The expressivity of grammar

The Expressivity of Grammar W G DE Topics in English Linguistics 25 Editor Herman Wekker f Mouton de Gruyter Berlin · New York The Expressivity of Grammar Grammatical Devices Expressing Emotion across Time Axel Hübler Mouton de Gruyter Berlin · New York 1998 Mouton de Gruyter (formerly Mouton, The Hague) is a Division of Walter de Gruyter & Co., Berlin © Printed on acid-free paper which falls within the guidelines of the ANSI to ensure permanence and durability Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication-Data Hübler, Axel The expressivity of grammar : grammatical devices expressing emotion across time / Axel Hübler p cm - (Topics in English linguistics ; 25) Includes bibliographical references (p ) and index ISBN 3-11-015780-2 (alk paper) English language - Grammar - Psychological aspects Emotions I Title II Series PE1106.H83 1998 425'.01'9-dc21 98-5406 CIP Die Deutsche Bibliothek — Cataloging-in-Publication-Data Hübler, Axel: The expressivity of grammar : grammatical devices expressing emotion across time / Axel Hübler - Berlin ; New York : Mouton de Gruyter, 1998 (Topics in English linguistics ; 25) ISBN 3-11-015780-2 © Copyright 1998 by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co., D-10785 Berlin All rights reserved, including those of translation into foreign languages No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher Printing: Werner Hildebrand, Berlin - Binding: Lüderitz & Bauer-GmbH, Berlin Printed in Germany Contents Chapter Communication, emotions and expressivity 1.1 1.2 1.2.1 1.2.1.1 1.2.2 1.3 Aim and scope Contextualizations Expressivity A pragmatic and interactional perspective Emotions and expressions Leading concepts 10 11 14 Chapter The so-called possessive dative 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.2.1 2.5 Plan of discussion Introduction Dative and possession Meaning surplus Experience or interest? Attachment The use of the possessive dative in Beowulf Synopsis 17 17 20 25 25 29 31 40 Chapter The ethic dative 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.4 3.4.1 3.5 Plan of discussion The state of the art The ethic dative as speaker's attachment Signs, meanings and scopes Mode of attachment Ethic dative versus benefactive dative? Grades of attachment and grades of extension Synopsis 41 41 43 43 46 52 57 61 vi Contents Chapter The expanded form 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.4 4.5 4.6 Plan of discussion The Modern English form and its function The expanded form in early usage: Bede's Ecclesiastical History Paradigmatic features Discourse-related analyses Challenge and reconciliation Glancing at Modern English anew Synopsis 63 63 68 69 79 86 89 91 Chapter The present perfect 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.6.1 5.6.2 5.7 Plan of discussion Orientation marks Against tense-based views Toward a non-temporal view of the present perfect Timeframes The use of the present perfect in the history of English Case study: Some Cely Letters On the linearity of language change Synopsis 93 93 97 100 108 113 118 126 126 Chapter The periphrastic 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.3 6.4 6.5 6.5.1 6.5.2 Plan of discussion Introduction The i/o-periphrasis in affirmative statements Sign and basic meaning Remarkableness and contrast The speaker's involvement The i/o-periphrasis in negations and questions Case study: A Supplicacyon for the Beggers, by S Fish The i/o-occurrences Economizing the use of the i/o-periphrasis 128 128 130 131 133 139 143 147 147 153 Contents 6.6 6.7 The development of the do-periphrasis toward present-day English usage Synopsis vii 157 160 Chapter The gei-passive 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.6.1 7.7 7.8 Plan of discussion Main-stream concepts and alternatives What's passive about get + V-ecH Instrumental condition of the gef-passive Propositional condition of the gef-passive Attachment Attachment and describability Case study: S Terkel, Working People talk about what they all day and how they feel about what they Synopsis 162 162 166 168 