The Classical World BY THE SAME AUTHOR Alexander the Great Pagans and Christians The Unauthorized Version The Making of ‘Alexander’ ROBIN LANE FOX The Classical World An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian ALLEN LANE an imprint of PENGUIN BOOKS ALLEN LANE Published by the Penguin Group Penguin Books Ltd, 80 Strand, London WC2R 0RL, England Penguin Group (USA) Inc., 375 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014, USA Penguin Group (Canada), 90 Eglinton Avenue East, Suite 700, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M4P 2Y3 (a division of Pearson Penguin Canada Inc.) Penguin Ireland, 25 St Stephen’s Green, Dublin 2, Ireland (a division of Penguin Books Ltd) Penguin Group (Australia), 250 Camberwell Road, Camberwell, Victoria 3124, Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) Penguin Books India Pvt Ltd, 11 Community Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi – 110 017, India Penguin Group (NZ), cnr Airborne and Rosedale Roads, Albany, Auckland 1310, New Zealand (a division of Pearson New Zealand Ltd) Penguin Books (South Africa) (Pty) Ltd, 24 Sturdee Avenue, Rosebank 2196, South Africa Penguin Books Ltd, Registered Offices: 80 Strand, London WC2R 0RL, England www.penguin.com First published 2005 Copyright © Robin Lane Fox, 2005 The moral right of the author has been asserted All rights reserved Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise), without the prior written permission of both the copyright owner and the above publisher of this book A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library EISBN: 978–0–141–90266–1 FOR MARTHA He found his father alone in his well-ordered orchard Digging round a plant: he was wearing a dirty tunic, Patched and unseemly, and round his shins he had bound Sewn leather leg-guards, keeping off scratches, And he had gloves on his hands because of the thorns On his head he wore a goatskin cap, increasing his air of sorrow When noble, enduring Odysseus saw him Worn by old age and with such great sadness in his heart, He stood beneath a tall pear-tree and shed tears… Odysseus returns to his father: Homer, Odyssey 24.226–34 This tomb of well-sculpted metal Covers the dead body of a great hero, Zenodotus But his soul is in heaven, where Orpheus is, Where Plato is, and has found a holy seat, fit to receive a god For, he was a valiant cavalryman in the Emperor’s service, Famous, eloquent, god-like In his speech He was a copy of Socrates among the Italian people Leaving to his children his sound ancestral fortune, He has died, a fit old man, leaving boundless sorrow To his well-born friends, his city and its citizens Palatine Anthology 7.363, possibly composed by Hadrian himself Contents List of Maps Preface Hadrian and the Classical World PART ONE The Archaic Greek World Homeric Epic The Greeks’ Settlements Aristocrats The Immortal Gods Tyrants and Lawgivers Sparta The Eastern Greeks Towards Democracy The Persian Wars 10 The Western Greeks PART TWO The Classical Greek World 11 Conquest and Empire 12 A Changing Greek Cultural World 13 Pericles and Athens 14 The Peloponnesian War 15 Socrates 16 Fighting for Freedom and Justice 17 