging the British-Zionist Connection CHAPTER 13 CHAPTER 14 CHAPTER 15 CHAPTER 16 Defining the British-Arab Connection Managing the British-Zionist Connection Sokolow in France and Italy Revelation of the Sykes-Picot Agreement PART IV The Road Not Taken CHAPTER 17 CHAPTER 18 CHAPTER 19 CHAPTER 20 CHAPTER 21 British Muslims, the Anglo-Ottoman Society, and the Disillusioning of Marmaduke Pickthall The Curious Venture of J R Pilling Henry Morgenthau and the Deceiving of Chaim Weizmann “The Man Who Was Greenmantle” The Zaharoff Gambit PART V Climax and Anticlimax CHAPTER 22 The Ascendancy of Chaim Weizmann CHAPTER 23 CHAPTER 24 CHAPTER 25 Conclusion CHAPTER 26 Lawrence and the Arabs on the Verge The Declaration at Last The Declaration Endangered A Drawing Together of Threads Acknowledgments Notes Bibliography About the Author Copyright Glossary of Names (These brief notes are meant to provide only the most basic relevant information for those reading this book.) AARONSOHN, AARON 1876–1919 He gained fame as the foremost agronomist in Palestine before World War I, but is best known for putting his knowledge of the land to use for Britain during the war and for his Zionist activities He perished in an airplane crash ABDULLAH IBN HUSSEIN 1882–1951 Second son of Sharif Hussein, a member of the prewar Ottoman parliament, he helped to instigate and then took a leading role in the Arab Revolt After the war he became emir of Transjordan, and when the British mandate ended in 1946, he became king of Transjordan and then in 1949 king of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan He died by assassination ALI IBN HUSSEIN 1879–1935 First son of Sharif Hussein, he did not play a leading role in the Arab Revolt but nevertheless succeeded his father as king of the Hejaz in 1924, when the Wahhabi rebellion occurred He abdicated one year later and spent the rest of his life in Baghdad in Iraq, where his brother Feisal ruled as king ALLENBY, SIR EDMUND 1861–1936 Promoted to general for his services on the Western Front, he took command of the British-led Egyptian Expeditionary Force in June 1917 His forces captured Gaza in October, Jerusalem in December, and Damascus in October 1918 He served as high commissioner for Egypt from 1919 to 1925 ASQUITH, HERBERT HENRY (FIRST EARL OF OXFORD AND ASQUITH) 1852–1928 The Liberal politician who served as prime minister from 1908 to 1916, he led Britain into the war and in May 1915 formed a coalition government with the Conservatives Lloyd George replaced him as prime minister in December 1916 AUDA ABU TAYI 1885–1924 The leader of a section of the Howeitat tribe of Bedouin Arabs, he threw his support behind the Arab Revolt and with Lawrence engineered the capture of Aqaba Lawrence called him “the greatest fighting man in northern Arabia.” BALFOUR, ARTHUR JAMES (FIRST EARL OF BALFOUR) 1848–1930 The Conservative prime minister from 1902 to 1905, he served on Asquith’s war council from the outbreak of hostilities until formation of the coalition government, upon which Asquith appointed him rst lord of the Admiralty When Lloyd George formed the second coalition government, he appointed Balfour to be his foreign secretary After the war Balfour served in the Lloyd George government as lord president of the council CAILLARD, SIR VINCENT 1856–1930 A businessman with wide interests and direct experience of Turkey and the Ottoman Middle East, he served as nancial director of Vickers armaments manufacturers from 1906 until after the war In the attempt to arrange a separate peace with the Ottomans, he played the role of intermediary between Basil Zaharoff and David Lloyd George CECIL, ROBERT (FIRST VISCOUNT CECIL OF CHELWOOD) 1864–1958 Son of Prime Minister Lord Salisbury, cousin of Arthur