Political Parties and Democracy A Journal of Democracy Book • BOOKS IN THE SERIES Edited by Larry Diamond and Marc F Plattner Globalization, Power, and Democracy (2000) (Edited by Marc F Plattner and Aleksander Smolar) The Democratic Invention (2000) (Edited by Marc F Plattner and Jo~ a o Carlos Espada) Democratization in Africa (1999) Democracy in East Asia (1998) Consolidating the Third Wave Democracies (1997) (with Yun-han Chu and Hung-mao Tien) Civil-Military Relations and Democracy (1996) The Global Resurgence of Democracy, 2nd ed (1996) Economic Reform and Democracy (1995) Nationalism, Ethnic Conflict, and Democracy (1994) Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy Revisited (1993) Published under the auspices of the International Forum for Democratic Studies Political Parties and Democracy Edited by Larry Diamond and Richard Gunther The Johns Hopkins University Press Baltimore and London © 2001 The Johns Hopkins University Press and the National Endowment for Democracy All rights reserved Published 2001 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 987654321 Chapter of this volume appeared in the April 2001 issue of the Journal of Democracy The Johns Hopkins University Press 2715 North Charles Street Baltimore, Maryland 21218-4363 www.press.jhu.edu Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Political Parties and Democracy/ edited by Larry Diamond and Richard Gunther p cm — (A Journal of Democracy book) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-8018-6863-7 (pbk.: alk paper) Political parties Democracy Political science I Diamond, Larry Jay II Gunther, Richard III Series JF2051 P5675 2001 324.2 dc21 2001038464 A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library CONTENTS Acknowledgments vii Introduction, Larry Diamond and Richard Gunther ?? I Theoretical and Historical Perspectives Types and Functions of Parties, Richard Gunther and Larry Diamond The Rise of Parties in Western Democracies, Hans Daalder 40 The Americanization of the European Left, Seymour Martin Lipset 52 Parties Are Not What They Once Were, Philippe C Schmitter The Party Effects of Electoral Systems, Giovanni Sartori 67 90 II Parties and Party Systems After Reform The Three Phases of Italian Parties, Leonardo Morlino 109 Japan’s “1955 System” and Beyond, Bradley Richardson 143 III Developing and Postcommunist Systems Political Darwinism in Latin America’s Lost Decade, Michael Coppedge 173 Toward Moderate Pluralism: Political Parties in India, E Sridharan and Ashutosh Varshney 206 10 The Institutional Decline of Parties in Turkey, Ergun Özbudun 238 11 The Legacy of One-Party Hegemony in Taiwan, Yun-han Chu 12 Divergent Paths of Postcommunist Democracies, Herbert Kitschelt IV Conclusion 13 Challenges to Contemporary Political Parties, Stefano Bartolini and Peter Mair 327 Index 345 266 299 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS L ike many of the previous volumes published under the auspices of the International Forum for Democratic Studies and the Journal of Democracy, this book originated in a conference organized by the International Forum More than was the case with most of our previous volumes, the essays published here (most of which were initially presented only as brief sketches) have been extensively developed, researched, and revised since the conference Held in Washington, D.C., on 18–19 November 1996, the conference was funded by a grant from the Carnegie Corporation of New York, whom we would like to thank for its support We are particularly grateful to the codirector of the International Forum, Marc F Plattner, who worked closely with Larry Diamond and Richard Gunther in organizing the conference and conceptualizing the book volume that would grow out of it We also thank the National Endowment for Democracy, especially its president Carl Gershman and its board chairman during this period, John Brademas, for their strong support of the International Forum and this project We owe a special intellectual and personal debt to Juan Linz for his innovative thinking on the questions addressed by this book and for his encouragement of our individual and collaborative work on this and related themes For their early contributions, we thank Debra Liang-Fenton, who assisted with the organization of the conference and production of the report, and Neovi Karakatsanis, who prepared the conference report (available online at www.ned.org) At the Hoover Institution, Alice Carter ably and cheerfully supported our efforts in her role as assistant to Larry Diamond This book has been a truly collaborative project, not only between the two editors but also among all the participants We are grateful to the authors for their responsiveness to our research agenda and to the critical comments and editorial suggestions they received, as well as for the candid and challenging comments they offered us on our theoretical framework Once again, we thank Henry Tom and the staff of the Johns Hopkins University Press for their wise counsel and enthusiastic support of our books and the Journal of Democracy Most of all, we thank the viii Acknowledgments staff of the Journal of Democracy