The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry 51 Series Editors: Damià Barceló · Andrey G Kostianoy Sergey S Zhiltsov Igor S Zonn Andrey G Kostianoy Editors Oil and Gas Pipelines in the Black-Caspian Seas Region The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry Founded by Otto Hutzinger Editors-in-Chief: Damia` Barcelo´ l Andrey G Kostianoy Volume 51 Advisory Board: Jacob de Boer, Philippe Garrigues, Ji-Dong Gu, Kevin C Jones, Thomas P Knepper, Alice Newton, Donald L Sparks More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/698 Oil and Gas Pipelines in the Black-Caspian Seas Region Volume Editors: Sergey S Zhiltsov Á Igor S Zonn Á Andrey G Kostianoy With contributions by A Aliyev Á L Barbagelata Á G.V Georgiev Á O.G Grishicheva Á R Huseynzade Á A.V Ishin Á E.A Kostianaia Á A.G Kostianoy Á L.A Parkhomchik Á A.V Semenov Á A.G Semerdjiev Á D.M Soloviev Á S.S Zhiltsov Á I.S Zonn Editors Sergey S Zhiltsov Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia Moscow Russia Igor S Zonn Soyuzvodproject Engineering Research Production Center for Water Management, Land Reclamation and Ecology Moscow Russia Andrey G Kostianoy P.P Shirshov Institute of Oceanology Russian Academy of Sciences Moscow Russia ISSN 1867-979X ISSN 1616-864X (electronic) The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry ISBN 978-3-319-43906-8 ISBN 978-3-319-43908-2 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-43908-2 Library of Congress Control Number: 2016955168 © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, 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University of Girona Emili Grahit, 101 17003 Girona, Spain dbcqam@cid.csic.es P.P Shirshov Institute of Oceanology Russian Academy of Sciences 36, Nakhimovsky Pr 117997 Moscow, Russia kostianoy@gmail.com Advisory Board Prof Dr Jacob de Boer IVM, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands Prof Dr Philippe Garrigues University of Bordeaux, France Prof Dr Ji-Dong Gu The University of Hong Kong, China Prof Dr Kevin C Jones University of Lancaster, United Kingdom Prof Dr Thomas P Knepper University of Applied Science, Fresenius, Idstein, Germany Prof Dr Alice Newton University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal Prof Dr Donald L Sparks Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Delaware, USA v The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry Also Available Electronically The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry is included in Springer’s eBook package Earth and Environmental Science If a library does not opt for the whole package, the book series may be bought on a subscription basis For all customers who have a standing order to the print version of The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry, we offer free access to the electronic volumes of the Series published in the current year via SpringerLink If you not have access, you can still view the table of contents of each volume and the abstract of each article on SpringerLink (www.springerlink.com/content/110354/) You will find information about the – Editorial Board – Aims and Scope – Instructions for Authors – Sample Contribution at springer.com (www.springer.com/series/698) All figures submitted in color are published in full color in the electronic version on SpringerLink Aims and Scope Since 1980, The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry has provided sound and solid knowledge about environmental topics from a chemical perspective Presenting a wide spectrum of viewpoints and approaches, the series now covers topics such as local and global changes of natural environment and climate; anthropogenic impact on the environment; water, air and soil pollution; remediation and waste characterization; environmental contaminants; biogeochemistry; geoecology; chemical reactions and processes; chemical and biological transformations as well as physical transport of chemicals in the environment; or environmental modeling A particular focus of the series lies on methodological advances in environmental analytical chemistry vii Series Preface With remarkable vision, Prof Otto Hutzinger initiated The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry in 1980 and became the founding Editor-in-Chief At that time, environmental chemistry was an emerging field, aiming at a complete description of the Earth’s environment, encompassing the physical, chemical, biological, and geological transformations of chemical substances occurring on a local as well as a global scale Environmental chemistry was intended to provide an account of the impact of man’s activities on the natural environment by describing observed changes While a considerable amount of knowledge has been accumulated over the last three decades, as reflected in the more than 70 volumes of The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry, there are still many scientific and policy challenges ahead due to the complexity and interdisciplinary nature of the field The series will therefore continue to provide compilations of current knowledge Contributions are written by leading experts with practical experience in their fields The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry grows with the increases in our scientific understanding, and provides a valuable source not only for scientists but also for environmental managers and