Table of Contents Title Page Dedication PREFACE A NOTE ON PRONUNCIATION Chapter - PRELIMINARY ORIENTATIONS AND LEGENDARY CONFLICTS THE SEMILEGENDARY PERIOD Chapter - ANCIENT FORTIFICATIONS, I CHARACTER AND FUNCTION OF EARLY WALLS EVOLUTION OF THE FORTIFIED TOWN Chapter - ANCIENT FORTIFICATIONS, II SICHUAN PRECURSORS FORTIFICATION TECHNOLOGY AND METHODS Chapter - THE HSIA ORIGINS AND PREHISTORY EARLY SITES AND CAPITALS RESOURCE CONTROL POINTS Chapter - WARFARE IN THE HSIA POLITICAL ORGANIZATION AND MILITARY STRUCTURE Chapter - THE SHANG DYNASTY TRADITIONAL ACCOUNT OF THE SHANG’S RISE CONQUEST OF THE HSIA Chapter - SHANG CAPITALS, CITADELS, AND FORTIFICATIONS STRATEGIC ASSESSMENT AND HISTORICAL IMPLICATIONS SHANG EXTENT AND FLUCTUATIONS Chapter - CHAOS, CONTRACTION, AND RESURGENCE LATE SHANG: THE ANYANG PERIOD MARTIAL ACTIVITIES IN THE ANYANG ERA Chapter - KING WU TING, I WU TING’S EARLY PERIOD WU TING’S MIDDLE PERIOD Chapter 10 - KING WU TING, II WU TING’S LATE PERIOD WU TING’S COMMANDERS Chapter 11 - THE LAST REIGNS CONFLICTS AND CAMPAIGNS Chapter 12 - THE SHANG MARTIAL EDIFICE SHANG MARTIAL COMMAND SHANG MILITARY CONTINGENTS Chapter 13 - TROOPS, INTELLIGENCE, AND TACTICS SHANG MILITARY INTELLIGENCE OPERATIONAL TACTICS TRAINING Chapter 14 - METALLURGICAL EVOLUTION IN CHINA THE SHANG REALIZATION Chapter 15 - EARLY WEAPONS AND THE AXE THE AXE Chapter 16 - KNIVES, DAGGERS, AND SWORDS DAGGERS AND SWORDS Chapter 17 - THE KO OR DAGGER-AXE THE CHI Chapter 18 - SPEARS AND ARMOR ARMOR AND SHIELDS Chapter 19 - ANCIENT ARCHERY DESIGN, POWER, AND ACCURACY OF THE BOW EARLY CHINESE BOWS THE ARROW Chapter 20 - THE CHARIOT IN CHINA DESIGN AND SPECIFICATIONS ORIGINS Chapter 21 - THE HORSE IN CHINA TRAINING ROLE AND EFFECTS HORSEPOWER Chapter 22 - THE CHARIOT IN BATTLE WARRIOR COMPLEMENT AND ACTIONS INTEGRATION WITH ACCOMPANYING FORCES Chapter 23 - CHARIOT LIMITATIONS AND DIFFICULTIES COMBAT ISSUES Chapter 24 - ANCIENT LOGISTICS Chapter 25 - MUSINGS AND IMPONDERABLES CONQUEST AND DISPLACEMENT ✦ NOTES ✦ ✦ INTEGRATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ✦ ✦ INDEX ✦ Copyright Page FOR LEE MEI-CHÜN PREFACE ANCIENT CHINESE WARFARE AND ITS COMPANION, Western Chou Warfare , were started more than thirty years ago but were soon de-emphasized, though never abandoned, to investigate more accessible topics because insufficient archaeological material was available for assessing many aspects of ancient Chinese military history Even though dramatic new finds such as San-hsing-tui (Sanxingdui) can still provoke astonishment and significantly affect historical understanding, the accumulation of thousands of discoveries and hundreds of highly relevant reports over the intervening decades has not only resulted in something akin to a minimal critical mass, but also considerably diminished the impact of archaeology’s accidental nature To cite just one example, reports on Wangch’eng-kang in the early 1980s indicated the existence of a fortress consisting of two small but conjoined square citadels roughly 100 meters on a side that immediately prompted heated arguments about its possible identity as an ancient Hsia (Xia) capital However, a partial excavation of the greater site in the early twenty-first century has now revealed that the “King’s City” once enclosed a massive 300,000 square meters within its substantial outer fortifications, considerably buttressing claims for an imperial role Although my efforts over the last few years, whether in the cold of Korean winters or heat of interminable Indonesian summers, have been focused on this volume, many more could easily be spent No one has ever been granted indefinite longevity, yet it is difficult to escape the persistent feeling that only now, after nearly a half century of pondering Chinese topics, am I approaching some requisite level of understanding upon which the entire topic should be restudied This is particularly true with respect to the ancient period because of the inescapable necessity of relying on innumerable interpretive