for their outstanding work in editing and producing this volume Zerxes Spencer managed these stages of our work with unfailing efficiency, thoroughness, grace, and good humor Stephanie Lewis brought the same impressive creativity, passion, and precision to the production of these pages that she brings to the quarterly publication of the Journal of Democracy In editing the manuscripts as they reached their final form, Zerxes and Stephanie were joined by Jordan Branch and Kristin Helz All four performed with skill, care, enthusiasm, and equanimity, even as our book deadlines approached and overlapped with those of the Journal Kristin also prepared the index scrupulously and intelligently, without wilting under the usual last-minute pressure of this final step It has been a great pleasure and a redeeming relief to work with this enormously talented, devoted, and generous staff INTRODUCTION Larry Diamond and Richard Gunther T here is an ironic and worrisome twist to the third wave of global democratization In the past quarter-century, democracy has spread around the world to an unprecedented degree Levels of civil and political freedom are the highest, on average, in history Authoritarian ideologies have waned, and no form of government other than democracy has any significant legitimacy Yet there is substantial and growing disaffection with many of the specific institutions of democracy, and no single institution is held in greater disrepute than the political party Throughout the established Trilateral democracies—Japan, North America, and Europe—confidence in government is in decline Citizens are cynical about their representative institutions, political parties, and, most of all, their politicians Trust or confidence in these institutions is almost everywhere low (with more than half the public cynical or distrusting) and it has been steadily declining Indeed, Robert Putnam, Susan Pharr, and Russell Dalton conclude, “there is evidence of some decline in confidence in politicians in 12 out of 13 countries for which systematic data are available.” Even more “clear and striking” has been the erosion of partisan attachments among contemporary publics In almost all the advanced industrial democracies (including 17 of 19 for which time-series data are available), the proportion of the population identifying with a political party has declined in the past quarter-century, as has the strength of party attachments This appears to have been driven not only by objective political developments but also by generational trends, as younger, better-educated citizens have lower levels of party loyalty, even though they have higher levels of political interest and engagement In the developing and “third-wave” democracies, the attachment to political parties is even weaker, and cynicism about parties and politicians is more ominous in its implications for democratic stability Only one in five Latin Americans (across 17 democracies in the region) expresses “a lot” or “some” confidence in political parties, while 45 percent have no confidence at all in parties.3 Only one in five Koreans 342 Challenges to Contemporary Political Parties Yet even when recent analyses emphasize that parties now face a number of competing actors and challenging new processes, they nevertheless also recognize that in both old and newly established democracies, no real alternatives have emerged Parties may face an increasing number of competitors, but as yet they seem to have faced no real alternative Strikingly, in none of the many and varied experiences that are evaluated in this volume is a credible alternative institution cited that could adequately control political behavior and harmonize different institutional orders To be sure, the lack of alternatives to the political party is not any guarantee of its future success or even survival Parties could become reduced to mere labels reflecting factionalized, clientelistic struggles among more or less independent political entrepreneurs, each of whom seeks to win the support of voters by using methods and resources outside the reach and control of party organizations as such 20 But while this might represent one possible future for parties, it leaves open new questions regarding the wider political systems in which these parties compete For if parties no longer the job, who will then act as the agent for political and institutional integration? More to the point: What happens to democracy if neither political nor institutional integration proves possible any longer? NOTES See Ingrid van Biezen, “The Development of Party Organizations in New Democracies: Southern and Eastern Europe Compared,” Ph.D diss (Leiden: Leiden University, 2001) See Hans Daalder, “The Rise of Parties in Western Democracies,” pp 40–51 in this volume; see also Stein Rokkan, “Nation Building, Cleavage Formation and the Structuring of Mass Politics,” in Stein Rokkan, Citizens, Elections, Parties: Approaches to the Comparative Study of the Processes of Development (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1970), 72–144 See Herbert Kitschelt, “Divergent Paths of Postcommunist Democracies,” pp 299–323 