171 174 177 180 185 Chapter Putting the results in perspective: Grammar and the Self 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.3.1 8.3.2 The major results Subjectification A cultural-historical frame The twelfth century renascence - before and after The Renaissance and after 187 190 192 192 195 8.3.3 The present time 201 Notes 204 References 222 Index of authors Index of subjects 244 249 Communication, emotions and expressivity 1.1 Aim and scope Expressivity is one of the dimensions defining human communication It has its basis in the personal setting of every communicative event in that it originates in a person (sender, addresser) and is directed at some other person (receiver, addressee) It is also related to a person's self-expression, the self comprising her/his emotions, no matter whether they relate to inner dispositions or to evaluative attitudes, no matter whether they are rooted in her/his individual biography (cf Koch 1960) or stimulated by a given situation Expressivity, however, presupposes that there are means available through which such emotions can be expressed The usual view would follow the principle of the division of labor and assign expressivity to the body (and paralinguistics), tackling language proper from the (sole) perspective of how it serves the needs to express thoughts and perform intellectually controlled actions This accords with a general overestimation of the intellectual part of communication, concomitant with a low regard for emotion and subjectivity (cf Lyons 1982: 101 and Birdwhistell 1971: 66).1 This distribution of scholarly concern,2 however, is in contrast to phylogenetic insights, according to which language originates in the transformation of personal experiences into expressions in order to preserve them (cf Langer 1957: 118-119 and Schmidt 1989: 47-52).3 It is, furthermore, inconsistent with cognitivist stances and related neuro-biological and bio-psychological views such as those advanced by the adherents to the paradigm of radical constructivism (cf McNeill 1992) It is the aim of this book to modify and correct the undue emphasis of linguistics on the intellectual dimension of language by recovering some of the expressive possibilities which, I contend, language has at its disposal and which, moreover, human beings constantly take recourse to The principle outlook taken here overlaps to a large extent with ideas advocated by Parret (1986) In the words of one of his reviewers, At the center is the idea that the subject of discourse is a 'passional being', as opposed to the more traditional view which conceives of the speaker as being involved in a strictly cognitive activity the emotion is not considered as a meaning that is somehow expressed, but as an operator modifying all meaning (Pezzini 1991: 95) References Sypher, Wylie 1962 241 Loss of self in modern literature and art New York: Random House Taavitsainen, Irma 1994 "Subjectivity as a text-type marker in historical stylistics", Language and Literature 3/3: 197-212 Terkel, Studds 1985 Working People talk about what they all day and how they feel about what they Harmondsworth: Penguin Tobin, Yishai 1993 Aspect in the English verb Process and result in language London, New York: Longman Toulmin, Stephen E 1958 The uses of argument London: Cambridge University Press Traugott, Elizabeth C 1972 A history of English syntax New York etc.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston 1982 "From prepositional to textual and expressive meanings: Some semantic pragmatic aspects of grammaticalization", in: Winfried P Lehmann - Yakov Malkiel (eds.), Perspectives on historical linguistics Amsterdam: Benjamins, 245-271 1989 "On the rise of epistemic meanings in English: An example of subjectification in semantic change", Language 65/1: 31-55 1990 "From less to more situated in language: The unidirectionality of semantic change", in: Sylvia Adamson (ed.), Papers from the Fifth International Conference on English Historical Linguistics Amsterdam etc.: Benjamins, 496-517 1992 "Syntax", in: Hogg, Richard M (ed.), The Cambridge