Women and Children 18 Philip of Macedon 19 The Two Philosophers 20 Fourth-century Athenians PART THREE Hellenistic Worlds 21 Alexander the Great 22 Alexander’s Early Successors 23 Life in the Big Cities 24 The New World 25 Rome Reaches Out 26 The Peace of the Gods 27 Liberation in the South 28 Hannibal and Rome 29 Diplomacy and Dominance PART FOUR The Roman Republic 30 Luxury and Licence 31 Turbulence at Home and Abroad 32 Pompey’s Triumphs 33 The World of Cicero 34 The Rise of Julius Caesar 35 The Spectre of Civil War 36 The Fatal Dictator 37 Liberation Betrayed PART FIVE From Republic to Empire 38 Antony and Cleopatra 39 The Making of the Emperor 40 Morals and Society 41 Spectator Sports 42 The Roman Army 43 The New Age PART SIX An Imperial World 44 The Julio-Claudians 45 Ruling the Provinces 46 Effects of Empire 47 Christianity and Roman Rule 48 Surviving Four Emperors 49 The New Dynasty 50 The Last Days of Pompeii 51 A New Man in Action 52 A Pagan and Christians 53 Regime Change, Home and Away 54 Presenting the Past Hadrian: a Retrospective Notes Select Bibliography Commentary on the Illustrations Index Leucippus, 138 Leuctra, 180, 183 Levantines, 31, 103, 118; see also Phoenicians Liberty, temple to, 309, 340, 402 Lincoln, 471 Lindos, 78 literacy: Greek, 16, 19, 35, 152; Roman, 148, 470 Livia (wife of Octavian), 425, 432, 477–8, 490, 495, 498 Locri, 157, 399 Locris, 190 logic, 206 Long Walls, 155, 162, 164 love-gifts, 45, 141 Lucan, 511 Lucanians, 286 Lucca, 381 Lucretii Valentes, 557 Lucretius, 388 Lucullus, 352–3, 355, 377 Lupercalia, 293–4 Luperci, 404 Lyceum, 201 Lycurgus, 71, 74 Lydia, Lydians, 59, 78, 81, 83–4 lyric poetry, 80 Lyons, 495 Lysander, 163, 164, 177–8 Lysias, 145 Lysimachus, 244, 248–9, 250 Maccabean Revolt, 331 Macedo, 568 Macedon, 181, 190–91, ch 18 passim, 220, 246–7, 336, 436 Macer, 352 Maeander, 85 Maecenas, 419, 431, 454 maenads, 54, 257 magistracies: Greek, 42, 63–4, 131; at Sparta, 90; at Rome, 345, 443–4 Magna Graecia (‘Great Greece’), 114, 116, 285, 299 Magnesia, 318 Mago, 307 Maharbal, 307 Makedon, 194 Mamertines, 299–300 Mani, 579 Manlius, 275, 281 Mantineans, 179 manumission, 446 Marathon (battle), ch passim, 130, 131 Marcellus (nephew of Augustus), 436–7, 461–2 Marcellus, Claudius, 310 Marcellus, Marcus, 400 Marciana (sister of Trajan), 576 Marius, Gaius, 342–3, 373 Maroboduus, 469 marriage: among Greek aristocrats, 39, 46; at Sparta, 75–6, 82; at Rome, 119, 446, 447 Mars, 293; temple to, 399, 481–2 Martial, 459, 511, 572 Masinissa, 311 Massilia (modern Marseilles), 34, 83, 281 Mastarna, 120 mathematics, 138, 177, 202, 259 Mausoleum: of Ptolemy IV, 244; of Cleopatra, 429; of Octavian, 433; of Hadrian, 593 Medes, 102, 105 ‘Median grass’, 133 Medism, 126, 131 Megacles, 131 Megalopolis, 180, 253, 331 Megara, Megarians, 91, 130, 160–61, 396, 421 Megasthenes, 271 Melanthus, 104 Melanthius, 104 Meletus, 174 Melos, 159 Memnon, 19 Memphis, 100, 244, 262, 267 Menander (dramatist), 218, 265, 391 Menander (king of Bactria), 272 Menelaus, 22 Mesopotamia, 252, 269, 578 Messalina, 496, 498, 500 Messenia, Messenians, 72, 74, 76, 77, 130, 161, 180 Messiah, 524, 526–8 Messina, 299 Metapontum, 96–7, 176 Metaurus (river), 