in this volume; see also Peter Mair, Party System Change: Approaches and Interpretation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 175–98 See Richard Gunther and Larry Diamond, “Types and Functions of Parties,” pp 3–39 in this volume Giovanni Sartori, Parties and Party Systems: A Framework for Analysis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 64 Maurice Duverger, Political Parties: Their Organization and Activity in the Modern State, Barbara and Robert North, trans (New York: Wiley and Sons, 1963); Sigmund Neumann, “Towards a Comparative Study of Political Parties,” in Sigmund Neumann, ed., Modern Political Parties: Approaches to Comparative Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956), 395–421; and Otto Kirchheimer, “The Transformation of Western European Party Systems,” in Joseph LaPalombara and Myron Weiner, eds., Political Parties and Political Development (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1966), 177–200 Stefano Bartolini and Peter Mair 343 Gabriel A Almond, “A Functional Approach to Comparative Politics,” in Gabriel A Almond and James S Coleman, eds., The Politics of the Developing Areas (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1960), 3–64; and Anthony King, “Political Parties in Western Democracies: Some Sceptical Reflections,” Polity (December 1969): 111–41 See also Richard Gunther and Larry Diamond, “Types and Functions of Parties,” pp 3–39 in this volume Peter Mair, “De toekomstmogelijkheden van politieke partijen, links, en de democratie,” Socialisme & Democratie 57 (December 2000): 544–53 See Giovanni Sartori, “The Party Effects of Electoral Systems,” pp 90–105 in this volume 10 Alessandro Pizzorno, “Elementi di uno schema teorico riferimento partiti politici in Italia,” in Giordano Sivini, ed., Partiti e partecipazione politica in Italia (Milan: A Giuffré, 1969), 4–40 11 Otto Kirchheimer, “The Transformation of the Western European Party Systems.” 12 Stefano Bartolini, “Collusion, Competition, and Democracy, Part I,” Journal of Theoretical Politics 11 (1 October 1999): 435–70, and Stefano Bartolini, “Collusion, Competition, and Democracy, Part II,” Journal of Theoretical Politics 12 (1 January 2000): 33–65 13 For example, see Pippa Norris, ed., Critical Citizens: Global Support for Democratic Governance (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999); and Susan J Pharr and Robert D Putnam, eds., Disaffected Democracies: What’s Troubling the Trilateral Countries? (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000) 14 Richard S Katz and Peter Mair, “Changing Models of Party Organization and Party Democracy: The Emergence of the Cartel Party,” Party Politics (January 1995): 5–28 15 Peter Mair, Party System Change, 120–54 16 Ruud A Koole, “The Vulnerability of the Modern Cadre Party in the Netherlands,” in Richard S Katz and Peter Mair, eds., How Parties Organize: Change and Adaptation in Party Organizations in Western Democracies (London: Sage Publications, 1994), 278–303 17 See Hans Daalder, “The Rise of Parties in Western Democracies,” pp 40–51 in this volume; see also Hans Daalder, “A Crisis of Party?” Scandinavian Political Studies 15 (December 1992): 269–88 18 For a good example of this in the structure of Forza Italia, see Leonardo Morlino, “The Three Phases of Italian Parties,” pp 109–42 in this volume 19 For example, see Michael Laver, “Party Competition and Party System Change: The Interaction of Coalition Bargaining and Electoral Competition,” Journal of Theoretical Politics (July 1989): 301–24 20 See, for example, Kitschelt’s distinction in this volume between personal and infrastructural investments INDEX Acción Democrática (AD, Venezuela), 174, 176, 189, 191, 194–97 Acción Popular (AP, Peru), 177 Action Group (Nigeria), 23 Action New Democracy (Japan), 163 ADM-19 (Colombia), 200 Agnelli, Gianni, 124 Akali Religious Party (India), 23 Albania, 69 Alfonsín, Raỳl, 198 Algeria, 22 Alianỗa Renovadora Nacional/ Partido Democrỏtico Social (ARENA/PDS, Brazil), 177 Alianza Popular Revolucionaria Americana (APRA, Peru), 174, 176, 189, 191–93, 194, 196, 197 Allende, Salvador, 176 Alliance of Free Democrats (Hungary), 312 Almond, Gabriel, 331 Alvarado, Juan Velasco, 192 American Communist Party, 54 American Socialist Party, 53 Andreotti, Giulio, 126 Argentina, 75, 174, 175, 176, 177, 182, 183, 187, 191; and Partido Justicialista, 197–99 Aristotle, 62 Asia, 19, 31, 330 Athens, ancient, 40 Australia, 55, 58 Austria, 30, 62, 75, 95 Bahỗeli, Devlet, 261 Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP, India), 222 Baltic countries, 305, 307, 309, 312 Barkashov, Aleksandr, 21 Basque Nationalist Party (Spain), 19 Baykal, Deniz, 249, 258 Bebel, August, 53 Beer, Max, 53 Belarus, 299, 304 Belaunde, Fernando, 192 Bell, Daniel, 55 Benin, 69 Berlin Wall, 125 Berlusconi, Silvio, 28, 125, 128, 131–32, 135, 136 Bernstein, Edward, 53 Bharatiya Jan Sangh (BJS, India), 223 Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP, India), 207, 212, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 220, 221, 222–29, 231, 232, 234, 235 Bhutto, Benazir, 28 Biju Janata Dal (India), 231 Blair, Tony, 26, 52, 57–58, 