archaeological reports and scholarly explications of oracular and bronze inscriptional materials, the core of this book Despite the convenience of the Internet and the growth of extensive (but not yet fully accessible or comprehensive) databases, exhaustive examination of all relevant articles on any single aspect of ancient Chinese military history, even something as focused as arrowheads, remains impossible Paradoxically, numerous materials that were once relatively available through interlibrary loan, especially Japanese books and articles, have become even more difficult to acquire due to declining library holdings, an unwillingness to relinquish physical possession, and insufficient staff to provide the photocopies previously enjoyed Nevertheless, despite the elusiveness of a few known titles and no doubt ignorance of many more, articles through the end of 2008 from the major Chinese historical and archaeological journals, as well as numerous minor ones assembled in collated volumes over the past few decades, and various books and site reports published in the last half century or more provide the basis for this study Now that belief in objective history has been discarded, it need hardly be mentioned that all works of this type are necessarily highly individualized creations that are guided by particular views and interpretations, however eclectic Thus, for example, although increased coverage of Northern zone knives might well be merited, their study has been foregone for examinations of more focal or directly relevant topics such as the role of the yüeh (large battle-axe) in solidifying and apportioning martial authority Selectivity has been particularly severe in the area of contextual history despite the and capitals P’an-lung-ch’eng Pan-p’o Pao-tun Pa-shih-tang Peaceful coexistence Pei-ch’eng-tzu P’eng-t’ou’shan Peregrination Peremptory execution Peter the Great Pi, Battle of Pien-hsien-wang P’i-hsien Ping Hsin (king) military activity of and military contingents reign of P’ing-liang-t’ai Pipes and drums Platform city Plundering Po Po Le Political authority Political official Political organization, of Hsia Political structure Pony express Pounded earth wall See Hang-t’u Power of bow of chariot Power center Prestige and metal Preventative channeling Prisoner of war Prognostication See Divination Protector See Wei Rammed earth wall See also Wall building Rattan Reconnaissance See Military reconnaissance Red Emperor (Yen Ti) and Ch’ih Yu, as same person clan of origin of Reed Regiments See Lü Rein system See also Harness Resource acquisition Righteousness Ritual object Ritual practice Road development Rulers and ancestors, communication with Anyang authority of and commander and divination and fate, of individuals Hsia(see also individual rulers) and human sacrifice and hunting and marriage alliance and martial prowess military activity of military command of and mineral resources and peregrination reigns of and resource acquisition Shang(see also individual rulers) Sacrifice animal and prisoner of war ritual and T’ang and Wu Ting and Yi Yin Salt See also Natural resources San Miao San pang San-hsing-tui San-tsung Self-bows Settlement and agriculture growth of location of See also Ditched settlement; Fortifications; individual settlements; Walled settlement Shaft arrow arrowhead chariot dagger-axe Shang and Anyang era capitals (see also individual capitals) fortifications (see individual cities and towns) and Hsia, conquest of influence of and military activity (see also under Wu Ting) and military contingents namesake of origin of rulers of(see also individual rulers) and Virtue Shang, Prince “Shang spear,” Shang-ch’iu Shao Hao (emperor) Shao-k’ang She (archer) See also Archer Shell, arrowhead Shen Nung (Agricultural Emperor) Shield design and size of material for use of See also Armor; Dagger shield Shih (army) and military tactics Shih chang (leader of the shih) Shih (military title) Shih Pan (commander) Shih-chia-ho Shock weapon and chariot See