History of the English language, vol Cambridge etc.: Cambridge University Press, 168-289 1994 "Grammaticalization and lexicalization", in: R E Asher - J Μ Y Simpson, The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics, vol Oxford etc.: Pergamon Press, 14811486 Traugott, Elizabeth C - Ekkehard König 1991 "The semantics-pragmatics of grammaticalization revisited", in: Elizabeth C Traugott - Bernd Heine (eds ), Approaches to grammaticalization Amsterdam etc.: Benjamins, 189-218 242 References Trier, Jost 1932 Trilling, Lionel 1971 Trnka, Bohumil 1930 Tsui, Amy Β M 1987 Vanneck, Gerard 1958 "Die Idee der Klugheit in ihrer sprachlichen Entfaltung", Zeitschrift fur Deutschkunde, 625-635 Sincerity and authenticity Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press On the syntax of the English verb from Caxton to Dry den Prague: Jednota Ceskoslovenskych Matematiku a Fysiku "Aspects of the classification of illocutionary acts and the notion of the perlocutionary act", Semiotica 66/4: 359-377 "The colloquial 'preterite' in Modern American English", Word 14: 237-242 Vanrespaille, Mia "The English get-passive" [Paper given at the Cognitive 1989 Linguistics Symposium, Duisburg 1989 Ms Handout.] Vermant, Stefan The English present perfect A dynamic-synchronic 1983 approach (Antwerp Papers in Linguistics 32) Wilrijk: Departement Germaanse, Afdeling Linguistiek Verschueren, Jef 1980 On speech act verbs Amsterdam: Benjamins Visser, Fredericus Th 1963 An historical syntax of the English language, vol.1 Syntactical units with one verb Leiden: Brill An historical syntax of the English language, vol.3/1 1969 Syntactical units with two verbs Leiden: Brill An historical syntax of the English language, vol.3/2 1973 Syntactical units with two and with more verbs Leiden: Brill Voges, Ferdinand 1883 "Der reflexive Dativ im Englischen", Anglia 6: 317-374 Volek, Bronislava 1987 Emotive signs in language and semantic functioning of derived nouns in Russian Amsterdam etc.: Benjamins Watzlawick, Paul - Janet H Beavin - Don D Jackson 1967 Pragmatics of human communication New York: Norton & Co References 243 Weiner, Ε Judith - William Labov 1983 "Constraints on the agentless passive", Journal of Linguistics 19: 29-58 Weinrich, Harald 1964 Tempus Besprochene und erzählte Welt Stuttgart, Berlin etc.: Kohlhammer [1985] [Fourth edition] Weisgerber, Leo 1950 Vom Weltbild der deutschen Sprache Halbband Düsseldorf: Schwann [1954] [Second edition] Werner, Heinz 1955 "A psychological analysis of expressive language", in: Heinz Werner (ed.), On expressive language Worcester, Mass.: Clark University Press, 11-18 Wierzbicka, Anna 1988 "The semantics of 'internal dative' in English", in: Anna Wierzbicka, The semantics of grammer Amsterdam etc.:Benjamins, 359-387 1988 The semantics of grammar Amsterdam etc.: Benjamins Williams, Raymond 1976 Keywords A vocabulary of culture and society Glasgow: Fontana Zwilgmeyer, Franz 1981 Stufen des Ich Bewußtseinsentwicklung der Menschheit in Gesellschaft und Kultur Fellbach: A Bonz Index of authors Adamson, Sylvia 226,241 Ahlgren, Arthur 18, 19, 24, 26, 28, 207, 222 Aitchison, Jean 230, 240 Akatsuka, Noriko 126, 208, 222 Akerlund, Alfred 211,222 Andersen, Henning 154,222,224, 225 Andersen, Paul Kent 167, 222 Anderson, John M 209,222 Anderson, Quentin 201, 222 Aronstein, Philipp 14,222 Austin, John Langshaw 10,222 Bache, Carl 96, 100, 222 Bailey, Richard W 221,222 Ballmer, Thomas T 209, 222 Bally, Charles 5-6, 7, 9, 143, 153, 178, 187, 208,223 Barber, Charles 187,223 Bauer, Gero 95, 97, 101, 102, 115, 116,223 Baumeister, Roy F 195-196, 201203,221,223 Beavin, Janet Η 242 Beckson, Karl 217,223 Begin, Claude 64,230 Benveniste, Emile 4,49,223 Bergeder, Fritz 89-90, 211, 223 Biber, Douglas 206, 223 Birdwhistell, Ray L 204,223 Bock, Kathryn, J 139, 211, 223, 237 Bolinger, Dwight 14, 216, 223 Breal, Marcel 15,223 Breivig, Leiv-Egil 227 Brennenstuhl, Waltraut 209,222 Brinton, Laurel J 31, 210, 218, 224 Brophy,John 217, 224 Brown, Penelope 10, 202, 224 Bühler, Karl 2, 3, 7, 97, 178, 224 Bull, William 97, 224 Burckhardt, Jacob 221,224 