Seaweed in health and disease prevention

Seaweed in Health and Disease Prevention Edited by Joël Fleurence Ira Levine AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier 125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, UK 525 B Street, Suite 1800, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, USA 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, UK Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein) Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary Practitioners and researchers may always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN: 978-0-12-802772-1 For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/ Publisher: Nikki Levy Acquisition Editor: Megan Ball Editorial Project Manager: Billie Jean Fernandez Production Project Manager: Jason Mitchell Designer: Mark Rogers Typeset by TNQ Books and Journals www.tnq.co.in Dedication To my sons Julien and Simon for the joy and the happiness that they bring to my life —Joël Fleurence To Dr Patricia Bonamo for her faith in playing a hunch To MILKS for their loving support and to my wife and best friend Laurie —Ira Levine List of Contributors E Ar Gall University of Brest, Brest, France J.-M Bard University of Nantes, Nantes, France P Baweja University of Delhi, Delhi, India N Bourgougnon UBS, IUEM, Vannes, France D Cheney Northeastern University, Nahant, MA, United States L Coiffard University of Nantes, Nantes, France C Couteau University of Nantes, Nantes, France A Couzinet-Mossion University of Nantes, Nantes, France C Dawes University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States A Delaney Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark P Déléris University of Nantes, Nantes, France E Deslandes IUEM-UBO, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, Plouzané, France J Dumay University of Nantes, Nantes, France J Fleurence University of Nantes, Nantes, France K Frangoudes Université de Brest, UMR AMURE, Brest, France S.-A Ii Miyazaki Municipal University, Miyazaki, Japan M Kendel Bureau d’Etudes et Conseil, Vannes, France S Kraan Ocean Harvest Technology, Milltown, Ireland xv xvi List of Contributors S Kumar University of Delhi, Delhi, India I Levine University of Southern Maine, Lewiston, ME, United States M Moranỗais University of Nantes, Nantes, France H Nazih University of Nantes, Nantes, France D Sahoo University of Delhi, Delhi, India V Stiger-Pouvreau IUEM-UBO, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, Plouzané, France C Vonthron-Sénécheau University of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France G Wielgosz-Collin University of Nantes, Nantes, France About the Editors Dr Ira A Levine, PhD, is a tenured professor of natural and applied sciences at the University of Southern Maine, Chairperson of the USM Lewiston Auburn College Faculty, and Director of the USM, LAC Aquatic Research Lab (algal genetic engineering, physiological ecology, and new product development) In addition, Dr Levine is the President and Board Chair of the Algae Foundation and President and Board Chair of Professors Beyond Borders Dr Levine was awarded a 2009–10 US State Department, Fulbright New Century Scholar and in 2007–08 was a visiting professor of biology at Duke University Dr Levine combines 30 years of applied and basic research in molecular, physiological ecology, and cultivation of algae, aquatic farming management, and aquaculture engineering Dr Levine’s farming experience includes open-ocean and pond cultivation in Canada, China, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines, and the United States (Hawaii, Florida, and Maine) Current efforts include algal cultivar enhancement for aquaculture and agriculture feed supplementation, human nutraceuticals and cosmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and plant-based biofuels Dr Joel Fleurence, PhD, is a professor of marine biology and biochemistry at Nantes University He is one of two directors of the Research Laboratory “Sea, Molecules, Health.” He has been a member of the University National Council since 2007 and was elected vice-president of the section “Biology of Organisms” in 2011 He is a senior scientist and an international expert on seaweed valorization (100 international publications including patents) In 1985, he began his research career in the pharmaceutical industry in the French company RousselUclaf In 1990, he was recruited by the Institute of