decision-makers Today, the series covers a broad range of environmental topics from a chemical perspective, including methodological advances in environmental analytical chemistry In recent years, there has been a growing tendency to include subject matter of societal relevance in the broad view of environmental chemistry Topics include life cycle analysis, environmental management, sustainable development, and socio-economic, legal and even political problems, among others While these topics are of great importance for the development and acceptance of The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry, the publisher and Editors-in-Chief have decided to keep the handbook essentially a source of information on “hard sciences” with a particular emphasis on chemistry, but also covering biology, geology, hydrology and engineering as applied to environmental sciences The volumes of the series are written at an advanced level, addressing the needs of both researchers and graduate students, as well as of people outside the field of ix x Series Preface “pure” chemistry, including those in industry, business, government, research establishments, and public interest groups It would be very satisfying to see these volumes used as a basis for graduate courses in environmental chemistry With its high standards of scientific quality and clarity, The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry provides a solid basis from which scientists can share their knowledge on the different aspects of environmental problems, presenting a wide spectrum of viewpoints and approaches The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry is available both in print and online via www.springerlink.com/content/110354/ Articles are published online as soon as they have been approved for publication Authors, Volume Editors and Editorsin-Chief are rewarded by the broad acceptance of The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry by the scientific community, from whom suggestions for new topics to the Editors-in-Chief are always very welcome Damia` Barcelo´ Andrey G Kostianoy Editors-in-Chief Contents Introduction Sergey S Zhiltsov Geographic Characteristics of the Black-Caspian Seas Region Andrey G Kostianoy, Igor S Zonn, and Evgeniia A Kostianaia Hydrocarbon Potential of the Caspian Region 37 Sergey S Zhiltsov, Igor S Zonn, and Aleksandr V Semenov Oil and Gas Production in the Black Sea Shelf 51 Igor S Zonn and Sergey S Zhiltsov Investigation of the Hydrocarbon Potential in the Black Sea Region: First Results 67 Sergey S Zhiltsov and Igor S Zonn Pipeline Architecture of the Black Sea–Caspian Sea Region: Geographical and Political Issues 75 Igor S Zonn Russia’s Policy Toward the Pipeline Transport in the Caspian Region: Results and Prospects 85 Sergey S Zhiltsov EU Policy in Shaping the Pipeline Architecture in the Caspian Region 95 Sergey S Zhiltsov Chinese Pipeline Projects in the Caspian Region 105 Sergey S Zhiltsov and Olga G Grishicheva xi Co.L.Mar.: Subsea Leak Detection with Passive Acoustic Technology 273 Co.L.Mar Experience in the Caspian Sea Since 2004 Co.L.Mar has contracts for surveys of offshore pipelines in the Caspian Sea working for different oil and gas companies in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan (see Table 1) The ALD inspections concerned such known oil and gas fields as the Azeri, Kashagan and others Fortunately, during all these inspections no leaks have been detected In the Caspian Sea we were called out as a preventive action prior to hydrotest, or in a couple of cases for false alarms generated by pressured drop due to temperature gradient Co.L.Mar Experience in the Black Sea Since 2002 Co.L.Mar has contracts for surveys of offshore pipelines in the Black Sea working for different oil and gas companies in Russia and Bulgaria (see Table 2) The ALD inspections concerned such known oil and gas pipeline projects as the Blue Stream and Caspian Pipeline Consortium In 2002, Co.L.Mar has been contracted to provide a leak detection service (should it be required) on the ultra deep Blue Stream Project (two 380 km long gas pipelines across the Black Sea coming from Russia to Turkey) For this contract a new ALD configuration has been designed, built and tested for use with the SONSUB Innovator ROV The new sensor has a 2,500 m depth range, and in order to be compatible with the ROV fibre-optic umbilical the signal has been processed and converted for transmission through a video channel Due to this innovation the system may be easily transferred from one vehicle to another, requiring only the Table ALD track records in the Caspian Sea NN Year 2004 2004 2005 2011 Location Azerbaijan Azerbaijan Azerbaijan Turkmenistan 2013– 2014 2014 Kazakhstan Project Azeri Project: preventive sealine inspection Azeri Project: assistance during hydrotest Azeri Project: assistance during hydrotest Turkmenistan Block Gas Development : assistance during hydrotest Kashagan: inspection of suspect area Kazakhstan Kashagan: inspection of suspect area Table ALD track records in the Black Sea NN Year 2002 2004 2012 Location Black Sea Bulgaria Black Sea Project Blue Stream Project: trial survey and hydrotest assistance Inspection and detection on a leaking sealine CPC expansion: assistance during hydrotest 274 L Barbagelata and A.G Kostianoy Fig 14 Acoustic view of the detected leak near Varna availability