Buscha, Joachim 42, 206, 230 Bybee, Joan L 67, 68, 94, 224 Carey, Kathleen 214,225 Casad, Eugene 231 Chappell, Η 163,225 Charleston, Britta Μ 14,225 Clark, Eve 15,65, 175,206,225 Carroll, William J 227 Cole, Peter 228 Colish, Marcia L 201,225 Company, Concepcion 208, 225 Comrie, Bernard 67, 94, 99, 108, 213,214, 225 Coseriu, Eugenio 201, 225 Couper-Kuhlen, Elizabeth 211, 225 Crystal, David 13, 225 Curme, George O 163,178,225 Damasio, Antonio 6,226 Dahl, Osten 67-68, 94, 224 Declerck, Renaat 94, 226 Denison, David 131, 169, 206, 211,214,226 Dennis, Leah 65-66, 67, 226 Deutschbein, Max 207,211,226 Dietrich, Gerhard 100,112,226 Dirven, Rene 176,226 Downing, Angela 85 , 226 Index of authors Eaton, Roger 226 Eggs, Ekkehard 11,205,226 Ekman, Paul 13, 226 Ellegärd, Alvar 130, 131, 143, 216,218,227 Elsness, Johann 115,227 Engblom, Victor 144, 145, 146, 216, 227 Enzinger, Andrea 234 Erades, Peter 112,227 Esser, Jürgen 73, 227 Farrier, Susan E 194, 221, 227 Fehr, Bernhard 211,227 Fenn, Peter 96, 109, 227 Fiehler, Reinhard 205, 227 Finegan, Edward 206,223 Fisiak, Jacek 224 Foster, Brian 215, 227 Fox, Barbara 228 Frank, Manfred 229 Frank, Thomas 230, 240 Frankena, William K 14, 227 Franz, Wilhelm 43, 46, 50, 53, 57, 209, 227 Fries, Norbert 13, 227 Fromkin, Howard L 202, 228 Gaaf, Willem van der 206,228 Gadamer, Hans-Georg 230 Ganz, Arthur 217, 223 Gee, James Paul 171,228 Givon, Talmy 100, 163, 206, 218, 220, 228 Goedsche, C Rudolf 211,228 Görlach, Manfred 157, 228 Goffman, Ervin 10, 228 Granger, Sylviane 164, 170, 173, 228 Graustein, Gottfried 85,228 Greenbaum, Sidney 238 Grewendorf, Günter 222 245 Grice, H Paul 4,228 Guijewitsch, Aron J 221,229 Habermas, Jürgen 202, 229 Haegeman, Liliane 169, 229 Hager, Willi 205,229 Haiman, John 154,204,217,229 Halliday, Michael A K 5, 29, 65, 167, 168, 207, 229 Hamburger, Käte 49, 229 Hanham, Alison 118, 125, 214, 215,216, 229 Hastorf, Albert Η 11, 229 Hatcher, Anna Granville 67, 164165, 166, 170, 171, 172, 175, 177,211,219, 229 Haug, Walter 194,229 Haverkamp, Anselm 229 Havers, Wilhelm 19, 23, 25-26, 27, 28, 206,207, 230 Heine, Bernd 241 Helbig, Gerhard 42, 206,230 Henle, Paul 227 Heringer, Hans Jürgen 218, 230 Herold, R 220, 230 Hille, Arnoldus 227 Hirtle, Walter H 64, 90, 93, 230 Hodge, Robert 168,232 Hoffmann, Gerhard 113,230 Hogg, Richard M 241 Holenstein, Elmar 206,230 Hopper, Paul J 228 Huddleston, Rodney 64, 94, 108, 163,230 Hübler, Axel 221, 230 Hundt, Marianne 64, 65, 234 Ihalainen, Ossi 131,230 Ikegami, Yoshihiko 214,231 Jacobson, Sven 236 Jackson, Don D 242 246 Index of authors Jakobson, Roman 2, 3, 7, 24, 27, 178, 205-206, 207, 230,231 Janda, Laura A 206,231 Jarvella, Robert J 234 Jespersen, Otto 41,42, 68, 89, 90, 209,231 Johansson, Stig 227 Johnson, Mark 198, 233 Joos, Martin 3, 231 Jucker, Andreas H 232 Kastovsky, Dieter 231, 238, 240 Keiper, Hugo 225, 232, 234, 235 Kellner, Leon 58, 60, 208,231 Klein, Wolfgang 94, 97, 99, 104, 108,214, 231,234 Knapp, Mark L 13,231 Koch, Manfred 1,231 Koch, Walther A 239,240 König, Ekkehard 22, 30, 64, 71, 72, 132, 169, 188,232 Kövecses, Zoltan 2,232 Kortmann, Bernd 94, 96, 213, 232 Koziol, Herbert 22, 112,232 Kress, Gunther 168, 232 Kruisinga, Etsko 163, 173, 174, 232 Kryk-Kastovsky, Barbara 187, 232 Kuno, Susumu 174, 210, 232 Laan, Jacobus van der 67, 211, 232 Labov, William 3, 94-95, 113, 140, 182, 232, 243 Lakoff, George 198,211,233 Lakoff, Robin 219, 164, 165, 166, 170, 172, 173,233 Landmann, Michael 202, 233 Langacker, Ronald W 7, 22, 59, 66, 73,79, 114, 169, 190, 204, 209,219, 221,233 Langer, Susan Κ 1,13,178,233 Lasch, Christopher 203,233 Lazarus-Mainka, Gerda 205, 233 Leech, Geoffrey 93,100,233,238 Lehmann, Winfried P 241 Lersch, Philipp 231 Levinson, Stephen 10, 224 Lindstromberg, Seth 169, 218, 234 Ljung, Magnus 212, 234 Lock, Andrew 237 Locke, Philip 85, 226 Loebell, Helga 223 Lüdtke, Helmut 220, 234 Lutzeier, Peter 64, 232 Lyons, John 1, 6,49, 97,209, 234 Mätzner, Eduard 43, 44, 47, 50, 57,58,234 Mair, Christian 64, 65, 234 Malkiel, Yakov 241 Markus, Manfred 100, 116, 214, 234 Marty, Anton 2, 12, 13, 234 Marx, Wolfgang 205, 234 Mathesius, Vilem 2, 