311 metics, 25, 94, 187, 223 metoikoi, see metics Michaelmas daisies, 290 Milan, 560 Miletus, Milesians, 35, 83–6, 90 Milo, 360, 383 Miltiades, 131, 152 mime, 400, 453, 459 Minoan Age, 18 Misenum, Cape, 424 Mithridates (king of Pontus), 338–9, 343–4, 349, 355, 372 Moschion, 217 Moses, 270 mothakes, 70 mounarchoi, 58 Mucianus, 78 Munda, 400 municipia, 519 Muses, 50, 52 Mutina (modern Modena), 413–14, 424 Mycale: Mount, 103; battle of, 104, 107 Mycenaean Age, 18, 29; palaces, 19, 24, 28, 39; script, 18 Myriad (Arcadian Assembly), 180, 183 Myrto, 250 Naevoleia Tycho, 557 Naples, see Neapolis Napoleon, 304, 585 naukraroi, 41 Naucratis, 34, 37 Nazis, 583 Neaera, 189–90 Neapolis (modern Naples), 118, 282 Nearchus, 236 Neleids, 39 Nemean Games, 67 neo-Platonism, 203 Nero, 454, 461, 462, 466, 496–500, 533–4; and Christians, 528–9; in Suetonius, 582 Nerva, 544–6, 563 Nestus (river), 196 New Carthage (modern Cartagena), 302 Nicias, 17, 165 Nicomedes (king of Bithynia), 372, 399 nobiles, 289 Nobilior, Fulvius, 326 Nocturnal Council, 205 Numidians, 306, 311 Nysa (mountain), 257 obai, 72 Octavia (wife of Antony), 419, 424, 425 Octavian, 400, 410–16, 419–30, ch 39 passim; see also Augustus October Horse, 293 Odeon: of Pericles, 157; of Agrippa, 514 Odysseus, ch passim, 29, 30, 35, 42, 70, 592, 594 Odyssey, ch passim, 24, 142, 326 oligarchy, 93, 97, 98, 135–6, 147–8, 161, 165, 182, 214 Olympia, 77, 108 Olympias (mother of Alexander the Great), 195, 235, 249 Olympic Games, 43, 67, 131, 193, 194, 196, 453 Olympus (doctor), 429 Olympus, Mount, 38, 50, 103 Olynthus, 176 Opimius, 342 opium poppy, 268 Oplontis, 557 optimates, 342 oracles, 33, 37, 51, 57; see also Delphi, Sibylline oracles oratory, 146–7, 282, 351 Orchomenus, 185 Orestes, 88–9 Oropus, 224 Orpheus, 115 Oscan, 554 Ostia, 118, 494 ostracism, 95, 131, 134, 152, 219 ostraka, 95, 131 ōthismos, 61 Otho, 533 Otranto, Straits of, 30 Ovid, 430, 451, 467, 564 Oxus (river), 100, 196, 259, 264 Paestum, 117, 275 Palatine hill, 293, 361, 433; site of Domitian’s palace, 543–4 Palazzo Labia, 422 Palimbothra, 271 Pallas, 522 Panathenaia, 216 Pandora, 21 panegyrics, 561 Panhellenion, 4, 589 Panionion, 103 pankration, 43 Pantheon, 441 pantomime, 453, 459, 570 Paphos, 103, 249–50 papyrus, 259, 262 parasitoi, 222 Parasitos, 423 Parentalia, 294 Parilia, 293, 402 Paris, 22 Parmenides, 137 Parthenon, 135, 138, 146, 157 Parthia, Parthians, 383, 404, 423, 425–7, 438 Pasion, 215 paterfamilias, 119, 362, 551 patricians, 119, 275, 279, 281, 282, 293, 372 Patroclus, 16, 49, 235 Paul, St, 92, 522, 527–9 Pausanias, 108, 109 pederasty, 102, 204 Peisistratids, 91 Pella, 193, 195 Peloponnesian League, 130 Peloponnesian War, 153, ch 14 passim penates, 292 Penelope, 16, 20 Penthelids, 39 Perdiccas, 242–5, 248 Pergamum, 259, 309, 318, 340 Periander, 63, 89 Pericles, ch 13 passim, 165; Funeral Speech, 144, 158 perioikoi, 70, 73 Peripetetics, 201 Persephone, 53 Persepolis, 86, 234 Perseus (king of Macedon), 319 Persia, Persians, 84, 112, 116, ch 11 passim, 178–9, 230; Persian ‘softness’, 133, 177; see also Persian Wars Persian Wars, ch passim, 481–2 Perusia (modern Perugia), 422–3, 424 Petra, 543, 578 Petronius, 500, 556, 560 