60, 64 Blanco Party (Uruguay), 176 Bobbio, Norberto, 72 346 Bohemia, 307 Bolivia, 69, 175, 176, 177, 182, 183, 184, 187 Bonino, Emma, 129, 133, 136 Bordón, José Octavio, 190, 199 Bossi, Umberto, 131 Brazil, 12, 28, 75, 174, 175, 177, 182, 184, 187, 189, 190, 200 Buddhism, 208, 225 Bulgaria, 23, 76, 77, 304, 306, 308, 309, 310, 316, 319 Bulgarian Business Bloc, 306 Bundestag, 99 Burke, Edmund, 41 Bush, George W., 62 Cafiero, Antonio, 198 Caldera, Rafael, 75, 190, 196, 200 Calderonistas, 175 Cambio 90/Nueva Mayoría, 182, 186, 189, 193 Canada, 213 Capitalism, 33, 52, 54, 59, 61, 64 Cárdenas, Cuauhtémoc, 190 Cardoso, Fernando Henrique, 75 Carli, Guido, 124 Cartocci, Roberto, 123 Cassa per il Mezzogiorno, 115, 116, 117 Catch-all party, 49, 82, 294, 328, 333, 338; definition of, 26–27; in India, 220, 222; in Italy 110, 118, 122–23; in Japan, 157; Kirchheimer’s description of, 48–49; in Latin America, 176, 177, 178, 194; in Turkey, 238, 244, 249, 260 Catholic Action, 124 Catholic Association of Italian Workers (ACLI), 124 Catholic Church, 21, 44, 116, 133, 177, 193, 194 Catholicism, 223 Causa R, La (Venezuela), 189, 190, 196 Index Ceausescu, Nicolae, 318 Central Asian republics, 299, 304 Central Europe, 19, 28, 307, 319 Chávez Frias, Hugo, 28, 196, 199, 200 Chen Shui-bian, 275, 276, 281–83, 287, 289, 293–95 Chiang Ching-kuo (CCK), 271, 277, 278 Chile, 18, 79, 175, 177, 182, 183, 184, 187, 190; electoral system of, 97 China (People’s Republic of China, PRC), 63, 156, 233, 270, 278, 279, 281, 282; and “one China principle,” 283 Christian and Democratic Union (Czech Republic), 21, 305 Christian Democracy (Poland), 21 Christian Democratic Center (CCD, Italy), 135 Christian Democrats (DC, Italy), 15, 21, 109–20, 122–29, 132–36 Christianity, 176, 208, 223, 225 Chu, Yun-han, 334 Çiller, Tansu, 249, 257 Civic Democratic Party (Czech Republic), 28 Civic Forum (Czechoslovakia), 79 Civil society, 83; in Italy, 115–17, 123–25, 133, 137; in Taiwan 268, 273, 291–94; in Turkey, 246, 254 Civilista party (Peru), 175 Class-mass party: definition of, 18 Clean Government Party (Japan), 145, 146 Clientelistic party, 166, 176, 177, 269, 330; definition of, 14–16; and postcommunist democracies, 300–2, 304, 305, 311, 313, 314, 317, 320 Clinton, Bill, 57, 58, 60, 62, 64 Cohen, Roger, 60 Cold War, 21, 145; end of, 62–63 Index Coldiretti, 116, 124 Collor de Mello, Fernando, 28, 75, 200 Colombia, 175, 177, 182, 183, 187, 193, 200, 303 Colorado Party (Uruguay), 176 Communist Party (Japan), 146 Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia (Czech Republic), 28 Communist Party of India (CPI), 232–34 Communist Party of India–Marxist (CPI[M]), 233, 234 Communist Refoundation (Italy), 19, 126, 128, 130, 135 Comunione e Liberazione (Italy), 125 Conaghan, Catherine, 193 Concentración de Fuerzas Populares (CFP, Ecuador), 177 Conde, Irene Sáez, 196 Confagricoltura, 115 Confederación de Trabajadores de Venezuela (CTV), 194 Confederación de Trabajadores Peruanos (CTP), 192, 193 Confederación General de Trabajadores Peruanos (CGTP), 192 Confindustria, 124, 134 Congress party, 177; definition of, 24–25 Congress party (India), 25, 28, 207, 208, 210, 212, 213, 214, 217– 22, 225, 226, 228, 230, 231, 232, 233, 235 Congress Socialist Party (India), 229–30 Congress-I Party (India), 28 Conservative Party (Britain), 27, 32, 148; and Reform Bill of 1832, 42 Conservative Party (Chile), 175 Conservative Party (Colombia), 175 Consolidation, democratic, 68–69 347 Convergencia Nacional (Venezuela), 190, 196 Converse, Philip, 76 COPEI (Venezuela), 177, 189, 190, 194, 196 Coppedge, Michael, 329, 330, 332, 338 Corey, Lewis, 54, 61 Costa Rica, 69, 175, 176, 182, 183, 187, 199 Cotta, Maurizio, 75 Craxi, Bettino, 119, 122, 123, 125, 127, 128 Croatia, 299, 307, 309 Croatian Democratic Union, 21 Crosland, Anthony, 63 Czech Republic, 21, 28, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 305, 306, 309, 311 Czech Republican Party, 306 Czech Social Democratic Party, 28 Czechoslovakia See Czech Republic Da Silva, Luis Inácio “Lula,” 190 Daalder, Hans, 12, 330, 338 Dahl, Robert A., 41 Dalton, Russell, 59 Das Kapital, 52, 53 Debray, Regis, 61 Demirel, Süleyman, 247, 256, 257 Democracia Popular (Ecuador), 177 Democrat Party (Dem.P, Turkey), 255, 256 Democratic Left Party (DLP, Turkey), 238, 242, 244, 247, 248, 252, 258, 259, 261 Democratic Party (DP, Turkey), 238, 239, 242, 245, 246, 255, 257, 260 See also Justice Party (JP, Turkey) Democratic Party (United States), 26, 42, 54, 55 Democratic Party of Japan, 146, 163 Democratic Party of the Left (PDS, Italy), 19, 126, 128, 130, 135, 136 See also Italian Communist Party 348 Index Democratic Progressive Party (DPP, Taiwan), 19, 28, 268, 270, 271–83, 286–96; and factionalism, 287–89; and Labor Union Law, 293 Democratic Russia party, 79 Democratic Union (Poland), 28 Democratic Union for Europe (UDEUR, Italy), 135 Democrats (Italy), 133, 136 Democrats of the Left (DS, Italy) See Democratic Party of the Left (PDS, Italy) Denmark, 60 Denominational-mass party, 110, 177, 223, 224; definition of, 21 Di Pietro, Antonio, 129, 133, 136 Diamond, Larry, 135, 175, 176, 177, 178, 220, 222, 223, 224, 225, 229, 267, 