14,235 Matsumoto, Yo 126, 235 Matthews, Richard 219, 235 Maurice, William 112, 235 McCoard, Robert W 96, 96, 97, 100, 103, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 114,213,235 McNeill, David 1, 7, 235 Mecklenbräuker, Silvia 229 Meyer, Matthias 93, 112, 213, 214,235 Miller, James 169, 211, 213, 218219,235 Misch, Georg 221, 235 Mitchell, Bruce 20, 26, 27, 28, 29, 68,212, 236 Moeller, Holger 229 Morey, Randal 223 Morgan, Jerry L 228 Morris, Colin 195,236 Mosse, Fernand 65,236 Index of authors 247 Müller, Wolfgang G 205,236 Mustanoja, Tauno F 114, 216, 236 Quirk, Randolph 13, 44, 64, 65, 93, 128, 130, 163, 169, 211, 212,221,238 Nehls, Dietrich 68, 97, 210, 236 Nevalainen, Terttu 129,215,236 Nickel, Gerhard 65, 68, 88-89, 210,211,236 Radden, Günther 176,226 Rainer, Eva Maria 95, 113, 115118, 119,238 Rauh, Reinhold 234 Reddy, Michael J 198, 200, 238 Reichenbach Hans 97, 98-99, 104, 238 Riedel, Christoph 195,238 Riehle, Wolfgang 225, 232, 234, 235 Rissanen, Matti 129, 131, 137, 138,215, 236, 238 Robinson, Richard 206, 238 Rose, Ann 205,233 Rosenberg, Shelden 237 Rosenthal, Peggy 190-191, 194, 238 Rothacker, Erich 194, 238 Rudzka-Ostyn, Brygida 233 Ochs, Elinor 3, 236 Ong, Walter 31, 236 Onions, Charles T 41, 43, 46, 51, 209, 236 Ortony, Andrew 198, 237, 238 Osgood, Charles E 139, 237 Osselton, Noel E 129, 160, 215, 237 Pagliuca, William 224, 225, 229, 239 Palmer, Frank R 163, 237 Panofsky, Erwin 194, 220-221, 237 Pantaleo, Nicola 230,240 Panzer, Baldur 240 Parret, Herman 1, 237 Partridge, Eric 217,224 Paszyna, Chrisoph 234 Paul, Hermann 15, 237 Penhallurick, John M 218, 237 Perkins, Revere 224 Peters, Hans 196-197, 237 Pezzini, Isabella 1, 237 Pilch, Herbert 208, 237 Pinborg, Jan 201, 237 Plooij, Frans X 154, 237 Polefka, Judith 229 Potter, Simeon 187, 238 Poutsma, Hendrik 67, 163, 170, 238 Pütz, Manfred 201, 202, 238 Saussure, Ferdinand de 15, 239 Sbisä, Marina 205,239 Scheffer, Johannes 65,239 Scherer, Klaus R 226 Schieffelin, Bambi 3, 236 Schiffrin, Deborah 232 Schlosberg, Harold 11, 239 Schmid, Lydia 42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 54, 55, 208, 209, 239 Schmidt, Siegfried J 1,239 Schneider, David J 229 Searle, John R 4, 142,209, 239 Sebeok, Thomas 231 Seiler, Hansjakob 20-22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 208, 239 Short, Michael 73, 239 Slobin, Dan I 107,219,239 Snell, Bruno 193,239 248 Index of authors Sohn, Sung-Ock S 126, 208, 222 Sorg, Walther 208, 240 Spies, Heinrich 41, 57, 58, 208, 209, 240 Staiger, Emil 49, 240 Stankiewicz, Edward 204, 240 Stein, Dieter 130, 131, 133-135, 136, 139-141, 143-146, 147, 153, 154-155, 157-159, 161, 216,217,218, 224, 240 Stein, Gabriele 163, 164,166-167, 170, 172, 178,219, 221,240 Stickel, Gerhard 230 Sussex, Roland 180, 240 Svartvik, Jan 162, 168, 238, 240 Swan, Michael 163,240 Sypher, Wylie 201,241 Szwedek, Aleksander 231 Taavitsainen, Irma 206,241 Teriiel, Studds 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185,241 Thomae, Hans 231 Tobin, Yishai 163, 241 Toulmin, Stephen E 14,241 Traugott, Elizabeth C 16, 22, 27, 29, 30, 71, 72, 126, 132, 154, 160, 169-170, 188, 204, 211, 212,218, 241 Trier, Jost 193,242 Trilling, Lionel 195, 196, 242 Trnka, Bohumil 139,242 Tsui, Amy Β Μ 209, 242 Vachek, Josef 235 Vanneck, Gerard 111, 213, 242 Vanrespaille, Mia 163, 166, 175, 242 Vermant, Stefan 95, 96, 101-102, 103,104, 242 Verschueren, Jef 209,242 Visser, Fredericus Th 41, 42, 43, 44, 54-55, 58, 60, 61, 65, 90, 115, 130, 145, 146, 168, 177, 209,210, 242 Voges, Ferdinand 42, 44, 45, 47, 51,52, 56,57,58, 60, 209, 242 Volek, Bronislava 13, 205, 242 Watzlawick, Paul 5,242 Weiner, E Judith 182, 243 Weinrich, Harald 16, 48-49, 78, 84, 87, 95, 96, 105, 106, 136, 177,187,209, 243 Weisgerber, Leo 193, 243 Werner, Heinz 5, 7, 233, 243 Westermann, Rainer 229 Wierzbicka, Anna 17, 18, 210, 243 Williams, Raymond 220, 243 Yang, Lynne 218, 228 Zwilgmeyer, Franz 192-194, 195, 243 Index of subjects adverb, -ial 14, 24, 29, 67, 71, 75, 76, 77, 100,108-113, 114-117, 127, 130, 134, 140, 148, 170, 186, 196-198, 211, 213, 217, 219; now-oriented 109-112, 116-118, 120; strong 