of a standard video channel The system could be tested at 2,150 depth during trial inspection, then was kept on standby to be ready in case of pressure drop during hydrotest, which fortunately did not occur Varna 2004 – this is a good example of time efficiency In April 2004, on Friday, Co.L.Mar received the order to mobilise equipment and personnel for a 23 km long 1400 pipeline inspection in the Black Sea waters near Varna, Bulgaria We travelled Saturday and arrived on Sunday when we installed the equipment and started inspection On Monday we stood-by due to weather conditions and already on Tuesday a leak was detected and the inspection was completed The main characteristics of the detected leak in Bulgaria in April 2004 (Fig 14) are: Leaking part – Field joint weld crack Flow rate – 180 L/min Pipeline content – Water Differential pressure – 60 bar Pipe diameter – 14 inch Co.L.Mar.: Subsea Leak Detection with Passive Acoustic Technology 275 Inspection mode – towfish Depth – 27 m Pipeline age – years Pipeline length – 23 km Burial – no In 2012, Co.L.Mar has been contracted to assist during hydrotest of the Caspian Pipeline Consortium in the north-eastern part of the Black Sea (Russia) The equipment has been used while the hydrotest was on going to check the critical points: flanges and valves In this way the eventual leaks would have been detected and rectified without the need to wait for the hydrotest result Discussion Pipeline leaks are typically triggered by the transition of the transported fluid from the internal pressure to the lower external pressure The resultant turbulence and fluid mass expansion generates acoustic (ultrasound) signals that the ALD (Acoustic Leak Detector) system extracts from the ambient noise, even when these signals are weak Co.L.Mar claims that the system can locate leaks on an offshore installation as small as 0.1 L/min The main components of the technology are an underwater acoustic sensor that acquires data along the pipeline, a transmission line relaying the data to the surface vessel, a hardware receiver and PC-based software which evaluates the signal in real time along with its development along the tracked pipeline section ROV installation, TowFish and Diver are the most common methods of subsea inspection Now a new inspection technique is available In 2013, Co.L.Mar’s first ALD prototype for installation on an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) underwent successful trials in a test pool and in the sea This version was designed for recording inspection data in the internal memory, which need to be displayed after the vehicle had finished its mission to check acoustic records for signs of a leak In 2014, Co.L.Mar continued its participation in a project for improving AUV capability in inspection and monitoring of offshore oil and gas installations The main result of the test was the validation of the ALD-AUV system The extensive trials in Sweden and in the Caspian Sea gave very positive results: it was possible to verify the capability to detect signal generated by a leak (1 mm methane leak at bar differential pressure), which was much smaller than the original target A low background noise allowed to reach a sensitivity which is better than working with an ROV Also the system revealed to be robust and reliable during tests in different sea conditions Following the positive results obtained from these tests, it was decided to proceed with the inspection of some operating pipelines in the Mediterranean Sea, and this was done in 2014 Co.L.Mar has developed a software to process the data in real time during the AUV inspection and determine on site if a leak has occurred The ALD will then 276 L Barbagelata and A.G Kostianoy interface with the vehicle’s navigation system accordingly, so that when required, the vehicle will be able to modify the mission, to come back on a suspect point, and confirm the anomaly detected The goal of the project is to develop a vehicle to monitor integrity of deep sea or remote installations and pipelines For this purpose, the AUV would be maintained year-round at a remote docking station on the sea floor, awaiting deployment when required The system could suit inspection of pipelines in Arctic regions, where ice-covered surface represents a problem for the ROV deployment In 2014, Co.L.Mar was asked to perform an investigation of possible hydrocarbon leak from a pipeline in an ice region (the Northern Caspian Sea) where the outside temperature reaches À40 C This involved drilling holes through the ice at various locations and manually lowering the ALD sensors through the hole Measurements were completed within a few minutes, after which the process was repeated at a new location 10 m distant in order to compare readings We had tested our system in very low temperatures in our headquarters in Italy, but for this application we had to change some components and test some parts of the equipment to see if they could withstand such low temperatures Within the same project, Co.L.Mar adapted its equipment for shallow-water pipeline surveys We developed a small catamaran to be towed by a vessel; the vehicle was equipped not only with our acoustic sensor, but also with commercial sensor for hydrocarbons and methane detection, which we integrated into our equipment The aim was to create a stable platform in order to generate the best