Phaedimus, 580 Phalaris, 63 Pharos, 258 Pharsalus, 395, 396 Pheidias, 156, 216 Pheidon, 60 Pherenicus, 44 Phila, 249 Philadelphia, 267 Philip of Macedon, 176, 179, chs 18 passim, 210–11, 225, 229–30, 283 Philip II, 316 Philip III (Philip Arrhidaeus), 241, 242, 246 Philip V, 307, 315, 317, 319 Philippi, 196, 420–21 philosophy, 84, 117, 137, chs 15 & 19 passim, 177, 402, 592 Phocaea, 83, 86 Phocis, Phocians, 196 Phoenicians, 31, 104, 105, 112, 117, 128; script, 35 phratries, 40, 51, 61, 142, 144, 187–8, 215 Phrygians, 35 phulai, 29 Piacenza, 306 Piazza Armerina, 459 Piazza Navona, 453 pilum, 466 Pindar, 112, 114, 131 Piraeus, 176, 179, 223, 344 Pittacus, 67 plague, 167 Planasia, 489 Plancus, 429 Plataea 181, 186; battle of, ch passim Plato, chs 15 & 19 passim, 177, 217; on cults, 55; influenced by Sparta, 70; on Pericles, 153–4 Plautus, 326–7 Pliny the Elder, 467, 548, 559 Pliny the Younger, 547–8, chs 51 & 52 passim, 581 Plotina (wife of Trajan), 580 Po (river), 306, 307, 318, 349, 398, 560 poastriai, 144 polis, ch passim, 38, 40, 54, 84, 183–4; freedom, 89–90; ‘polis-males’, 25, 90, 189, 208 Pollio, Vedius, 477 Polybius, 289–90, 311, 319, 331–4, 484 Polycrates of Samos, 258 Polyperchon, 238 polytheism, ch passim, 264, 290, 518 pompae, 292 Pompeii, 345, 460, ch 50 passim Pompeius, Gnaeus (son of Pompey), 400 Pompeius, Sextus (son of Pompey), 400, 415–16, 424–5 Pompeius Strabo, 348 Pompey, 347–8, 353–7, 365, chs 34 & 35 passim Pomponius, see Atticus Pomptine Marshes, 398 Pontifex Maximus, 340, 374, 481 Pontius Pilate, 525–6 Poppaea, 497, 522, 533, 557 Porcia (wife of Brutus), 403 Poseidon, 52 Potidaea, 196 praetor, praetorship, 283, 351 Praetorian guards, 468, 480 Praxiteles, 216–7 pre-literate societies, 17 Priam, 16 Priene, 177 Princeps, 432 procurator, 503, 506, 508 prodigies, 291 Propertius, 420, 430, 451 Protagoras, 157, 172 provocatio, 284 Prusias (king of Bithynia), 330 Ptolemaia, 256 Ptolemais, 252, 261 Ptolemies, 249, ch 23 passim, 269–70, 315, 317, 328, 396, 423 Ptolemy I (friend of Alexander), 244–5, 247, 250, 256, 261, 282 Ptolemy II, 256, 257, 267, 299 Ptolemy IV, 244, 315 Ptolemy V, 332 Ptolemy VIII, 260, 335 Publilia (wife of Cicero), 401 Punic Wars: First, 300; Second, ch 28 passim Puteoli, 117, 556 Pydna, 249 Pylades, 453 Pyrrho, 265 Pyrrhus (king of Epirus), 295–9, 307–8 Pythagoras, 117, 145, 281 Pytheas (Aeginian), 107 Pytheas (of Massilia), 264–5 Pythian Games, 67 Qart Hadasht, 31 quaestor, quaestorship, 344, 506 Quintilian, 511, 561 Rabirius, 543 Raphael, 572 Raphia, 315 Ravenna, 381, 494 reciprocity: in Homer and Hesiod, 47; in prayers, 56 Regulus, Marcus, 301–2 religion: Greek, ch passim; Roman, ch 26 passim Rembrandt, 534 Remus, 273, 293 Republic, Roman: founding of, 275; restored, 434–7 rhapsodes, 19 rhetoric, 42, 132, 177 Rhodes, 29, 176, 247, 318, 329, 457–8 Rhône (river), 305 Robigo, 290 Roman Catholic Church, 290, 583 Romanization, 470, 516 Rome: citizenship, 274, 519; early history of, 117–121; foundation myths, 273–4; Great Fire, 497, 528, 539; raided by Gauls, 275 Romulus, 273, 293, 402, 427, 435, 482 Rostovtzeff, M I., 533 Rousseau, 70, 77 Roxane, 238, 241, 242, 246, 249, 250 Royal Pages, 199, 234, 239 