also Weapons Short sword See Dagger Short weapon See also Weapons Shou of Ts’ai (duke) Shu (military title) Shu (prince) Shu-mou (military title) Shun and bow and Hsia, capitals and sites of reign of and San Miao and water management Sichuan, walled settlements in (see also individual settlements) Signal fire Silver Sinew/tendon (chin), bow Sisera Slavery Sledge Soldiers See Foot soldiers; Military troops Southern-pointing chariot Spear and chariot and Chu (son of Shao-k’ang) design and size of ears material for as missile weapon northern style origin of and “Shang spear,” southern style and spearhead, mounting of use of vulnerability of Spearhead, mounting of Spirits, communication with Spoke, chariot Ssu pang Ssu-ma Ch’ien Ssu-ma (supervisor of horse) Ssu-pa Stamped earth wall See Hang-t’u Stone arrowhead dagger dagger-axe fu (axe) spear yüeh (axe) Subofficers See Chang Succession battles, Hsia Sui Sui-fang Sun-tzu Supervisor of horse See Ssu-ma Su-pu-t’un Surprise attack Sword appraising of design and size of as liability material for origin of symbolic role of Tab of dagger-axe of k’uei (axe) T’ai Chia T’ai Kang T’ai Kung and military commanders and topography T’ai-hsi T’ai-kang T’an Tan Fu T’ang (king) and capitals and chariot and Cheng-chou and Ch’iang and Chieh and Hsia, capitals and sites of and Hsia, conquest of and Ko, Earl of and K’un-wu and long weapon military activity of and military intelligence and San-tsung and “T’ang’s Oath,” and Virtue and Yen-shih and Yi Yin “T’ang’s Oath,” T’ang-shih See Yao Taoism T’ao-ssu Ta-shih-ku Ta-ti-wan Tendon/sinew (chin), bows Teng-feng Wang-ch’eng-kang Terrain and chariot and horse See also Topography Thread/fiber, bows Ti (Shang deity) Tien (commander) T’ien-wang Tiger Quarter (Hu-gang) Tin Tin bronze alloys Ting-kung Tools for wall building Topography and horse See also Terrain Training See Military training; Horse training Troops See Military troops Tsao Fu Tso, Duke of Tsou-ma-ling Tsu Chia and capitals reign of Tsu (clan regiment) Tsu Keng Tsu (king) Tsu Yi Tu-fang T’ung (aka Yung) Tung Tso-pin Tung Yeh-pi Tung Yi See Yi Tung-hsia-feng and Hsia, resource acquisition of Tung-hsien-hsien Tzu Hsi Tzu Yi Tzu Yü Tzu-chu Ku-ch’eng Vegetation Victory Village Archery Ceremony Virtue and San Miao and Shang and T’ang (king) and Wu Ch’i and Yellow Emperor and Yü Wagon Waist wall See also Wall building Wall building and agriculture and Anyang and construction rate and Kun labor force for (see Labor force, for wall building) and layering and maintenance and repair materials used in and moats, construction of tools for and vegetation Walled settlement character of as defensive measure description of evolution of and flooding function of location of in Sichuan(see also individual settlements) and water See also individual settlements; Settlement Wan Chang Wang Wang Ch’eng (commander) and military tactics Wang Kuo-wei Wang-ch’eng-kang Wang-tzu Ch’eng-fu War captive See Prisoner of war Warehouse Warrior ranking of, and bows See also Chariot warrior Water as defensive barrier and walled settlement See also Natural resources Water management Waterways Wealth accumulation Weapon(s) agricultural implement as chariot as and chariot compartment and combat space design of manufacture of materials used for metal and military logistics and military tactics and military training origin of possession of proliferation of tools as use of See also individual weapons Wei (protector) Wei Shu Wen (king) and bow and arrow and horse Wen Ting (aka Wen Wu Ting) consorts of and marriage alliance military activity of and military contingents reign of Wen Wu Ting See Wu Ting Wheel, chariot Wheel rim (felloes), chariot Wo Women in labor force, for wall building in military See also Fu; Consorts Wood arrow arrowhead bow Wu, Marquis Wu Ch’i and Anyang and bow and chariot and horse and military logistics and Virtue and Wu-ch’eng Wu (king) and archery and chariot and long weapon Wu Kuan Wu Ting (king) and Anyang authority of and capitals and chariot and