results for leak detection in water depth down to m Because of a possible interference in noise and currents, the surface (host) vessel could not be too close to the acoustic sensor, which needs to operate near the sea surface Our solution was to equip the catamaran with a GPS antenna with a wireless link to the vessel, with a physical distance maintained from the vessel of 30–40 m depending on conditions During 2014 Co.L.Mar also staged trials in a test pool for a deepwater operator to determine whether the ALD could be used to detect a leak causing ingress of water into a pipeline As the offshore industry moves toward a development in deeper water, there is potential risk for a leak inside the pipeline if the external pressure is higher than the internal pressure However, traditional inspection techniques are based on detecting only a fluid coming out of a pipe We designed and produced a system that comprised a piece of pipe connected to other pipes pressurised from the outside, in order to generate inward leaks ranging in a diameter from 0.5 to mm with pressures from to 100 bar The trials simulated scenarios for both liquid- and gas-filled pipelines The acoustic signals generated by the inward leaks were very clear and detectable The results were very promising and they showed the applicability of passive acoustic technique Co.L.Mar is now working on the Acoustic Leak Monitor (ALM), an adaptation of the ALD system for permanent installation on a subsea wellhead or manifold to check constantly for signs of leakage of hydrocarbons or hydraulic fluids from components such as flanges This would be connected to the platform via a any Ethernet or RS422 link, triggering an alarm on the surface if a leak occurs One of the challenges is to ensure that the system does not generate false alarms Co.L.Mar.: Subsea Leak Detection with Passive Acoustic Technology 277 Conclusions All the experiences and field surveys made with ALD during the last 20 years have proven its reliability and its adaptability to different conditions (hostile environment, pressure value, leak dimension, leak position, etc.) In 1998–2015, Co.L.Mar had 76 project all over the world, including such major players in the oil and gas offshore industry as ExxonMobil, Saipem, McDermott, Total, ENI, Petronas, Shell, Horizon Offshore, Fugro Survey, BP, BJ Services, Technip, etc In total we have detected 43 subsea oil and gas leaks with a minimum rate of 0.2 L/min at different depths from the sea surface to 1,300 m depth The fields of application for this technology include, one of this is the pipeline maintenance and rehabilitation The increasing age of the existing pipelines has led to a need for tools to evaluate pipeline integrity Leak inspection becomes then one of the main aspects to be considered, and the ALD and ALM acoustic approach offers a proven, valuable and low-cost solution that does not require a stop in oil and gas production since it does not interfere with the normal utilisation of the pipeline Conclusions Igor S Zonn Abstract This book describes concisely the architecture of the oil and gas pipelines in the Caspian–Black Sea Region The marine geographical (oceanographic) approach assumes that the Caspian–Black Sea Region includes countries, more precisely, the subjects of these countries located on the coasts of the Caspian and Black seas The economic integration based on the oil and gas pipelines takes together different parts of this region and turns it into something whole Nearly 25 years have passed from the time when three former republics of the Soviet Union – Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Azerbaijan, being the Caspian littoral states – changed radically and now determine the geopolitical situation in this region After discovery of rich hydrocarbon resources in this region, it is here that the so-called oil and gas pipeline geopolitics was shaped that involved, in fact, the whole European Union This policy is targeted to loosen the export dependence from Russia and to diversify the pipeline routes If in the times of the Soviet Union, there were two oil transit routes, Baku– Novorossiysk and Baku–Batumi, then today we have rather large-scale export line projects, both existing and planned, that bypass Russia, although the planned projects are subject to long and serious trials in the face of the changing political situation in the transit countries This book is intended for politicians, specialists in oil and gas business, and decision-makers Keywords Gas, Oil, Pipelines, The Caspian Sea and Black Sea I.S Zonn (*) Engineering Research Production Center for Water Management, Land Reclamation and Ecology “Soyuzvodproject”, 43/1, Baumanskaja str., 105005 Moscow, Russia S.Yu Witte Moscow University, 12, Build 1, Second Kozhukhovsky Proezd, 115432 Moscow, Russia e-mail: igorzonn@yandex.ru S.S Zhiltsov et al (eds.), Oil and Gas Pipelines in the Black-Caspian Seas Region, Hdb Env Chem (2016) 51: 279–284, DOI 10.1007/698_2015_414, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015, Published online: 11 August 2015 279 280 I.S Zonn Contents References 284 Many oil and gas pipeline projects appeared in the 1990s to early 2000s in the Caspian–Black Sea Region, but only in the recent years, their discussion, their preparation of feasibility reports, and moreover their implementation happened to be in the focus of attention