Balfour, and himself a Conservative member of Parliament (although a free trader), he joined Asquith’s coalition government in 1915 as parliamentary under secretary of state for foreign a airs, a post he held for four years After the war he devoted himself to work for the League of Nations and international peace CHEETHAM, SIR MILNE 1869–1938 A career diplomat, after numerous postings he arrived in Cairo as rst secretary to the British high commissioner During the interval between Kitchener’s departure in June 1914 and McMahon’s arrival in January 1915, he served as acting high commissioner and helped compose an early letter to Grand Sharif Hussein CLAYTON, SIR GILBERT 1875–1929 Before the war he served Sir Reginald Wingate, governor general of Sudan, as director of intelligence in Sudan and agent in Cairo With the outbreak of war he became director of military intelligence at British headquarters in Cairo, head of the Arab Bureau, and eventually chief political o cer of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force and military governor of Palestine After the war he continued to play an active role in Middle Eastern affairs, but his career was cut short by a fatal heart attack CURZON, NATHANIEL (FIRST MARQUESS CURZON OF KEDLESTON) 1859–1925 A Conservative politician who had served as viceroy of India from 1898 to 1905, he joined Asquith’s coalition government as lord privy seal in 1915 Lloyd George tapped him for his own coalition government a year and a half later, and for membership of the select War Cabinet, in which he served as lord president of the council After the war Curzon replaced Balfour as foreign secretary and served until the Labour victory in the general election of 1923 DJEMAL PASHA 1872–1922 An Ottoman military o cer and early supporter of the CUP, he and Enver and Talaat e ectively ruled the empire from 1913 until the end of the war During 1915 and again in 1916 he led the Ottoman Fourth Army in unsuccessful attacks against British forces at Suez Throughout the war he exercised dictatorial powers in Syria, earning widespread hatred Afterward he ed to Germany, then to Switzerland, and nally to Central Asia He was assassinated by an Armenian revolutionary ENVER PASHA 1881–1922 An Ottoman military o cer and early supporter of the CUP, he was the architect of the triumvirate of three pashas who ruled the empire during 1913–18 and of the government’s pro-German policy During the war he occupied the position of war minister, although he was generally an unsuccessful military leader With the Ottoman defeat in 1918, he ed rst to Germany and eventually to the Soviet Union An advocate of pan-Turanianism, he died fighting the Russians in Central Asia FARUKI, SHARIF MUHAMMAD AL-1891–1920 A young Arab sta o cer and member of the secret society al-Ahd, he crossed over to the British lines at Gallipoli, hoping to convince them to support Sharif Hussein’s revolt and the Arabian kingdom adumbrated in the Damascus Protocol He did so, although he did not formally represent al-Ahd Later he became Sharif Hussein’s agent in Cairo FEISAL IBN HUSSEIN 1885–1933 Third son of Sharif Hussein, leader and architect of the Arab Revolt, he became king of Syria for about four months in 1920, until the French kicked him out The British made him king of Iraq in 1921, but they held a mandate to rule from the League of Nations so that Feisal’s kingship was quali ed The British granted Iraq nominal independence in 1932 FITZMAURICE, SIR GERALD 1865–1939 Senior dragoman, or Turkish-speaking consular o cer, at the British embassy from 1907 to 1914, an inveterate intriguer with reactionary views, he hated the CUP government and longed unavailingly for restoration of the sultan During the war he served in naval