Ch’iang and Chien-fang and Chi-fang and Chih and Ch’üeh and Chung commanders of(see also individual commanders) consorts of and Fang and horse and Hsia-wei and Hsüan and hunting and Ko (tribe) and Kuei and Kuei-fang and Kung and Lung-fang and Ma-fang and marriage alliance military activity of military activity of (early period) military activity of (late period) military activity of (middle period) and military contingents and military logistics and military tactics and military training and military troops and Pa-fang reign of and sacrifice and spear and T’an and Tiger Quarter (Hu-gang) and Tu-fang and T’ung and Wang and Wo and Yi and Yü and Yüan-ch’ü and Yüeh Wu Yi consorts of and marriage alliance military activity of and military contingents reign of Wu-ch’eng Wu-tsu-shu (military title) Wu-tzu Xinjiang Ya (commander) See also Military commander Yang-ch’eng Yang-hsiang-ch’eng Yao (aka T’ang-shih) and bow and Hsia, capitals and sites of reign of and San Miao and water management Yellow earth Yellow Emperor (Hsüan-yüan) and boat and oar and bow and bow and arrow and chariot and Chi’ih Yu, defeat of clan of and good vs evil and morality origin of and pipes and drums reign of and southern-pointing chariot and supremacy, struggle for and swords and topographical conditions and Virtue and Yü Yen Yen Hui Yen Ti See Red Emperor Yen-ling, Battle of and chariot Yen-mang-ch’eng Yen-shih function of Yi (aka Tung Yi; Nine Yi) and Chung Ting and San Miao and Shang Yi (emperor) and bow and crossbow and Hsia, capitals and sites of and Hsia-wei military activity of reign of and succession battles and water management Yi (wife of Yi) Yi Yih Yi Yin and Hsia, conquest of as spy Yin (military title) “Yin Wu” (“Martial Yin”) Ying Lung Yin-hsiang-ch’eng Yoke Yü and boat and cart and bow and chariot and Ch’iang death of and Hsia, capitals and sites of reign of and San Miao and succession battles and Virtue and water management and Wu Ting Yü Shih (Rain Commander) Yu Yi Yüan Yüan Chen Yüan-ch’ü Yüeh (axe) bronze versions of decorations on design and size of and head mounting jade versions of materials for stone versions of symbolic nature of use of Yüeh (commander) Yüeh (tribe) Yüeh-shih Yü-fu-t’un Yu-hu Yung See T’ung Copyright © 2011 by Ralph D Sawyer Published by Basic Books, A Member of the Perseus Books Group All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews For information, address Basic Books, 387 Park Avenue South, New York, NY 10016-8810 Books published by Basic Books are available at special discounts for bulk purchases in the United States by corporations, institutions, and other organizations For more information, please contact the Special Markets Department at the Perseus Books Group, 2300 Chestnut Street, Suite 200, Philadelphia, PA 19103, or call (800) 810-4145, ext 5000, or e-mail special.markets@perseusbooks.com Chinese calligraphy by Lee Ting-rong The Library of Congress has cataloged the printed edition as follows: Sawyer, Ralph D Ancient Chinese warfare / by Ralph D Sawyer ; with the bibliographic collaboration of Mei-chun Lee Sawyer p cm Includes bibliographical references and index eISBN : 978-0-465-02334-9 02334-9 (e-book) Warfare, Prehistoric—China Military art and science—China—History Weapons, Ancient—China—History China—History, Military—To 221 B.C China—History—Shang dynasty, 1766-1122 B.C I Sawyer, Mei-chün II Title U43.C6S288 2011 355.020931—dc22 2010051391 ... men who were greedy, obtuse, and avaricious destroyed and pillaged all under Heaven The myriad people were disturbed and moved, none could be at peace in their place Sages suddenly arose to punish... and brutal and pacify the chaotic age They eliminated danger and got rid of the corrupt, turning the muddy into the clear and danger into peace.10 Their actions assumed an outwardly directed... followed by metal, he gathered and smelted it to fabricate Yung-hu halberds and Hu-fu dagger-axes That year he subjugated twelve feudal lords Throughout the realm rulers wielding shields and halberds