Formation of new Caspian states and greater attention to the Caspian Region from outside countries supported by significant financial flows restrained the influence of Russia on the geopolitical situation in this world region And this situation was provoked, largely, by objective factors associated with complication of international relations in this region The experience of two decades of the Caspian–Black Sea Region development shows that the path from signing agreements to practical implementation takes much time Accomplishment even of an insignificant part of the discussed pipeline projects has changed radically the alignment of forces in the region Apart from the Russian direction of hydrocarbon transit that dominated in the USSR times, the eastern and western directions of oil and gas supply to the foreign markets in bypass of Russia are actively developing The “friendship” of the Caspian states with Russia gives way to energy cooperation with the West and China The key issue affecting promotion of pipeline projects is still the availability of free hydrocarbon resources So far many planned pipeline projects are not supported by real oil and gas resources produced in the Caspian countries which are required to fill the lines Regardless of this fact the Western countries force the Caspian states to take up pipeline projects in which the political interests are dominating, while the economic aspect is questionable The lack in the Caspian countries of sufficient hydrocarbon resources, although the forecasted reserves are great, provoked struggle for available hydrocarbon sources and enhanced rivalry around new pipeline projects It’s worth reminding here that the Statistical Review of World Energy evaluated the oil resources in the Caspian basin at 36.2 billion tons or 21% of the world reserves and natural gas resources at 84.9 tcm or 46% of world reserves The most dramatic example in this context is the gas pipeline projects “South Stream” and “Nabucco” that caused great information and political rivalry Implementation of new pipeline projects channeling the Caspian hydrocarbons to different “pipes” urges the Caspian states to seek new and new resources neglecting here the environmental safety issues Thus, Kazakhstan gradually departs from its tough position on rejection of trans-Caspian lines In case of construction of such lines from Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan to Azerbaijan across the Caspian, which cannot be excluded in perspective, the Caspian environment and its biodiversity will be endangered Conclusions 281 The potential economic benefits and the endeavors to become a part of new energy projects force the Caspian countries to speculate for rise declaring their readiness to ensure filling of any future pipeline routes Trading with future hydrocarbon volumes from Caspian oil and gas fields reminds us the “game” played in the mid-1990s by the Caspian countries and USA in respect of the available oil and gas reserves Today we can witness de´ja vu in respect of pipelines The countries of the Caspian Region hurry up to offer new hydrocarbon sources in the markets of Europe, China, and India long before these oil and gas are really extracted China is one of the new and rather promising directions of hydrocarbon supply Already now it controls a third of the Kazakh energy by oil transit via pipeline Kazakhstan–China with a capacity of 20 million tons per year After commissioning of the Turkmenistan–Kazakhstan–China gas line, Russia lost its position of the gas monopolist in the Central Asian market The situation around Iran deserves special attention, and this country was pushed away intentionally from discussion and implementation of new pipeline projects Iran taking the key geographical position and possessing 16% of the world gas reserves accounts for only 5% of its world production and controls only 1% of the global gas market, but still it is the most beneficial route for transit of Caspian hydrocarbons from Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan Iran is capable not only to export its own natural gas to EU, but to organize its transit from Central Asian countries In 2010 the line 182 km long from Turkmenistan to Iran was put into operation But the “ban” imposed on these countries to cooperate with Tehran urges them to seek other, more expensive, and less effective routes for transit of their energy resources to foreign markets Iran isolation is the principal issue for the USA First, the US administration acquired the possibility to directly and purposefully influence the selection of new pipeline routes for the Caspian countries Second, in the recent two decades, the position of Turkey has been consolidated a lot, and Turkey is the key player practically in all pipeline projects oriented to the west In this context USA will be interested to keep further the established situation, thus, taking one of the leading positions in this region Meanwhile, one cannot exclude the growing role of Iran that can in the future become one of the key rivals for new Caspian states and Russia in the Caspian Region Iran continues its attempts to broaden the hydrocarbon supply to the foreign market In late July 2011, Iran, Iraq, and Syria signed the Memorandum on Construction of Gas Line from Iran’s largest gas field South Pars toward Europe This line called “Islamic Mainline” with