intelligence, mainly in London GASTER, MOSES 1856–1939 The chief rabbi, or haham, of Spanish and Portuguese Jews in England, Gaster was a press articles and expressions of sympathy from German officials OUNBL, Stein Papers, box 12 35 “behaved like a …” Quoted in Reinharz, Weizmann, 205 CHAPTER 25: THE DECLARATION ENDANGERED “we are watching …” Hardinge to General [MacDonagh?], November 8, 1917, NA, WO106/1516 He had been dispatched … Arthur Balfour, “Circulated to the War Cabinet,” November 1917, NA, FO371/3057 “would welcome …” “Notes of conversation held by Mr Waugh with Mr Charlton Giraud: October 29, 1917,” ibid “only of a kind …” Colonel Gabriel, memorandum on discussion with Giraud; Granville to Hardinge, November 1, 1917, ibid Rumbold also reported … For example, Rumbold to Foreign Office, September 1, 1917 and November 29, 1917, ibid Rahmi Bey’s twitch … Arthur Balfour, “Circulated to the War Cabinet,” November 1917, ibid “The time has come …” Lord Milner, memorandum, November 12, 1917, ibid “I ask how far …” Curzon of Keddleston, “Peace Negotiations with Turkey,” November 16, 1917, NA, WO800/214 “We are pledged …” Sykes to Hankey, November 14, 1917, Hull University, Sykes Papers, DDSY/2/4/161 10 Unlike Waugh … Balfour to Lord Beaverbrook, August 9, 1918, NA, WO800/206 11 “This is the most favorable …” Granville to Balfour, December 15, 1918, NA, FO371/3057; Waugh to Granville, December 4, 1918; Heathcote-Smith, memorandum on two conversations with Rahmi Bey, December 3, 1918, ibid 12 “the fact that he is …” The two Turks were Chevky Bey and Begjet Wahby Rumbold to Balfour, January 7, 1918, NA, WO800/206 13 “Agent, who is believed …” Rumbold to Foreign Office, December 28, 1917, OUNBL, Rumbold Papers, box 23 14 Lord Newton, however … Newton to Rumbold, January 5, 1918, ibid 15 Amazingly, Horace … Palmer, Victory in 1918, 148–49 16 “to include Palestine …” Smuts to Rumbold, December 19, 1917, OUNBL, Rumbold Papers, box 23 17 “I trust that …” Minutes by various officials, December 15, 1917, NA, FO371/3057 18 a wire from Balfour … I have found no copy of this cable, but Balfour refers to it twice in correspondence (see below) 19 “sent at the end …” Rumbold to Parodi, March 21, 1918, OUNBL, Rumbold Papers, box 23 20 “We thought …” Balfour to Beaverbrook, August 9, 1918, NA, WO800/206 21 “my Government will …” Rumbold to Parodi, February 6, 1918, OUNBL, Rumbold Papers, box 23 22 “Abdul Kerim will …” Zaharoff to Caillard, November 18, 1917, NA, Caillard Papers, file 23 Only two days … Zaharoff to Caillard, October 15, 1917, ibid 24 The two men met … W H Fisher to Caillard, November 6, 1917, ibid 25 “Egyptian conditions” … Owen, “In uence of Cromer’s Indian Experience,” 109–39; Al-Sayyd-Marsotm, “The British Occupation of Egypt from 1882,” in Porter, ed., Oxford History of the British Empire, 3:651–64 26 “using a very coarse …” Zaharoff to Caillard, November 27, 1917, NA, Caillard Papers, file 27 “If the previous …” Zaharoff to Caillard, December 4, 1917, ibid 28 “‘personal opinion’” … Zaharoff to Caillard, December 7, 1917, ibid 29 “I did not go one …” Zaharo Zaharoff file to Caillard, December 15, 1917, House of Lords Record O ce, Lloyd George Papers, 30 “Send me …” Ibid 31 “We should be …” Davies to Caillard, January 21, 1918, ibid 32 “It is agreed …” “Instructions of January 9, 1918,” ibid 33 “You did not mention …” Caillard to Lloyd George, January 12, 1918, ibid 34 “Please explain …” Caillard to Zaharoff, January 16, 1918, ibid 35 “We were four days …” Zaharo August 21, 1918, ibid to Caillard, January 29, 1918, ibid 358 “claiming that all …” Zaharo to Caillard, CHAPTER 26: A DRAWING TOGETHER OF THREADS “serious concern not …” Ronald Graham, minute, November 22, 1917, NA, FO371/3057 “King seemed quite …” Quoted