Valorisation of Seaweeds (CEVA, Brittany, France) to lead research into the chemical composition and nutritional properties of macroalgae Professor Fleurence has participated in the establishment of the French regulation on marine algae used as sea vegetables In 1994, he was appointed head of the laboratory “Proteins and Quality” at Ifremer (Research French Organism for the Sea Exploitation) and developed research on the nutritional properties of seaweed protein for use in human or animal food Since 2002, he has been working as a professor at the University of Nantes and leads research on the development of seaweed uses as protein or pigment sources for industry xvii Acknowledgment The editors thank Mr O Barbaroux for the photographs of seaweed factories and markets xix CHAPTER Algae: A Way of Life and Health I Levine University of Southern Maine, Lewiston, ME, United States “Vilor alga” (translated as “more vile or worthless than algae”), wrote Virgil, the Latin Poet, in 30 BC Civilization was aware of the role of algae in the human condition long before Virgil The use of macroalgae dates back to Shen Nung, the father of husbandry and medicine, approximately 3000 BC (Doty, 1979) Seaweeds were reported to be utilized in Iceland in 960 BC, the Chinese Book of Poetry (800–600 BC) praised housewives for cooking with algae, and the Chinese Materia Medica (600 BC) refers to algae as follows: “Some algae are a delicacy fit for the most honorable guest, even for the King himself” (Porterfield, 1922; Wood, 1974) Macroalgae (seaweeds) are a diverse group of predominantly marine, multicellular, photosynthetic, chlorophyll “a”-containing, eukaryotic organisms, lacking true roots, stems, and leaves with simple reproductive structures and found from the intertidal zone to 300-m deep The macroalgae or seaweeds are evolutionarily diverse and are found in two kingdoms, Plantae and Chromista, and four phyla, Charophyta (Chara), Chlorophyta (green), Rhodophyta (red), and Ochrophyta (brown) The approximately 10,000 described marine macroalgal species are segregated by photosynthetic pigment content, carbohydrate food reserve, cell wall components, and flagella construction and orientation This eclectic group has evolved over the last 600–900 million years occupying a variety of ecological niches, ie, attached to hard substrata, unconsolidated sand and mud, other algae, seagrasses, free floating, and, on rare occasions, parasitic There are many additional groups of algae, known collectively as microalgae, including but not limited to the blue green bacteria (eg, Spirulina sp.), diatoms, and dinoflagellates, which can form biofilms, colonial formations, and turfs Occasionally these formations are considered “macroalgae,” but for the purpose of this text they lie outside of the scope of this book Early examples of utilization of seaweeds for medicinal purposes include the Chinese use of Sargassum for goiter (16th century, Chinese herbal, “Pen Tsae Kan Mu”), Gelidium for intestinal afflictions, and Laminaria for the dilation of the cervix in difficult child births (Dawson, 1966) The Japanese’s lack of goiter (one case/million people) is contributed to their large consumption of seaweed and their iodine concentration Oriental seaweed iodine concentrations range from 18 to 1600 mg/kg dry weight (Chapman and Chapman, 1980) Agar, a phycocolloidal extract from commercial red algae, eg, Gracilaria, has been used since the 17th century as a Seaweed in Health and Disease Prevention http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802772-1.00001-4 Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc All rights reserved CHAPTER 1  Algae: A Way of Life and Health laxative and is perhaps the world’s first diet fad In addition, during times of war, agar was utilized as a wound dressing because of its antiblood-clotting activity allowing wounds to be appropriately disinfected Subsequently, agar was identified as the ideal substrate for culturing bacteria, assisting with the foundational research into the microbial world Brown algal phycocolloidal extracts, alginate and algin, have been used in the binding of pills and ointments, cholesterol reduction, as a hemostatic agent (control of bleeding), and have replaced agar as the primary dental mold gel The ancient Greeks utilized red algae as a vermifuge, thought to be the same alga rediscovered on Corsica in 1775, known as Corsican moss Finally, a common alga