Rubicon (river), 391, 392, 405 Sabina (wife of Hadrian), 445–6, 582 Sabines, 284 Sacred Band, 181 Sacred Way, 351, 374 sacrifice: Greek practice of, 42, 52–3, 163, 187; of children, 301; Roman practice of, 293, 309, 465, 473, 509 saffron crocus, 35, 271 Saguntum, 303 Salamis (battle), ch passim Salapia, 306 Salii, 293 Sallust, 420, 578, 585 Sallustius Crispus, 490 Samnites, 274–5 Samos, 25, 224, 432; tyranny on, 68, 89, 91 Santorini, 35 Sappho, 80–82 Sardinia, 300, 302, 305, 416 Sardis, 98, 100, 102 sarissa, 199, 231 Sarmentus, 427 Sarno (river), 553 Satan, 530 Saturnalia, 294 Saturninus, 343 satyrs, 54, 257, 421 Scaevola, 367 Scaurus, Aemilius, 380 Sceptics, 265 School of the Colonnade (Stoa), 265 School of the Garden, 265 Scipio Aemilianus, 331, 338 Scipio Africanus (the elder), 304, 308, 311, 312–13 Scipio, Cn Cornelius, 308 Scipio Nasica, 340 Scipio, P Cornelius, 308 Scribonia, 424, 425, 476 sculpture, 46–7, 130, 137, 146, 216 Scythians, 83, 140, 200 Sejanus, 468, 495, 585 Seleucia, 253 Seleucids, 249, 252, 256, 315, 319 Seleucus, 244, 246, 248, 250, 253 Selinus, 114, 115, 157 Sempronia, 389 Seneca, 496, 497, 500, 511, 527 Sentium, 282 Serapis, 258, 535 Sergius Orata, 454 Sertorius, 348, 349, 354 Servius Tullius, 119 Seven Wise Men, 264 Shaka Zulu, 60 Shakespeare, 409, 422 Sibylline oracles, 293, 294, 405, 441 sicarii, 521 Sicels, 114, 129 Sicinnus, 106 Sicyon, 67, 176, 316 Sidon, 31, 236 silphion, 35 silver mines, 126, 222–3 Simonides, 109 Sinan, 577 Sirens, 16 Siwah, 235 slavery: at Athens, 70, 94, 97, 143, 222; Aristotle on, 208; enslavement in war, 58, 185, 234; at Rome, 274, 285, 320, 446, 479, 568–9; Christian views on, 530, 568; philosophical views on, 208, 213; slave-revolts, 338–9, 349 Smyrna, 18, 28 snake–handling, 54, 195 Social War, 339, 343, 348, 384 Socrates, chs 15 & 19 passim; in Aristophanes’ Clouds, 149, 172 Sogdia, 236 Solon, 64–6, 69, 91, 93, 120, 215 Sophocles (dramatist), 17, 137, 153, 164 Sophocles (fourth-century), 212 Sostratos, 258 Spain, 83, 300, 302–3, 305, 308, 310–11, 336, 348, 373, 400, 457, 467, 511–12, 514, 519–20 Sparta, 37, chs 6, 11, 14 & 16 passim, 154–5, 197–8, 224, 316; in Herodotus, 140; selection of magistrates, 95; use of hoplites, 71, 74, 104, 105, 162 Spartacus, 349, 353 Spartiates, ch passim, 95, 105, 162, 326, 444 Speusippus, 210 Stageira, 206, 211 Statius, 544 Stephen, 528 Stesanor, 103 Stoics, 265, 412, 536, 596 stola, 447 Strabo, 511 Suetonius, 581–2, 586 Sulla, Cornelius, 7, 343–5, 352, 372, 393, 405 Sulpicius Rufus, 343–4, 401 Susa, 86, 269 suttee, 271 Sybaris, 36, 86, 138 Syme, Ronald, 410 symposia, 45–6, 61, 141, 216, 289 Syracuse, ch 10 passim, 134, 160, 163, 202, 299, 310 Syracusan (boat), 300 Syria, Syrians, 244, 247, 252, 266, 270, 355, 409, 434–5, 510, 512 Tacitus, 420, ch 54 passim Tanagra, 44 Tanagra figurines, 190, 216 Tarentum (modern Taranto), 72, 285–6, 287, 295–9, 310, 426 Tarpeia, 284 Tarquin the Proud, 403 Tarquinia, 87, 117, 119 Tarquinius Priscus, 87, 119 Tarsus, 422, 527 Tegea, 539 Terentia (wife of Cicero), 361, 401 Terpander, 73 Terracina, 120 Tertullian, 591 Thales, 84, 85 Thasos, 138 Thebes, 178–81, 190, 194, 197, 224, 226, 234 Themistocles, 106, 109–10, 132, 