109-113, 115, 120, 127; weak 109-110 appropriat-e, -ed, -ing, -ion 8, 5961,62, 104, 114 aspect, -ual 21,49, 63, 66,77, 8689, 90,91,92, 93, 94, 99, 107, 113, 114, 131, 163, 211, 212, 214 attachment 15-16, 17, 20, 29-40, 41, 43-46, 47, 50, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57- 61, 63, 66, 70, 71-76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82-83, 85-86, 88, 89, 91, 92, 93, 104, 120, 127, 129, 130, 160, 162, 169, 174-177, 180, 186, 187, 188189, 190, 192, 194, 196, 197, 208, 210, 220; adaptive 16,47, 59, 60, 63, 76-79, 85, 91, 92, 104, 138, 162, 177, 186, 187, 189, 192; adoptive 16, 41, 47, 59, 60, 63, 76, 77-79, 85, 91, 92, 93, 104, 127, 129, 138, 143, 160, 162, 177, 186, 187, 189, 190, 192, 194; neutral 79, 177, 187, 189, 190; see also attitude and involvement attitud-e (emotional), -inal 1, 9, 10, 14, 15, 16, 29, 30, 31, 42, 61, , 6 , , , , , , 126, 132, 138, 143, 157, 162, 165, 166, 176, 178, 180, 186, 187, 188, 192, 195, 196; see also attachment and involvement attitudinal disjuncts 9, 44, 73, 143, 187, 196, 205,211,215 beneficiary 20, 27, 29, 56, 58, 176, 207, 219; see also dative, benefactive Besprechen 16, 48-52, 54, 95, 105, 107, 187, 209; see also discuss change 15, 18, 31, 47, 72, 89, 114, 126, 132, 154, 158-160, 169, 178, 182, 184, 189, 193, 198, 200, 201, 202, 205, 212, 221; see also development choice 4, 5, 15, 22, 24, 31, 32, 65, 70, 73, 74, 76, 83, 86, 111, 113, 120, 132, 174-176, 187, 209, 220; see also option, -al cognitive 1, 2, 3, 6, 14, 30, 66, 72, 101, 113, 114, 126, 167-168, 185, 193, 198,209, 221 communicative purposes/needs (farther reaching, current) 61, 93, 103, 104, 106, 107, 108109, 110, 111-113, 114, 127 dative, benefactive 41, 52-61, 62, 209, 210; see also beneficiary; ethic 41-62, 187, 189, 190, 194, 195, 208, 209, 216; of interest 26, 27, 29, 42, 55; of experience 28, 207; possessive 17-40, 41, 46-47, 49, 59, 60, 61, 187, 189, 190,219, 250 Index of subjects describability, in- 75, 177-180; see also effability, indevelopment,-al 16, 18, 22, 60, 68, 88-89, 93, 107, 113, 115, 126, 129, 132, 145, 154, 157160, 170, 188, 192, 194, 196, 197,200,201, 206,211,216, 221, see also change discuss, -ing, -ion 16, 48-50, 61, 78, 79, 85, 91, 95, 104-107, 110, 111, 112, 113, 120-125, 136-137, 141, 144, 145, 147, 152, 155, 162, 177, 186, 187, 213, 214, 217, see also Besprechen distribution, -al 21, 41,43, 61, 88, 90, 116, 122, 148, 151, 152, 153, 156, 174, 182, 188-190, 192,214, 220 do-periphrasis / periphrastic 129-161, 187, 189, 194, 203, 216,217,218 Early Modern English 113, 115, 129, 132, 158, 160, 189, 197, 216 econom-ical, -ics, -ization, -ize, -izing 83, 129, 140, 153-154, 156, 161, 188 ego, 59, 60, 97, 195,220 egocentric, -ity 54, 60, 204, 208 effability, in- 75, 162; see also describability emotion, -al, -ality, -ly 3, 4, 5, 89, 10, 11-14, 15, 20, 29, 30, 36, 39, 40, 42, 43, 45, 46, 50, 51, 54, 58, 61, 62, 63, 66, 68, 70, 71, 76, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 85, 90, 93, 95, 96, 104, 107, 113, 120, 123, 126, 127, 129, 132, 133, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142-143, 146, 152, 153, 156, 157, 159, 160, 162, 165, 166, 175, 176, 177, 178, 180, 185, 186, 187, 193, 194, 195-197, 198, 199, 204, 205; see also attachment and involvement emotive (means), -ly 8, 14, 15, 16, 41, 49, 52, 59, 66-68, 73, 74, 83, 91, 92, 123, 130, 139140, 142, 145, 146, 152, 153, 154, 157, 159, 160, 162, 164, 176, 178, 184, 185, 186, 188, 197, 199,204,205, 206,211, 215,218 epistemic 29, 157, 159, 160 Erzählen, 16, 48, 95, 105, 187, 209; see also tell evaluat-e, -ion, -ive 1, 6, 14, 45, 72, 76-77, 78, 102, 103, 107, 126, 148, 165, 174,180,186 expanded form 2, 62-92, 111, 132, 187, 189, 195, 203, 211, 212, 221 experien-ce, -cer, -tial 1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 13, 20, 25-29, 40, 49, 52, 66, 97, 99, 181, 184, 198, 207 explicit, -ly, -ness 2, 9, 15,22,24, 30, 35, 45, 51, 59, 64, 73, 77, 85, 121, 134, 138-139, 144, 148, 149, 152, 160, 172, 174, 178, 186, 196, 198, 199, 212; see also mode pur; non-explicit 42,61 expressiv-e, -ely, -eness, -ity 1, 