from both North America and Europe, Chondrus crispus, a red alga, has been used as a remedy for urinary tract infections, diarrhea, breast infections, and tuberculosis (Dawson, 1966) Additional traditional algal uses as medicines include: dulse (Palmaria palmata) extract used to assist in breaking of fevers (18th-century England), bull kelp steam extract used to fight headaches (Alaska, USA), Durvillaea as a cure for scabies (New Zealand), and antifungal and antibiotic compounds from the brown, green and red algae (Chapman and Chapman, 1980) The inclusion of large amounts of seaweeds in a balanced diet has been connected to decreased rates of many of the “Western lifestyle” diseases (eg, cancer, cardiovascular diseases) Reduced rates of breast cancer in postmenopausal Japanese women are thought to be connected to the ingestion of seaweeds in general and the kelps Kombu and Wakame in particular Potential mechanisms include: increased fiber influence on fecal bulk and bowel transit time, alteration of posthepatic metabolism of sterols, antibiotic and enzymatic influence on enteric bacterial populations, and increased immune response (Teas, 1983, as reported in Erhart, 2015a) Additional research efforts include (1) a 95% reduction in cancer rates when fed a hot waterextracted kelp powder and (2) apoptosis of stomach, colon, and leukemia cancer cells by F- and U-fucoidan-sulfated polysaccharides from kelps (Yamamoto et al., 1986 and Anonymous, 1990–1996, as reported in MCSV Cancer Prevention and Treatment bulletin) Miller (2008 as reported in Erhart, 2015b) reported an increase in fibrocystic breast disease in American women rose from 3% to 90% in the 1920s and 2000s, respectively In addition, he infers that 15% of American women experience iodine deficiencies and the same percentage of American women develop breast cancer; however, Japanese women experience the lowest cancer rates by including 200 times as much iodine per day as their American counterparts (45,000 μg/day and 240 μg/day, respectively) Dr Miller hypothesizes that both fibrocystic disease and breast cancer are iodine deficiency disorders Kelps provide some of the highest amounts of bioavailable iodine, up to 18,000 times as much as fresh vegetables As a young man coming from New York City, seaweeds were considered to be just a smelly mess found on the beach but after 10 years of studying algae in Hawaii, the author has embraced his Hawaiian roots and uses the term “limu,” which according to Pukui and Elbert (1977) as reported by Abbott (1984) is: “a general name for all kinds of plants living under water, both fresh and salt, also algae growing in any damp place in the air, as on the ground, rocks, and on other plants; also mosses, liverworts and lichens…” However, for most Hawaiians, limu means edible seaweeds   Algae: A Way of Life and Health (Abbott, 1984) Along with fish and poi, limu constituted the troika of the Hawaiian balanced diet, providing vitamins A, B, C, minerals (iodine), and protein Historical Hawaiian limu usage included the treatment of coral cuts, representing a nearly instant infection, which were historically treated with Sargassum, similar to the traditional use of mosses as a poultice In addition, seaweeds were used in religious ceremonies (burial cleansing rituals), cultural celebrations (weddings and hula dancing), and family celebrations “Is Seaweed the New Lobster?” was a headline from the March 2015 edition of Down East: The Magazine of Maine; quite a transformation from the “the stuff washed up on the beach, which tends to be rotting and full of flies” (Sneddon, 2015) Maine, a maritime-based state in the northeastern corner of the United States, has a long history of seaweed utilization dating back to its colonial period and beyond, when marine macroalgae were referred to as “sea manure” (Sneddon, 2015) As algae in general and seaweeds in particular have played an ever-increasing role in the human diet, health, and well-being, its utilization and product development have rapidly expanded our appreciation for its diversity of uses As with lobsters, which were plentiful and served up as food for the state’s prisoner population, seaweeds have been experiencing a frameshift from the smelly stuff on the beach to a source of valued balanced nutrition Shep Erhart, the founder of Maine Coast Sea Vegetables, is a pioneer of seaweed utilization in the United States and has dedicated his life