291, 330 Diet, 145, 151–59, 161, 164 Dominican Republic, 176 Duverger, Maurice, 5, 6, 17, 40, 45, 48, 93, 147, 164, 331; and Duverger’s law, 90–91, 208, 210, 212–13 Personalistic party Elite party, 48, 49, 110, 136, 328, 330; types of, 12–16 See also Clientelistic party; Traditional local notable party Engels, Friedrich, 52, 63 England See United Kingdom Erbakan, Necmeddin, 247, 248, 251, 254, 256 Erdogan, Tayyip, 251 Estonia, 77 Estrada, Joseph, 28 Ethnic party, 223, 225, 229, 305; definition of, 22–24 Ethnicity-based party, 177, 330; types of, 22–25 See also Ethnic party; Congress party Europe, 16, 41, 44, 52, 55, 56, 61, 74, 143, 175, 176, 179, 225, 254, 330, 332 See also Central Europe; Eastern Europe; Southern Europe; Western Europe European Commission, 133 European Union (EU), 80, 129, 253, 317, 318, 319 East Germany, 307, 309 Eastern Europe, 19, 28, 55, 74, 76, 79, 244, 299, 323 See also Postcommunist democracies Ecevit, Bülent, 247, 249, 256, 258, 259, 261 Ecevit, Rahzan, 258 Economist, The, 59, 60 Ecuador, 174, 175, 177, 182, 187, 190, 200 El Salvador, 177 Eldersveld, Samuel, Electoral systems, 90–102; majoritarian versus proportional, 95–102; mixed systems, 97–101 Electoralist party, 330; types of, 25– 29 See also Catch-all party; Programmatic party; Fahrquharson, 100 Fanfani, Amintore, 110 Federation of Communist Italian Youth, 125 Federation of Young Democrats– Hungarian Civic Party (FiDeSz), 28 Federconsorzi, 116 Fermín, Claudio, 196 Financial Times, 59 Fini, Gianfranco, 128 Finland, 60, 79 Fischer, Joschka, 30 Forza Italia, 28, 128, 129, 131–33, 135, 136 France, 30, 44, 46, 55, 56, 60, 61, 62, 75, 76; electoral system in, 95–96, 98; Fifth Republic of, 95, Index 98, 272 Franklin, Benjamin, 54 Freedom Movement (Austria), 29, 30, 62, 95 French Revolution, 44, 61, 63 Frente del Pais Solidario (FREPASO, Argentina), 190, 199 Frente Grande (Argentina), 190 Frey, Frederick, 238 Friedman, Thomas, 61 Fujimori, Alberto, 28, 75, 177, 182, 186, 189, 193, 199, 200 Future in America, The, 52 Galli, Giorgio, 113 Ganchev, Georgi, 306 Gandhi, Indira, 28, 219, 230 Gandhi, Mahatma, 218 Gandhi, Rajiv, 230 Gandhi, Sonia, 222 García, Alan, 192–93 General Confederation of Labor (CGIL, Italy), 116, 123 Germany, 18, 21, 29, 43, 44, 48, 53, 55, 56, 61, 75, 79; electoral system in, 99, 100 Giddens, Anthony, 52 Gierek, Edward, 308 Gomulka, Wladyslaw, 308 González, Felipe, 58 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 309 Gramsci, Antonio, 61, 63 Grand Unity Party (Turkey), 259 Great Britain See United Kingdom Greece, 44, 75, 76, 77, 79, 242 Green Federation (Italy), 109 Greens, the (Germany), 29, 30 Gunther, Richard, 135, 166, 175, 176, 177, 178, 220, 222, 223, 224, 225, 229, 267, 291, 330 Haider, Jörg, 30, 62, 95 Haiti, 69 Harbinger Party (Sakigake, Japan), 145, 146 349 Harrington, Michael, 58, 63 Haryana Lok Dal (India), 231 Hatoyama, Ichiro, 149 Hau, Pei-tsun, 271 Havel, Václav, 75 Hawke, Robert, 58 Haya de la Torre, Víctor Rẳl, 191, 192, 193 Hinduism, 208, 216, 223–24, 225, 226, 229 Hitler, Adolf, 20 Horowitz, Donald, 23, 305 Hosokawa, Morihiro, 145 Hsieh, Frank, 289 Hsu, Hsin-liang, 281 Hume, David, 40 Hungarian Democratic Forum (Hungary), 26 Hungarian Democratic Union (Romania), 23 Hungarian Socialist Party, 28 Hungary, 28, 74, 76, 77, 78, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 318 Iglesias, Herminio, 197 Ignazi, Piero, 28, 30 Independent Smallholders (Hungary), 306 Index of Polarization, 181, 182 India, 23, 24, 25, 69, 327, 329; and the Bharatiya Janata Party, 222– 29; and catch-all party, 220, 222; and Communist Party of India, 232–34; and Congress Party, 217–22; and the Janata Party family, 229–32; and “other backward castes” (OBCs), 209, 210, 214; partition of, 218; party system of, 214–17; political parties in, 206–35; and social diversity, 208–10; and Scheduled Castes (SCs), 209, 210, 222, 231, 232; and Scheduled Tribes (STs), 209, 210 350 Inglehart, Ronald, 56 Inkatha Freedom Party (South Africa), 23 Inönü, Erdal, 258 Inönü, Ismet, 258 Interest associations, 70–71, 74, 82, 85, 116, 137 See also Interest groups Interest groups, 117, 163, 291, 305, 334, 335, 339 See also Interest associations International Bank of Reconstruction and Development, 80 International Labor Organization, 55 International Monetary Fund, 80, 252 Internet, 33, 64 Ireland, 79 Islam, 208, 240, 249, 250–55 Islamic Salvation Front (Algeria), 22 Israel, 28, 93; electoral system in, 97 Italian Communist Party (PCI), 19, 109–14, 118–26, 129–30 See also Democratic Party of the Left (PDS, Italy) Italian Confederation of Labor Unions (CISL), 116, 123 Italian Liberal Party, 110, 114–15, 124 Italian Popular Party (PPI), 127, 133 Italian Renewal (RI), 135 Italian Republican Party, 110, 114– 15, 116, 124 Italian Social Democratic Party (PSDI), 18, 110, 115, 119 Italian Social Movement (MSI), 110, 114, 128 See also National Alliance (AN, Italy) Italian Socialist Party (PSI), 18, 110, 112–14, 119–22, 124–25, 127–28 Italian Union of Labor (UIL), 116, 123 Italy, 15, 21, 44, 75, 77, 79, 242, 329, 330; and catch-all parties, 110, 118, 122–23; and civil society, 115–17, 123–25, 133, Index 137; electoral system in, 