154, 155, 167 Theocritus, 250 Theodectes, 217 Theophrastus, 186, 218, 256, 266–7 Theopompus, 195, 367 Thermopylae, 75, ch passim, 317 Thersilion, 183 Thersites, 21 Theseus, 274 Thesmophoria, 53 Thessaly, 146, 183; Thessalian horses, 105, 115 thêtes, 66–7 Thetima, Thirty Tyrants, 174 Thrace, 196, 197, 210, 244, 245 Thucydides, 165–8, 332; dating of the trireme, 41; on Pericles, 153; on Sparta, 70 Thurii, 157, 168, 176, 282, 285–6, 287 Tiber (river), 480, 539; (god), 482 Tiberius, 450, 462, 466, 469, 478, 482–3, 491–2, 495, 497, 498, 587 Tibur (modern Tivoli), 593 Tiepolo, 422 Tigellinus, 468, 497–8 Tigris (river), 253, 256, 578 Timaeus, 299, 332 Timanthes, 67 Timocles, 218 Timon of Athens, 429 Tiro, 361, 562 Titus, 454, 459, 535, 542 toga, 289, 447, 516, 519 Tolstoy, 327 Tomyris, 100 tragedy, see drama Trajan, 454, 456, 545, 560, 562–3, ch 53 passim; Trajan’s column, 575, 577 Trasimene, Lake, 306, 315 Trebbia (river), 306 tribes (Roman), 119, 279, 287, 263 tribunes, 280, 345; of the plebs, 120–21, 284, 562 Trimalchio, 556–7 triremes, 41, 68, 81, 104, 142–3, 221 trittyes, 92 Triumvirate, Second, 415, 434 Troezen, 109 Trojan War, 16, 22, 109, 116 Troy, 16, 18, 21, 158, 235, 243, 317; fall of, 326; ‘Troy Game’, 400, 447 Tullia, 361, 362, 401 Turia, 419 Turkish bath, 36 Twelve Tables, 119–20, 273, 274, 283, 345 Tyne (river), 231 tyrants, ch passim, 89–91, 115 Tyre, 30, 31, 112, 234 Tyrtaeus, 74, 78, 162 Umbricius Scaurus, 552 Uranopolis, 252 Valerius Asiaticus, 500 Varro, 290, 354, 401, 442 Varus, 469 Vasio (modern Vaison), 583 Veii, 281 Veleda, 534 Ventidius, 425 Venus, 309, 345–6, 369, 385, 421 Verginius, 534 Verona, 560 Verres, 359 Vespasian, 519, 532, 533–7, 539–42 Vesta, see Hearth Vestal Virgins, 275, 278, 292 Vesuvius, Mount, 547, 550 Vettii, 556 Via Salaria, 118 vicomagistri, 480 vigiles, 479 Vindex, 534 Virgil, 290, 420, 430, 434, 438–9, 442, 447, 474, 512; in graffiti, 550, 553 Vistilia, 450 Vitellius, 533–4 Volumnia, 421 voting: at Athens, 94–5, 97, 152; at Rome, 279, 339–40, 349–51, 483–4 Weser (river), 469 Wharton, Edith, woikeis, 66 women: Aristotle on, 208–9; in Greek society, 20, 40, 53–4, 81–2, 116, 143–5, ch 17 passim; Plato on, 204; political exclusion of, 25, 94, 96, 143; in Roman society, 278, 284–5 Xanthippe (wife of Socrates), 170 Xanthippus, 152 Xenocrates, 211 Xenophanes, 85 Xenophon, 169, 170, 173, 333 Xerxes, ch passim Yaweh, 100, 522 yeti, 230 Zealots, 521, 522, 526 Zela, 397 Zeno, 265 Zenon, 267–8 Zeus, 51, 55, 172, 242; Eleutherios, 50, 89, 109; temple at Acragas, 112; temple at Athens, 59 Zoroaster, 84, 100; Zoroastrians, 108 .. .The Classical World BY THE SAME AUTHOR Alexander the Great Pagans and Christians The Unauthorized Version The Making of ‘Alexander’ ROBIN LANE FOX The Classical World An Epic History from Homer... emperor or standing army, either Hadrian was heir to historical changes which had transformed Roman history Hadrian respected the classical Greek and Roman past and, wherever he went, he visited... believe that changing relations of power, sharply changed by events, changed the meaning and context of most of these themes and that these changes are lost by taking the easy thematic short-cut