to the development and marketing of seaweed products throughout America and beyond In the 1970s he realized the potential for seaweeds as a complete source of colloidal, chelated minerals, trace elements, and vitamins to replace the loss of these nutrients from processed food products “Some people who are mineral deficient get around it and they go crazy…It can kind of buzz you out because it is so energizing” (Shep Erhart, quoted from Sneddon, 2015) “The Road from Science Geek to Being Cool, Algal Physiological Ecology: a Global Economic Development Engine” is the title of a seminar given by the author at Middlebury College, Middlebury, Vermont, USA, in March 2010 How does one become “cool” being a phycologist (someone who studies algae)? Kaitlynn Levine, a Middlebury College molecular biology major, coined the phrase after algae and algalbased biofuels became a research and development priority in the United States during the 21st century If studying algae, previous to renewed interests, was held in such disregard or benign neglect, then why would anyone dedicate his or her life to algae? Phycology has a long history of remarkable, dedicated scientists and lay practitioners who have advanced our algal-based knowledge through their tireless field and laboratory efforts Massive algal collections were assembled and herbarium libraries established at universities (eg, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts) and museums (eg, Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii) Meticulous anatomical, reproductive, and systematic treatises were published expanding our body of knowledge Biotechnological methodologies were incorporated into current molecular, genomic, ultrastructural, physiological ecology, and biochemical studies advancing our understanding of the biology, ecology, systematics, and commercial value of algae Algae represent a field   References studies (Cheney et al., 2007, 2014; Sly, 2012) have shown that dangerous organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) can be concentrated by a green tide-forming Ulva species and transferred up the food chain to higher trophic levels Several years ago a bloom of Ulva rigida was discovered growing in the PCB-contaminated Superfund site located in New Bedford Harbor, Massachusetts (Cheney et al., 2007, 2014) Samples of plants from different locations in the estuarine Superfund site ranged in PCB levels from a low of 2.2 ppm to a high of 99 ppm, which was approximately 100,000 times the PCB concentration of the water Laboratory and field experiments showed that U rigida (a frequent cause of temperate green tides) could take up PCBs very rapidly, and could concentrate dioxin-like and other toxic PCBs, including the mono-ortho congeners BZ118, 105, 167, 157, and 189, and the coplanar congeners BZ77 and 126 (Cheney et al., 2014) In addition, using studies of gut content analysis and stable isotope analysis of its principal grazers, Ulva was shown to be a source of PCBs to organisms that feed on it, including the grass shrimp Palaemonetes pugio and the mid-trophiclevel fish Fundulus heteroclitus Thus Ulva 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Toxicological properties of carrageenan Agents Actions 32, 46–51 Ye, N., Zhang, X., Mao, Y., Liang, C., Su, D., Zou, J., Zhang, Z., Wang, Q., 2011 “Green tides” are overwhelming the coastline of our blue planet: taking the world’s largest example Ecol Res 26, 477–485 Yeager, D., 2013 Carrageen under fire Today’s Dietit 15, 16–18 Yotsu-Yamashita, M., Haddock, R., Yasumoto, T., 1993 Polycavernoside A: a novel glycosidic macrolide from the red alga Polycavernosa tsudai (Gracilaria edulis) J Am Chem Soc 115, 1147–1148 Yotsu-Yamashita, M., Yasumoto, T., Yamada, S., Bajarias, F., Formeloza, M., Romero, M., Fukuyo, Y., 2004 Identification of polycavernoside A as the causative agent of the fatal food poisoning resulting from the ingestion of the red alga Gracilaria edulis in the Philippines Chem Res Toxicol 17, 1265–1271 Yotsu-Yamashita, M., Abe, K., Seki, T., Fujiwara, K., Yasumoto, T., 2007 Polycavernoside C and C2, the new analogs of the human lethal toxin polycavernoside A, from the red alga, Gracilaria edulis Tetrahedron Lett 48, 2255–2259 Zemke-White, W., Ohno, M., 1999 World seaweed utilization: an end-of-century summary J Appl Phycol 11, 369–376 421 CHAPTER 14 Seaweed Application in Cosmetics C Couteau, L Coiffard University of Nantes, Nantes, France