in Stein, Balfour Declaration, 633 “I know that the Arabs …” Sykes to Feisal, March 3, 1918, NA, FO882/3, Arab Bureau “I not, and never did …” Feisal to Sykes, July 18, 1917, NA, FO800/221 He did not look … Yale Report no 10, December 31, 1917, Oxford University, St Antony’s College, Middle East Centre, Yale Papers “the ambitions and …” Yale Report no 3, November 12, 1917, ibid “The soul of their Prophet …” Amir Ali to Lord Hardinge, November 10, 1917, NA, FO371/3053 “the Zionists were very …” Yale Report no 9, December 26, 1917, Oxford University, St Antony’s College, Middle East Centre, Yale Papers “I strongly urge …” Islamic Society Resolutions, November 5, 1917, NA, FO371/3053 10 Britain had a mandate … Macmillan, Peacemakers, 411 11 “In no single theatre …” Quoted in Porter, Lion’s Share, 252 Bibliography UNPUBLISHED SOURCES GREAT BRITAIN BRITISH LIBRARY Arthur Balfour Papers Robert Cecil Papers Lord Curzon Papers Edwin Montagu Papers Murray Robertson Papers Lord Reading Papers C P Scott Diary India Office: “Notes on Mushir Husain Kidwai and Duse Mohamed,” 1916, file number L/P&J/12/752; File 416/916 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Hardinge Papers CHURCHILL COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY George Lloyd Papers DURHAM UNIVERSITY Sir Gilbert Clayton Papers Sir Reginald Wingate Papers HOUSE OF LORDS RECORD OFFICE David Lloyd George Papers Herbert Samuel Papers HULL UNIVERSITY Mark Sykes Papers MIDDLE EAST CENTRE, ST ANTONY’S COLLEGE, OXFORD UNIVERSITY Edmund Allenby Papers Balfour Declaration Papers Sir Wyndham Deedes Papers Felix Frankfurter Papers David Hogarth Papers Sir Henry McMahon Papers Herbert Samuel Papers Sir Mark Sykes Papers William Yale Papers NATIONAL 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Turkish National Movement, 1905–26 Leiden, 1984 About the Author JONATHAN SCHNEER, a specialist in modern British history, is a professor at Georgia Tech’s School of History, Technology, and Society He is the author of ve additional books as well as numerous articles and reviews A fellow of the American Council of Learned Societies in 1985–86, he has also held research fellowships at Oxford and Cambridge universities in the UK and at the Erich Remarque Center of New York University He was a founding editor of Radical History Review and is a member of the editorial board of 20th Century British History and The London Journal Copyright © 2010 by Jonathan Schneer All rights reserved Published in the United States by Random House, an imprint of The Random House Publishing Group, a division of Random House, Inc., New York RANDOM HOUSE and colophon are registered trademarks of Random House, Inc Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Schneer, Jonathan The Balfour Declaration : the origins of the Arab-Israeli conflict / Jonathan Schneer p cm eISBN: 978-0-679-60362-7 Balfour Declaration Zionism—Great Britain—History—20th century Zionism—History—20th century Palestine—History—1917–1948 Great Britain—Foreign relations—Turkey Turkey—Foreign relations—Great Britain Arab-Israeli conflict I Title DS125.5.S366 2010 956.04—dc22 2009040007 www.atrandom.com v3.0 ... epoch … For the rst time since the dispersion, the Jewish people have received their proper status by the declaration of one of the great Powers.” He referred, of course, to the Balfour Declaration, ... tone.” Farther up the coast lay Haifa, at the foot of Mount Carmel, at the southern end of the Bay of Acre The best natural harbor on the Palestine coast, it increasingly overshadowed the older... the Bedouins, who lived much as they always had As for the fellahin, the backbone of the country, some left the land for the towns, where few prospered, but the vast majority remained where they