95–96, 99, 100, 101; mass parties in, 110–15, 119–20, 121–22, 132, 135, 136; media in, 137; parliament of, 120–23; and party finance, 119–20; and party membership, 117–18; and party organization, 118–19, 129–34; political parties in, 109–37; types of parties in, 134–37 Jainism, 208, 225 Janata Dal (India), 212, 222, 230 Janata Party family (India), 208, 228, 229–32, 234, 235 Japan, 15, 79, 286, 327, 329; and catch-all party, 157; electoral system in, 97–98, 99–100; House of Councillors of, 145, 151; House of Representatives of, 145; and the Liberal Democratic Party, 159–66; and party organization, 148–59; and party typology, 146–48; political parties in, 143–66 Japan New Party (Nihon Shinto), 145 Japan Socialist Party (JSP), 145, 146 Jospin, Lionel, 60 Justice Party (JP, Turkey), 239, 242, 246, 247, 255, 256, 257 See also Democratic Party (DP, Turkey) Juventud Aprista Peruana (JAP, Peru), 192, 193 Kadar, János, 308 Kaisserreich, 43 Katz, Richard, 5, 49 Kautsky, Karl, 53 King, Anthony, 331 Kirchheimer, Otto, 6, 18, 21, 25, 26, 31, 41, 331, 333; and catch-all parties, 48–49, 157 Kitschelt, Herbert, 5, 23, 28, 29, 147, 154, 328, 329, 330 Index Klaus, Václav, 28 Klehr, Harvey, 54 Kohl, Helmut, 59 Kok, Wim, 61 Koole, Ruud, 25, 49, 337 Kothari, Rajni, 219 Kuomintang (KMT, Taiwan), 19, 26, 266–86, 289–96; “Mainstream Faction” (MF) of, 271, 272, 279, 290; “NonMainstream Faction” (NMF) of, 271, 274, 278, 280, 290 Kutan, Recai, 248 Laakso-Taagepera index of Effective Number of Parties, 181 Labor Party (Australia), 58 Labor Party (Netherlands), 61 Labour Party (New Zealand), 58 Labour Party (United Kingdom), 26, 42, 52, 57–58 Lagos, Ricardo, 190 Lange, David, 58 Latin America, 14, 76, 78, 303, 327, 329, 330; catch-all parties in, 176, 177, 178, 194; and civil society, 194; party systems of, 179–84; personalistic parties in, 177, 178, 186, 196; “political Darwinism” in, 174, 184–90, 329; political parties in, 173–200 Latinobarómetro, 184 Le Pen, Jean-Marie, 30, 62 Leadership 21 (Japan), 163 Lee, Teng-hui, 271, 272, 275–86, 290, 294 Left Front (India), 212, 233 Left-libertarian party, 303; definition of, 29–30 Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich, 52 Leninist party, 112, 120, 176; definition of, 18–19; in Taiwan, 266–69, 294 Liberal Democratic Party (LDP, Japan), 15, 145–66, 286 351 Liberal Democratic Party of Russia, 306 Liberal Party (Britain), 42; and Reform Bill of 1832, 42 Liberal Party (Chile), 175 Liberal Party (Colombia), 175 Liberal Party (Japan), 146 Lien Chan, 272, 276, 282, 284–86 Lijphart, Arend, 97, 101 Lipset, Seymour Martin, 329 Lithuania, 77, 310 Lohia, Ram Manohar, 230 Lok Shakti (India), 231 Luder, Italo, 197 Lusinchi, Jaime, 195 Ma Ying-jeou, 276 Macedonia, 304 Mair, Peter, 5, 31, 49 Malaysia, 25 Mannheimer, Renato, 123 Martelli, Claudio, 127 Martinazzoli, Mino, 117 Marx, Karl, 52, 53, 55, 59, 63 Marxism, 53–54, 55–56, 59, 115 See also Socialism Mass-based party, 43, 48, 49, 166, 179, 231, 244, 260, 267, 269, 300, 303, 313, 320, 328, 330–34, 336–38; in Italy, 110–15, 121–22, 132, 135, 136; types of, 16–22 See also Class-mass party; Denominational-mass party; Leninist party; Pluralist nationalist party; Religious fundamentalist party; Ultranationalist party Meèiar, Vladimir, 306 Media, 31, 50, 83, 125, 334, 335; in Italy, 137; in Taiwan, 273, 275, 292, 294, 295 Mendelson, Peter, 57 Menem, Carlos, 75, 186, 191, 197– 99 Mexico, 27, 175, 176, 182, 183, 184, 187, 189, 190, 200 352 Michels, Robert, 6, 47 Middle East, 330 Miguel, Lorenzo, 197 Mitterrand, Franỗois, 60, 61 Miyazawa, Kiichi, 151, 156, 161 Mohammed, 251 Mongolia, 69 Montoneros (Argentina), 197 Montt-Varistas, 175 Morandi, Rodolfo, 112 Moravia See Czech Republic Morlino, Leonardo, 330 Motherland Party (MP, Turkey), 238, 241, 242, 243, 244, 248, 249, 252, 256, 257, 259, 260, 261 Movement for Democratic Slovakia, 306 Movement for Rights and Freedoms (Bulgaria), 23 Movement party, 135, 136, 330; types of, 29–30 See also Leftlibertarian party; Postindustrial extreme right party Movement Toward Socialism (MAS, Venezuela), 196 Movimiento Nacional Revolucionario (MNR, Bolivia), 176, 186 Movimiento Revolucionario Tupac Amaru (MRTA, Peru), 193 Movimiento V República (Venezuela), 196 Mu~noz Ledo, Porfirio, 190 Muslim League (India), 218 Mussolini, Benito, 21 Nakasone, Yasuhiro, 157 National Action Party (PAN, Mexico) See Partido Acción Nacional (PAN, Mexico) National Alliance (AN), 128, 130, 133, 135, 136 See also Italian Social Movement (MSI) National Front (France), 30, 62 National Front (Malaysia), 25 Index National Party of Nigeria, 25 National Salvation Party (Turkey, NSP), 240, 241, 250, 251, 255, 256 Nationalist Action Party (NAP, Turkey), 240, 242, 243, 244, 247, 252, 256, 257, 259, 261 Nationalist Democratic Party (NDP, Turkey), 258 Nationalist Party (Taiwan) See Kuomintang NATO, 59, 253, 319 Nazi Party (Germany), 20, 44, 48 Nehru, Jawarharlal, 218 Netherlands, the 21, 43, 55, 61, 93 Network, the (Italy), 127 Neumann, Sigmund, 5, 17, 45, 48, 331 New Frontier Party (Shinshinto, Japan), 146 New Generation Political Forum (Japan), 163 New Liberal Party (Japan), 146 See also Liberal Party (Japan) New Party (NP, Taiwan), 