INTRODUCTION The skin is the most extensive and the heaviest organ in the human body, with a surface area of around 2 m2 and a mass of 2 kg for an adult Its essential role is one of protection It is a sense organ because of its role in sensory perception It is at the interface between the inside and the outside and plays a large part in the image that we convey of ourselves, hence the importance of disciplines such as dermatology and cosmetology The cosmetics industry is a key industrial sector, which is worth more than €425 billion worldwide In this context, Europe is the largest market in the world with €72 billion, followed by the United States (€37.8 billion) and Japan (€29.3 billion) In this context the cosmetics industry, with its turnover of €25 billion, is ranked fourth in the French economy for its net trade balance It is the second largest exporting sector in the French economy after the aeronautics construction industry and in terms of trade surplus (€7.6 billion in 2010) It is thus a dynamic sector governed by relatively recent regulations that were implemented after the dramatic “Talc Morhange scandal” (Martin-Bouyer et al., 1982), which led to the founding principle of “Do not harm human health.” Care must always be taken therefore to ensure that the raw materials chosen for formulation are not toxic and to carry out thorough controls during successive phases in the production of industrial batches This industry is always searching for new ingredients, mainly for two reasons—the first being for obvious marketing criteria, and the second being to replace raw materials that have been banned or have become distrusted by the consumer The marine world therefore constitutes a potential source of interesting substances because of its richness and diversity (Pérez, 1997; Wang et al., 2015) Seaweeds are rich in bioactive compounds that could be exploited as functional ingredients for cosmetic applications This review discusses the cosmetic potential of different bioactive compounds found in seaweeds Marine cosmetics, also known as phycocosmetics (Coiffard and De Roeck-Holtzhauer, 1992), are an economic reality and specific ranges such as Algotherm, Phytomer, Daniel Jouvance, Science & Mer, or Thalgo focus on marine resources Moreover, especially in the west of France, structures have been developed that specialize in providing marine raw materials for industry It often involves liquid Seaweed in Health and Disease Prevention http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802772-1.00014-2 Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc All rights reserved 423 424 CHAPTER 14  Seaweed Application in Cosmetics extracts in a mixture of water and propylene or butylene glycol The main players in this sector are Aleor (Lézardieux—Côtes d’Armor, France), Ceva (Pleubian—Côtes d’Armor, France), Codif International (Ile-et-Vilaine—France), Secma (Pontrieux— Côtes d’Armor, France), and Gelyma (Bouches-du-Rhône—France) GENERAL ASPECTS OF COSMETIC FORMULATION A cosmetic product is defined under European regulations as “any substance or mixture intended to be placed in contact with the external parts of the human body (epidermis, hair system, nails, lips and external genital organs) or with the teeth and the mucous membranes of the oral cavity with a view exclusively or mainly to cleaning them, perfuming them, changing their appearance, protecting them, keeping them in good condition or correcting body odors” (Regulation (EC) 1223/2009) The Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act gives a fairly similar definition insofar as the functions mentioned are equivalent The same is true in Japan It can be noted therefore that unlike a medicine, it is not possible for a cosmetic product to claim that it has any therapeutic action However, cosmetics are very often needed in the latter stages of dermatological pathologies such as acne or atopic eczema These cosmetics are used to combat the acute drying out of the skin caused by treatment in the case of a patient with acne and to act as a relay of dermocorticoids in the case of a patient with atopic eczema In terms of dosage forms, cosmetics can correspond to extremely diverse forms, but a very general definition can be given that corresponds to all of them: cosmetic = ∑ or several Active ingredient(s) + or several Excipient(s) + or several Additive(s) + primary packaging ± secondary packaging Where the