2, 3-9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 16, 29,31, 63, 73-74, 75, 83, 126, 129, 137, 140, 153, 161, 178, 180, 182, 187, 189, 190, 191-192, 198, 199, 201, 203, 204, 205, 208; non-expressivity 154 gef-passive 2, 162-186, 187, 188, 189, 203,218,219, 220 Index of subjects goal (practical) 48, 52, 136, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 145, 146, 152, 157; see also communicative purposes/needs grammaticaliz-ation, -ed 16, 2122, 30, 59, 127, 129, 130, 157, 160, 161, 169, 185, 190, 197, 204; non-grammaticalized 129, 160 illocutionary 10, 205; see also speech act implicit, -ly 2, 40, 46, 73, 129, 165; see also mode νέσα index, -ical(ly), -icality, -icalness 15, 30, 40, 45, 63, 72, 73, 80, 91, 104, 132, 142, 158, 160, 169, 176, 178, 186, 187, 188; see also inference individual, -ity 1, 10, 13, 134, 183, 186, 191, 194, 195, 201203, 220, 221; see also self inference (conventional) 30, 45, 72, 107; see also index intensification, -ify, -ity, -ive 3, 6, 13, 14, 67, 74, 76, 90, 94, 139, 140, 160,214,217 intention, -al, -ality 4, 10-11, 57, 120, 141, 169, 175,208 interchange-ability, -able 19, 100, 118, 129, 139, 165; see also option and choice interest, -ed 4, 5, 12, 16, 25-28, 29, 30, 40, 42, 53-56, 61, 67, 70, 75, 104, 120, 121, 124, 127, 136, 140, 144, 177, 191, 210 interpretative (act, activity, reasoning) 30, 40, 45, 46, 55, 80, 104, 125, 127, 176, 177; see also process, -ing 251 involv-e, -ed, -ement 1, 15, 16, 26, 27, 43, 58, 67, 68, 70, 71, 81, 83, 127, 133, 136, 138, 139-143, 162, 165; see also attachment and attitude Late Middle English 18, 60, 63, 93, 129, 189, 206 marked, -ness, un- 15, 21-22, 24, 49, 63, 72, 92, 100, 109-110, 118, 131-132, 135, 143, 153154, 176, 188, 189, 190, 206 meaning surplus 15, 17, 20, 2529, 32, 40, 131, 164 metaphor, -ical(ly), -icity, ization, -izing 13, 27, 30, 31, 61, 72, 102, 110, 114, 168-169, 170, 185, 188, 193,198-200, 221 metonym-ic, -ical, -y, -ization, -izing 30-31, 72, 132, 169, 186, 188,200 Middle English see Late Middle English mode pur 5, 7- 9, 10, 44, 73, 75, 143, 178, 180, 187, 198, 199 mode νέοιι 5, 8-9, 10, 13, 14, 15, 34, 35, 42, 44, 73, 74, 75, 91, 143, 153, 178, 180, 187, 190, 198, 199, 201,203,221 narrat-ion, -ive 36, 38, 39, 40, 4849, 79, 87, 92, 95, 135, 139140, 209; see also text nonverbal 9, 10, 13, 76, 154 objectiv-e, -ely, -ist, -ivity 2, 3, 6, 7, 25,59, 97, 114, 194, 201 Old English 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 25, 26, 27, 31, 40, 63, 66, 68, 74, 86, 88, 89, 92, 113, 189, 190, 206,211,214,219 252 Index of subjects option, -al, -ality 15, 22, 53, 56, 63, 65-66, 68, 90, 91, 100, 103, 129, 157, 158, 188, 199; see also choice and interchange-ability peak 127, 135-136, 139, 140, 154-155 periphrastic see ifo-periphrasis possess-ion, -ivity 17, 19, 20-25, 27, 31, 36, 40, 47, 62, 114, 169, 194,210, 220 pragmatic, -ally 10, 15, 16, 30, 42, 43, 46, 48-49, 66, 67, 70, 71, 75, 78, 85, 95, 96, 107, 109, 110, 111, 113, 127, 132, 140-141, 143, 152, 156-157, 160, 162, 165,211 present-day English 2, 17, 19, 93, 115, 126, 129, 157 present perfect 2, 93-127, 132, 160, 169, 187, 189, 194, 203, 213,214,216,219 process, -ing 45, 46, 55, 80, 104, 176; see also interpretative property 47, 54, 59, 60; alienable 23, 59, 201; inalienable 23, 175; see also appropriate proposition, -al 2, 10, 15-16, 19, 21, 26, 29, 34, 35, 40, 42, 44, 45.46, 47, 49, 52, 54, 56, 5759, 60, 61, 63, 64, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74-75, 7677, 86, 91, 93-94, 95, 100, 101, 102, 104, 105, 108, 110, 113, 115, 126, 131, 132, 133, 134, 136, 138, 139, 140, 143, 144, 145, 146, 152, 154, 155, 157, 159-160, 162, 164, 165, 171, 173, 174, 176, 177, 178, 186,187, 188, 190, 196, 199, 211, 218; non-propositional 16, 132, 186 remarkable, -ness 15, 30, 35, 4446, 52, 56, 58, 60, 61, 70-71, 72, 73,74, 77, 79, 80, 91, 101, 104, 117, 127, 132, 133, 136, 140, 145, 146, 152, 160, 161, 162, 169, 171-174, 175, 176, 186, 190, 197, 208, 216; culture-specific/dependent 45, 173; established 44-45, 70 self 1, 6, 187-203, 220, 221; see also individual; self-expression 1, 4, 