271, 274, 275, 276, 278–81, 283, 290, 291 New Power (Japan), 163 New Statesman (London), 57 New Turkey Party (NTP), 255 New Wave (Japan), 163 New York Times, 61 New Zealand, 58; electoral system in, 99, 100 Nigeria, 23, 25 Norris, Pippa, 99 Northern League (Italy), 110, 127, 129, 130–31, 135, 136 Northern People’s Congress (Nigeria), 23 Norway, 60 Nouvel Observateur, Le, 60 O’Donnell, Guillermo, 244, 301 Odría, Manuel, 192 Organization of Islamic Conference, Index 253 Ostrogorski, Moisei, 47 Özal, Turgut, 241, 256, 257 Pakistan, 28, 218, 219, 227 Pakistan People’s Party (PPP, Pakistan), 28 Palestine, 226 Palme, Olof, 58 Panebianco, Angelo, 5, 6, 25, 49, 135, 148 Papal States, 44 Papua New Guinea, 69 Partido Acción Nacional (PAN, Mexico), 27, 177, 189, 190 Partido de la Revolución Democrática (PRD, Mexico), 177, 189, 190 Partido de Liberación Nacional (PLN, Costa Rica), 176 Partido de Movimiento Democrático Brasiliero (PMDB, Brazil), 177, 189 Partido dos Trabalhadores (PT, Brazil), 177, 189, 190 Partido Justicialista (PJ, Argentina), 177, 183, 174, 186, 191, 197– 99; and Peronist Youth, 197 Partido Popular Cristiano (Peru), 177 Partido por la Democracia (Chile, PPD), 190 Partido Revolucionario Dominicano (PRD, Dominican Republic), 176 Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI, Mexico), 176, 189, 190 Partido Roldosista Ecuatoriano (Ecuador), 190 Partido Social Cristiano (PSC, Ecuador), 177, 186 Partidocracia, 195 Patria Para Todos (Venezuela), 196 Pempel, T.J., 266 People’s Democracy Party (PDP [HADEP], Turkey), 242, 244, 248, 259, 260, 261 353 People’s Democratic Party (Nigeria), 25 People’s First Party (PFP, Taiwan), 276, 277, 279, 282, 283, 290, 291 Pérez, Carlos Andrés, 195 Perón, Juan, 197 Peronist party (Argentina) See Partido Justicialista (PJ, Argentina) Personalistic party, 132, 135, 136, 166, 291, 309, 311, 317; definition of, 28–29; in Latin America, 177, 178, 186, 196 Peru, 28, 75, 174, 175, 176, 177, 182, 189, 196, 200; and Alianza Popular Revolucionaria Americana, 191–93 Philippines, the 15, 28 Pinochet, Augusto, 182 Pluralist nationalist party: definition of, 19–20 Pluralistic party, 9, 54, 267; definition of, 16–17 Poland, 21, 28, 75, 76, 77, 78, 305, 307–12 Polish Peasant Party, 306 Political Consequences of Electoral Laws, 91 Political Oppositions in Western Democracies, 41 Political parties: challenges to, 338– 41; competition with, 70–72; criticism of, 46–48; decline of, 3–4, 74–86, 260–62, 336–38; definition of, 40; effects of electoral systems on, 90–102; evolution of, 3–4, 184–90, 336– 38; functions of, 7–9, 72–74, 300–2, 330–6; future of, 84–86, 341–42; in India, 206–35; in Italy, 109–37; in Japan, 143–66; in Latin America, 173–200; organization of, 129–34, 148– 59; 244–50, 283–91; 354 Political parties (cont’d) origins of, 40–46; in postcommunist democracies, 299–320; systems of, 179–84, 214–17, 238–44, 269–72, 311– 14; in Taiwan, 266–96, in Turkey, 238–62; types of, 9–30, 134–37, 302–3; typology of, 4– 7, 30–34, 48–50, 146–48; in Western democracies, 41–46, 54–64 See also Electoralist party; Elite party; Ethnicity-based party; Mass-based party; Movement party; Pluralistic party; Proto-hegemonic party Polsby, Nelson, 151 Popular Front (Estonia), 79 Popular Party (Spain), 26 Populars for Reform (Italy), 127 Populist Party (PP, Turkey), 258 Portugal, 44, 69, 75–76, 79, 242 Postcommunist democracies, 28, 328, 330; and clientelistic parties, 300–2, 304, 305, 311, 313, 314, 317, 320; historical legacies in, 306–11; party ideology in, 303– 6; party systems of, 311–14; and path dependency, 319–20; political parties in, 299–320; and programmatic parties, 302, 305, 309, 311, 313, 314, 317 Postindustrial extreme right party: definition of, 29–30 Prodi, Romano, 129, 133, 136 Programmatic party, 176, 177, 295, 330; definition of, 27–28; and postcommunist democracies, 302, 305, 309, 311, 313, 314, 317 Proletarian Democracy (Italy), 110 Proto-hegemonic party, 9, 18–19, 20–22, 267, 268; definition of, 16–17 Przeworski, Adam, 61 Public Against Violence (Czechoslovakia), 79 Index Putin, Vladimir, 28 Putnam, Robert, 313 Radical Party (Argentina), 199 Radical Party (Italy), 109 Rae, Douglas, 213, 214; index of fractionalization of, 91, 240 Rashtriya Janata Dal (India), 231 Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS, India), 223, 224, 228 Rega, López, 197 Reichstag, 43, 53 Religious fundamentalist party, 177; definition of, 21–22 Renewal Party (Japan), 146 Renewalists (Argentina), 198 Republican Party (United States), 27, 32, 42 Republican Peasant Nation Party (RPNP, Turkey), 255 Republican People’s Party (RPP, Turkey), 238, 239, 242, 244, 245, 248, 252, 255, 256, 258, 259, 260, 261 Rerum Novarum, 33 Revel, Jean-Franỗois, 56 Richta, Radovon, 55 Riker, William, 21314 Rokkan, Stein, 41, 44 Romania, 23, 77, 304, 308, 309, 316, 318, 319 Römer, Henrique Salas, 196 Rose, Richard, 98 Rudolph, Lloyd, 207 Rudolph, Susanne, 207 Russia, 28, 306, 308, 310, 311, 316; electoral system in, 99, 100 Russian National Unity, 21 Russian Revolution, 233 Samajwadi Party (India), 222, 231 Samata Party (India), 231 Samson, Leon, 63 Sani, Giacomo, 123 Sartori, Giovanni, 41, 330 Index