a capacity over 40 bcm of natural gas per year costing $10 billion is planned to be commissioned in 2014– 2016 This pipeline 5,000 km long will supply Iranian gas to European countries across the Mediterranean In this case the focus will be shifted to construction of new export routes The role of Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan that are viewed today by the European countries as the main energy sources for new pipelines could degrade According to most optimistic estimates, many planned pipelines could be commissioned not earlier than in 2018, and this is possible only if the required 282 I.S Zonn volumes of oil and natural are found, while these new pipelines could reach their design capacity only in 2020–2025 The great interest of the USA to this region is expected to be maintained as this country goes on to consider the Caspian oil and gas fields as the global reserve This explains the endeavor of Washington to establish control over the Caspian hydrocarbon fields The growing number of countries involved in negotiating new projects on the construction of pipelines from the Caspian Region proves that the geographical remoteness ceases to be a constraint The boom around new gas pipeline projects led to rivalry not only among the Caspian countries, but the Black Sea states that are dragged into competing among each other for likely engagement in the development and later on operation of new hydrocarbon export routes The conviction of the need to implement new pipeline projects is based on perspective assessments of the oil and gas reserves in the Caspian Region and also on the non-confirmed information that in the nearest years the energy consumption in the European countries will grow The rivalry among Black Sea countries in energy export is growing from year to year and may be attributed not only to the growing hydrocarbon production in the Caspian Region, but the struggle of the leading geopolitical players (Russia, EU, USA) for control of transit routes to foreign markets The truthfulness of the forecasts of thriving oil and gas production which was demonstrated more than once on the graphs and diagrams presented by the Caspian states will become clear very soon – already in or years If these forecasts come true, the transit potential of the Black Sea countries will grow as well as their chance to consolidate their economies and political institutions and to address, at least partially, their social problems But if the forecasts on the growing oil and gas production in Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, and Kazakhstan turn out a bluff as it already happened with the Caspian Region reserves in the mid-1990s, the situation will be quite different In this case the struggle for the right to control oil and gas flows for the existing and new pipelines will gather force turning the Caspian–Black Sea Region into the area the rivalry Joining of Crimea to Russia in 2014 led to revision and delimitation of the Black Sea borders between Ukraine and Russia and, accordingly, the limits of potential hydrocarbon fields found within such borders The final choice of future oil and gas transit routes is connected by petroleum companies with such factors as project financing and rivalry among oil processing countries But the key factors determining the development of new pipeline routes are reliability and security of energy transit Construction of new transnational pipelines will depend on geopolitical interests of Western states It is difficult not to agree with the opinion of Director of Platts Global Petroleum Markets Dave Ernsberger saying that “Geopolitics never stopped influencing the petroleum market and was always its part New outbursts of violence in North Africa and turmoils in the Near East beginning from January (2011 – author’s note) reminded everybody once more of how great is the influence of geopolitics on the petroleum market.” [1] We would like also to add that geopolitics influences to the same Conclusions 283 extent on implementation of the pipeline projects the interest to which depends on the situation in the world petroleum markets Many pipeline projects offered during the past two decades of independence of the Caspian countries “grew old,” i.e., they were not further developed, but did not come into oblivion From time to time they “float up” again whenever any changes in the domestic and foreign policy of the Caspian countries and in the situation in the transit countries occur In the early 1990s Daniel Yergin, the well-known energy expert, in its world famous book “The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money & Power” [2] about the oil production history wrote, “In the way of the Western companies, i.e the industrially developed countries, there are such hindrances as disorganization, political conflicts, lack of flexibility, disorder, uncertainty and risk inherent to the whole Soviet system.” Nearly two decades passed since the disappearance of the Soviet system, but the problems described by the expert still remain relevant today The future pipeline projects mentioned in this book are so far only on paper, and their implementation depends, largely, on the political situation in the transit countries and, what is most important, on the availability of the Caspian oil and natural gas As of to date, the Caspian hydrocarbons are considered