190; self-expressive 4, 208 scope (of attachment) 41, 43, 4546,61,76 speech act 4, 10, 48, 52, 53, 64, 138-139, 142-143, 145, 147, 157, 160, 205, 209, 212, 213; see also illocutionary style 73-74, 158,205,217 subjectification 16, 22, 59, 61, 190-192,204 subjectiv-e, -ist, -ity 1-2, 4-7, 13, 14, 16, 25,31,59, 72, 97, 114, 126, 132, 172, 194, 202, 205, 220 symptom, -atic 115, 141, 146, 203, 204; see also index tell,-ing 48, 50, 51, 61,75, 79, 85-86, 95, 105-106, 111, 136, 137, 162, 175, 186, 187 temporal, -ist 4, 63, 64, 66, 68, 74, 77, 86-89, 90, 92, 93-94, 95, 96, 97, 100, 101, 107, 108-112, 114-118, 126, 127, 131,211,213, 214 Index of subjects tense,-ing 41, 47,48-49,50,51, 54, 89, 93-96, 97-99, 100, 103104, 105, 106, 108,109-110, 126 text, -ual 14, 16, 39, 41,48-49, 64, 75, 80, 85, 87, 129, 135136, 139-140, 147, 154, 188, 211, 212; see also narrat-ion 253 Topics in English Linguistics Mouton de Gruyter · Berlin · New York Niels Davidsen-Nielsen, Tense and Mood in English A Comparison with Danish 1990 Historical English Syntax Edited by Dieter Kastovsky 1991 English Computer Corpora Selected Papers and Research Guide Edited by Stig Johansson and Anna-Brita Stenström 1991 Donka Minkova, The History of Final Vowels in English The Sound of Muting 1991 Lia Korrel, Duration in English A Basic Choice, Illustrated in Comparison with Dutch 1991 Andreas H Jucker, Social Stylistics Syntactic Variation in British Newspapers 1992 Ken-ichi Takami, Preposition Stranding From Syntactic to Functional Analyses 1992 Bas Aarts, Small Clauses in English The Nonverbal Types 1992 New Directions in English Language Corpora Methodology, Results, Software Developments Edited by Gerhard Leitner 1992 10 History of Englishes New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics Edited by Matti Rissanen, Ossi Ihalainen, Terttu Nevalainen and Irma Taavitsainen 1992 11 Early English in the Computer Age Explorations through the Helsinki Corpus Edited by Matti Rissanen, Meija Kytö and Minna PalanderCollin 1993 12 Towards a Standard English: 1600-1800 Edited by Dieter Stein and Ingrid Tieken-Boon van Ostade 1993 13 Studies in Early Modern English Edited by Dieter Kastovsky 1994 14 Ronald Geluykens, The Pragmatics of Discourse Anaphora in English Evidence from Conversational Repair 1994 15 Traute Ewers, The Origin of American Black English Be-Forms in the HOODOO Texts 1996 16 Ilse Depraetere, The Tense System in English Relative Clauses A CorpusBased Analysis 1996 17 Michiko Ogura, Verbs in Medieval English Differences in Verb Choice in Verse and Prose 1996 18 Spanish Loanwords in the English Language A Tendency towards Hegemony Reversal Edited by Felix Rodriguez Gonzales 1996 19 Laurel J Brinton, Pragmatic Markers in English Grammaticalization and Discourse Functions 1996 20 Christiane Dalton-Puffer, The French Influence on Middle English Morphology A Corpus-Based Study on Derivation 1996 21 Johan Elsness, The Perfect and the Preterite in Contemporary and Earlier English 1997 22 Carl Bache and Niels Davidsen-Nielsen, Mastering English An Advanced Grammar for Non-native and Native Speakers 1997 23 English in Transition Corpus-based Studies in Linguistic Variation and Genre Styles Edited by Matti Rissanen, Meija Kytö and Kirsi Heikkonen 1997 24 Grammaticalization at Work Studies of Long-term Developments in English Edited by Matti Rissanen, Meija Kytö and Kirsi Heikkonen 1997 25 Axel Hübler, The Expressivity of Grammar Grammatical Devices Expressing Emotion across Time 1998 ... (1986) In the words of one of his reviewers, At the center is the idea that the subject of discourse is a 'passional being', as opposed to the more traditional view which conceives of the speaker... attention to the explicit form of expressing emotions through identifying and describing them and thus making them the content of a proposition Rather, I will concentrate on the forms of expressivity. .. left, the means appear increasingly grammaticalized The more the means are grammaticalized, the more they acquire the character of a determinative element; the more syntacticized they are, the