Savarkar, V.D., 226, 227 Scandinavia, 43 Scharping, Rudolph, 59 Schattschneider, E., 247 Schmidt, Helmut, 59 Schmitter, Philippe, 328, 329, 331, 334 Schröder, Gerhard, 59, 60 Second World War See World War II Segni, Mario 127 Serbia, 299, 304 Shefter, Martin, 316 Shih Ming-teh, 281 Shinawatra, Thaksin, 28 Shiv Sena (India), 215 Shugart, Matthew, 91 Sikhism, 208, 225 Singh, V.P., 230 Sirius (Japan), 163 Sladek, Miroslav, 306 Slovakia, 76, 78, 299, 306 Slovenia, 307, 309, 312 Social Democracy Forum (Japan), 163 Social Democratic Party (Germany), 53, 59, 72 Social Democratic Party (Sweden), 58, 72 Social Democratic Party (SDP, Turkey), 258 Social Democratic Party of Japan (SDPJ), 145, 146, 162 Social Democratic Populist Party (SDPP, Turkey), 258 Social movements, 70–71, 74, 82, 85, 273, 291, 334, 335, 339 Socialism, 16, 64, 304; in the United States, 52–54 See also Marxism Socialist Association, 162 Socialist International, 53, 54, 58 Socialist Party (Chile), 176, 190 Socialist Party (France), 60 Socialist Party of Japan See Social Democratic Party of Japan (SDPJ) Society 91 (Japan), 163 Solidarity (Poland), 79 355 Sombart, Werner, 52 Soong, James, 272, 276, 282, 284, 285, 286, 290, 291, 295 South Africa, 23 South Korea, 26, 77 Southern Europe, 14, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 83, 242, 319, 328 Soviet Union, 55, 113, 126, 233, 244, 267, 308, 317; former, 19, 32, 79, 299, 316, 319 Spain, 14, 19, 26, 44, 58, 75, 76, 77, 79, 242 Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party (PSOE), 26 Sri Lanka, 24 Suárez, Adolfo, 79 Suleiman, Ezra, 60 Sweden, 18, 55, 58, 60 Taagepera, Rein, 91 Taiwan (Republic of China, ROC), 19, 26, 28, 156, 327, 334; civil society in, 268, 273, 291–94; democratic future of, 294–96; and Democratic Progressive Party, 286–90; and Kuomintang, 283–86; and Leninist party, 266– 69, 294; media in, 273, 275, 292, 294, 295; party organization in, 283–91; party system of, 269– 73; political parties in, 266–96; and singular nontransferable vote (SNTV), 270, 273, 275, 284, 287, 288, 289, 293 Takeshita, Noburo, 151, 157, 161 Tanaka, Kakuei, 152, 153, 154 Tang Fei, 289 Thai Rak Thai Party (Thailand), 28 Thailand, 15, 28 Thatcher, Margaret, 27, 32, 58, 59 Third Way, The, 52 “Third way,” 33, 54, 57 Tóka, Gábor, 78 Torgyan, József, 306 Tory Party (Britain), 42 356 Touraine, Alain, 56 Traditional local notable party, 175; definition of, 12, 14 Trotsky, Leon, 52, 53 True Path Party (TPP, Turkey), 238, 242, 243, 244, 247, 248, 252, 255, 257, 261 Tudjman, Franjo, 21 Türkes, Alparslan, 247, 256, 259, 261 Turkey, 22, 327, 329, 330; and catchall parties, 238, 244, 249, 260; and civil society, 246, 254; and deinstitutionalization, 260–62; party organization of, 244–50; party system of, 238–44; political parties in, 238–62; Political Parties Law of, 246, 247, 260; and the Welfare Party, 250–55 Ukraine, 77, 304, 316 Ultranationalist party: definition of, 20–21 Unión Cívica Radical (Argentina), 177 Union of the Democratic Center (Spain), 79 United Christian Democrats (CDU, Italy), 135 United Democratic Forces (Bulgaria), 79 United Front (India), 230 United Kingdom, 26, 32, 40, 42, 55, 58, 102, 228; House of Commons of, 12, 43 United Nations (UN), 253, 278 United States, 14, 15, 26, 27, 32, 42, 46, 47, 187, 196, 206, 228, 327, 331; Congress of, 151, 159; the economy of, 60–61, as a model, 55, 56, 63; socialism in, 52–54; two-party system of, 5, Uruguay, 175, 176, 182, 183, 184, 187, 199, 303 Vatican, the, 115, 337 Velásquez, Andrés, 190 Index Venezuela, 28, 75, 174, 175, 176, 177, 182, 183, 187, 189, 190, 191, 200; and Acción Democrática, 194–97 Vinocur, John, 59 Virtue Party (VP, Turkey), 238, 243, 248, 249, 250, 254, 261 See also Welfare Party (WP, Turkey) Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP, India), 224 Wa³eºa, Lech, 75 Weber, Max, 54 Weimar Constitution, 43, 48, 215 Welfare Party (WP, Turkey), 22, 238, 242, 243, 244, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250–55, 257, 259, 260, 261 See also Virtue Party (VP, Turkey) Wells, H.G., 52 Western democracies, 19, 247; and political party development, 41– 46, 54–64 Western Europe, 4, 7, 21, 29, 31, 32, 173, 186, 187, 300, 303, 319, 320, 327, 328, 329 Whig Party (Britain), 42 Why Is There No Socialism in the United States?, 52 Wolinetz, Steven, 32 Workers Age, 54 World Trade Organization (WTO), 282 World Values Survey, 243 World War I, 79, 218 World War II, 21, 48, 75, 79, 82, 143, 152, 300, 308, 333 Yilmaz, Mesut, 249, 257 Yoshida, Shigeru, 149 Zaccagnini, Benigno, 123 Zhirinovsky, Vladimir, 306 Zoroastrianism, 208, 225 .. .Political Parties and Democracy A Journal of Democracy Book • BOOKS IN THE SERIES Edited by Larry Diamond and Marc F Plattner Globalization, Power, and Democracy (2000) (Edited... Chu and Hung-mao Tien) Civil-Military Relations and Democracy (1996) The Global Resurgence of Democracy, 2nd ed (1996) Economic Reform and Democracy (1995) Nationalism, Ethnic Conflict, and Democracy. .. higher levels of political interest and engagement In the developing and “third-wave” democracies, the attachment to political parties is even weaker, and cynicism about parties and politicians