as the strategic reserves for the future It is quite possible that after depletion of oil and gas fields in other regions, the interest to the new pipeline projects in the Caspian Region can be stirred anew, thus enhancing still more the role of the Black Sea Region as the transit export route to foreign markets It is not accidental that the USA endeavors to put the Caspian oil in dead storage In the foreseeable future this may lead to revision by the Caspian countries of their attitude to cooperation with the US administration as their strategic interests are quite opposite The target of the US administration is to prevent too quick progress in development and oil and gas fields and to regulate the volumes of the present hydrocarbon production This is also connected with the fact that accomplishment of the plans of Baku, Astana, and Ashgabat on oil production growth will result in changes of prices which could damage considerably the US petroleum companies But the Caspian and Black Sea countries are focused on the quickest development of oil and gas fields to obtain the maximum production, as they see this to be the source of considerable revenues and benefits from energy transit to the foreign markets The authors of the book “The Color of Oil” wrote, “Of course, the role of Russia will be improved significantly and will continue growing while the world economy changes over to the natural gas For many generations Russia will maintain its command in the oil and gas industry, but it will move the thorny path.” [3] As concerns the Caspian Region, we can speak about maintaining by Russia of considerable influence with the loss of its leading positions As it was noted still in 1998, “In any way the Caspian today is not the place where the Russian man can walk as a host.” [4] The endeavor of the Western countries to impose the new “Great Game” upon the Caspian Region based on oil and gas resource development is nothing else than an attempt to reconstruct the historical events that happened long ago Rivalry for 284 I.S Zonn resources may have the zero result as it was already witnessed in the nineteenth century when the struggle for influence had no winners References RBC-Daily (2011) July (in Russian) Yergin D (1991) The prize: the epic quest for oil, money & power Simon & Schuster, New York Economides M, Oligney R (2000) The color of oil: the history, the money and the politics of the world’s biggest business Oak Publishing Company, Katy Kharitonov A (1998) For edification to the ancient peoples Expert No 18 (in Russian) Index A Acoustic leak detector (ALD), 261, 264 Agrakhano-Embian large deep fault, 214 Aktobe (Aktyubinsk), 107, 147 Amu Darya, 112, 130, 133 Apsheron Peninsula, 38 Astara–Kazimagomed gas pipeline, 176 Astrakhan (Aksaray), 42, 46, 87, 216 Atasu (Karaganda)–Alashankou (China), 109, 142, 147 Atyrau–Samara, 87, 108 Azerbaijan, 77, 89, 165, 169, 205, 214, 279 Azeri, 44, 81, 89, 136, 154, 158, 169, 176, 183, 194, 217, 273 Azeri–Chirag–Guneshli field, 10, 169, 176, 183 B Bagtyyarlyk, 112 Baku, 2, 43, 217, 283 Baku–Novorossiysk, 9, 89, 175, 177, 194 Baku–Supsa (Western Route Export Pipeline / Western Early Oil Pipeline), 10, 81, 169, 178 Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan (BTC), 9, 81, 146, 169, 179 Baku–Tbilisi–Erzurum (BTE) / South Caucasus Pipeline (SCP), 10, 23, 180, 194 Beineu–Shymkent, 143 Beregovaya, 83 BGR-TBA, 143 Black City, 173 Black Sea, 7, 75 gas flows, 82 hydrogen sulfide, 32 oil transit, 81 region, 1, 67 Romania, 56 shelf, 51 Bulgaria, 63, 71 Georgia, 63, 72 Romania, 70 Russia, 60, 71 Turkey, 71 Blue Stream, 82, 156, 164, 206, 273 Bolashak, 216 Bora winds, 29 Borjomi National Park (Georgia), 180 BP, 169 Bukhara-Ural, 143 Bulgaria, 3, 10, 27, 52, 67, 82, 100, 156, 164, 261, 273 gas transmission system, 197 Burgas (Bulgaria)–Alexandroupolis (Greece) oil pipeline, 156 Buzachi, 175 C Caspian gas pipeline, 149 Caspian Pipeline Consortium (CPC), 9, 86, 106, 146, 157 Caspian Sea, 7, 11, 75 Azerbaijan, 43 ice cover, 15 Iran, 48 region, 1, 95 Russian sector, 41 sea level, 14 S.S Zhiltsov et al (eds.), Oil and Gas Pipelines in the Black-Caspian Seas Region, Hdb Env Chem (2016) 51: 285–288, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-43908-2, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 285 286 Caspian Sea (cont.) seismicity/earthquakes, 22 storm surges, 21, 32 Turkmenistan, 46 wind/waves, 18, 32 Caucasus, 7, 24, 178, 207 Caviar, 41 Central Asia-Center (CAC) gas pipeline system, 10, 91, 143 Ceyhan–Samsun trans-Turkish oil pipeline, 154 China, gas pipelines, 110 pipeline projects, 105 Chirag, 44, 169, 176, 194 Chiren, 198–203 Chlorophyll, 225 Co.L.Mar, 261 Constanta (Romania)–Pancevo (Serbia)–Omis (Croatia) oil pipeline, 158 Constanta (Romania)–Trieste (Italy) oil pipeline, 157 Contract of the Century, 169 Cooperation, multilateral, 163 Crimea, 30, 53, 61, 70, 164–166, 282 CROS (Caspian Sea Republic’s Oil SWAP), 120 Cumulative impact assessment, 188 Currents, 18, 32, 33, 189, 230, 262, 270, 276 D Dagestan, 42, 90 Depletion, 67 Dioxane, 221 Dobrich–Silistra, 204 Dovletabad, 47, 112, 127 Dovletabad–Serahs–Khangeran, 135 Druzhba, 159 Dzhubga-Lazarevskoye-Sochi, offshore gas pipeline, 10, 225 E Earthquakes, 7, 22, 32, 214, 226 Ecology, 186 Energy Silk Road, 111 Environmental impacts, 185 Environmental investment plan, 188 Environmental risks, 211, 213 Erzerum Plain (Turkey), 180 ESIA (environment and social impact assessment), 186 Index EU, policy, 85 Europe–Caucasus–Asia direction (TRACECA), 165 Explosions, 33, 93, 132, 135, 211, 216, 218, 220 F Fires, 172, 211, 216 G Gas, 37, 51 pipelines, 7, 10, 225 General Shikhlinsky, explosion, 220 Geography, Geopolitics, 163 Gobustan National Cultural Park (Azerbaijan), 180 Greece, 83, 156, 165, 197 Guriev (Atyrau), 44 H Hydrocarbons, potential, 67 resources, 1, 37, 75, 85, 95, 105, 153 Hydrogen sulfide, 32, 216 I Ice, 31 compression, 213 cover, 7, 15, 31, 234, 276 Interconnectors, 197 Bulgaria–Romania (IBR), 203 Bulgaria–Serbia (IBS), 205 Greece–Bulgaria (IGB), 204 Turkey–Bulgaria (ITB), 205 Iran, 4, 48, 78, 167, 176, 187, 281 hydrocarbon transportation, 117 Islam Sapary, oil spill, 220 K Kalmykia, 42 Kamchia subbasin, 68 Kara-Bogaz-Gol Bay, 13 Karkinitsky basin, 68 Kashagan, 9, 101, 216 Kazakhstan, 9, 44, 76, 86, 117, 139 Kazakhstan Caspian Transport System (KCTS), 9, 101, 144 Index Kazakhstan–China gas pipeline, 113, 143 Kazakhstan–China oil pipeline (KCP), 10, 107, 147 Kazakhstan-Turkmenistan-Iran pipeline, 150 Kenkiyak–Atyrau, 88 Kenkiyak–Kumkol–Atasu, 109, 147 Kerch Strait, 68 Kharg Island, 118–120 Korchagin, 216 Ktsia–Tabatskuri Managed Reserve (Georgia), 180 L Landslides, 33 Leaks, detectors, acoustic, 261, 263 subsea, 261 Liquefied natural gas (LNG), 102 M Macedonia, 200 Makhachkala–Novorossiysk, 89 Megaripples, 32 Mercaptan, 216, 221 Mitigation, 188 Moesian platform, 68 Mozdok–Kazimagomed gas pipeline, 176 N Nabucco, 83, 93, 98, 134, 156, 206, 280 Neftegazlayihe (Scientific Research and Design Institute), 169 Neftegaztikinti, 169 Neftyanye Kamni, 214 Neka, 10 Neka–Tehran, 120, 150 Novorossiysk, 9, 87, 93, 146, 158, 176 O Odessa, 29, 55 shelf, 69 Odessa–Brody oil line, 159 Odessa–Brody–Plock (Poland), 159 Offshore, gas pipelines, 225 Oil, 37, 51 pipelines, pollution, 188 spills, 172, 188, 216, 217, 220, 258, 270 Oil Rocks (Neft Dashlari, Azerbaijan), 169, 174 287 Oman, 87 Orenburg-Novopskov, 143 P Pakistan, 79, 127, 130 Partnership, 163 Pipelines, architecture, 75 Caspian, 76 communications, 163 gas, offshore, 225 potential, 153 projects, Plains, Pontic Mountains, Posof (Turkey), 180 Pre-Caspian Gas Pipeline, 92 Prikerchensky shelf, 69 R Rivers, 7, 33, 108, 180, 214 mouths, 230 plume, 225 runoff, 225 Romania, 3, 56, 67, 98, 100, 157, 201, 208 shelf, 70 Russia, 2, 7, 27, 38, 198, 217, 231, 273, 279 pipelines, 77 policies, 85 shelf area, 231 S Sand waves, 32 Sangachal, Sardar-e Jangal, 49 Satellite monitoring, 225 Seabed mobility, 32 Seabed relief, instability, 214 Sea level, 7, 32, 185, 211, 232 Sea of Azov, 7, 24, 27, 30, 69, 166 Sea surface temperature, 225 Sediment slides, 32 Seismicity, 214 Shah-Deniz field, 10, 81, 90, 100, 180, 207 Shah-Deniz shelf, 44 Shale, 102 Single point buoy mooring (SPBM), 87 SOCAR, 89, 145, 169, 170, 192 South Caucasus pipeline (SCP), 10, 169, 181, 207 288 South-European Gas Corridor (South Stream), 82, 182, 207 Soyuz, 143 Stamukhi, 15, 18 Storm surges, Sturgeon fish, 41 Supsa, 10, 156, 158, 178 SWAP operation, 117, 121 T Tarim Basin, 108 Tauri Mountains, Tengiz–Novorossiysk oil pipeline, 77, 86, 88, 120, 142, 157 Tengiz oil field, 9, 45, 118, 121, 142, 215, 217, 220 Tengiz–Uzen–Belek (Kazakhstan)–Tehran– Qom–Isfahan–Kharg (Iran), 119 Tersky-Kumsky (Nogaisky), 43 Torchesh, 70 Total suspended matter, 225 Trans-Adriatic Pipeline (TAP), 100, 182, 204, 207 Trans-Alpine Line (TAL), 158 Trans-Anatolian Gas Pipeline (TANAP), 100, 167, 169, 181, 204, 207 Trans-Anatolian gas pipeline (TANAP), 100 Trans-Caspian gas pipeline (TCP), 101, 183 Trans-Caspian pipeline Aktau-Baku, 149 Transneft, 87, 89, 146, 150, 155, 177 Transport corridor Europe–Caucasus–Asia (TRASECA), 158 Trans-Turkish Transit, 154 Tuapse River, 10, 60, 71, 243, 248, 257 shelf, 60 Turkey, 7, 22, 61, 67, 197, 209, 281 Turkmenistan, 76, 90, 117, 125 Turkmenistan–Afghanistan–Pakistan–India (TAPI) / Trans-Afghan gas pipeline, 130 Turkmenistan–Afghanistan–Pakistan oil pipeline, 136 Index Turkmenistan–China–Japan super gas pipeline, 93, 129 Turkmenistan–Iran gas pipeline, 126 Turkmenistan–Iran–Turkey–Europe, 122 Turkmenistan–Uzbekistan–China and Korean Peninsula, 111, 130 Turkmenistan–Uzbekistan– Kazakhstan–China, 112 Turkmenistan–Western China–Japan, 111 U Ukraine, 3, 27, 52, 61, 164, 167, 199, 206, 282 Ukrainian shelf, 52, 69 Uzen, 45, 107, 118 Uzen-Atyrau, 88, 141 Uzen-Atyrau-Samara, V Volga River, 13, 16, 20, 21, 214 W Waves, Western Kazakhstan–Western China, 110 Wildfires, 33 Winds, 7, 30, 213, 214 X Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (XUAR), 108 Y Yashlar, 127 Yugoslavian oil line, 158 Z Zhanazhol oil field, 10, 109 Zmeiny Island, 53, 57–59, 68 ... Characteristics of the Black- Caspian Seas Region Fig Oil and gas pipelines and oil fields in the Caspian and Black Seas Region, Turkey, and the Middle East (http://ic.pics.livejournal.com/sobiainnen/6146988/453138/453138_original.jpg)... Figure shows existing and planned oil and gas pipelines in the Caspian and Black Seas Region, Turkey, and the Middle East Crude oil goes to European markets via the following main pipelines: “Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan”... characteristics in the Black- Caspian Seas Region which impede construction of land and offshore oil and gas pipelines Keywords Earthquakes, Geography, Ice cover, Oil and gas pipelines, Plains, Rivers,