active ingredient is responsible for the cosmetic’s particular activity (moisturizing, slimming, antiaging, etc.), the excipient constitutes the vector of the active ingredient and the additive is an ingredient intended to improve the product’s preservation or its organoleptic qualities (Couteau and Coiffard, 2014) We shall see later that the marine world can provide us with molecules or extracts of interest for these three categories of components Seawater (International Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredients (INCI) name Aqua maris) itself is found in a certain number of phycocosmetics It remains an excipient, despite being frequently promoted in marketing because of the minerals that it contains, and may therefore correspond to the definition of an active ingredient In this respect, we are reminded of Quinton’s marine plasma (Mariotti, 1952) This is an isotonic dilution of seawater (pH 7.2) used since the beginning of the 20th century as a medicine for treating various pathologies, some of them dermatological ones, such as eczema or psoriasis The main example of the use of seawater by the cosmetics industry is that of the Dead Sea, a saltwater lake in the Middle East between Israel, Jordan, and Palestine Its salt content of 275 g/L is exceptionally   Macroalgae as a Source of Active Ingredients high (Katz et al., 2012) Bath salts as well as soaps and scrub products formulated with Dead Sea salts are available The main laboratory involved is Ahava Dead Sea Laboratories MACROALGAE AS A SOURCE OF ACTIVE INGREDIENTS Macroalgae can be classified by color into three main groups: brown (Phaeophyceae), red (Rhodophyceae), and green (Chlorophyceae) These can be of interest to the cosmetics industry for a variety of reasons, not only as a source of minerals, polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids, but also because of the secondary metabolites such as phenolic compounds, terpenoids, halogenated compounds, sulfur derivatives, and nitrogen derivatives that they can produce SEAWEED EXTRACTS AS ACTIVE INGREDIENTS FOR SLIMMING PRODUCTS Although they are seasonal, slimming products account for a turnover in France of more than €100 million Although the main active ingredient in this type of product is caffeine, a xanthic base involved in the metabolism of cAMP (Franchi et al., 2003), it should be noted that a large number of formulations use algae extracts, mainly Fucus or Laminaria These algae are particularly rich in iodine, which justifies their presence in these products Iodine is known to be involved in thyroid metabolism and that thyroid hormones promote lipolysis by increasing the penetration of fatty acids in the mitochondria because of the increased synthesis of carnitine palmitoyl transferase (Kohn et al., 1993; Pocock and Richards, 2004; Leblanc et al., 2006) Indeed, algae have the property of concentrating the iodine from seawater One such example is Laminaria japonica It contains 0.9% iodine as dry weight, while the seawater in which it is found only contains 6.10−8 g/L The iodine content can vary tremendously depending on the alga and where it was harvested (Table 14.1) Table 14.1  Iodine Content of Some Species of Brown Algae (Morita et al., 2010) Alga Iodine Content (mg/kg Dry Weight) Codium fragile Ulva pertusa Monostroma nitidum Gracilaria conferoides Sargassum kjellmanianum Dictyopteris divaricata 154 ± 9 12.9 ± 0.2 63.6 ± 2.5 353 ± 24 273 ± 6 28.8 ± 0.5 Laminaria japonica 3040 ± 32 425 426 CHAPTER 14  Seaweed Application in Cosmetics Algae, above all Fucus and Laminaria, are traditionally used in slimming products although their efficacy has never been proven This is no bad thing, as an action targeting the thyroid falls out of the field of cosmetics! However, in this respect, it should be remembered that iodine is prohibited from use in cosmetics (Regulation (EC) 1223/2009, Annex II, reference number 213) A Jania rubens extract is being proposed for formulating slimming cosmetics It promotes the elimination of fats and the synthesis of collagen for smoothing out cellulite This claim is not substantiated by the scientific literature On the other hand, a naturally occurring oxysterol, 16β-hydroxy-5α-cholestane-3,6-dione, was detected in this red alga 15 years ago Its proven cytotoxic properties with regard to KB cells (ID50 5 μg/mL) demand that caution be exercised (Ktari et al., 2000) Another example that can be cited is Cystoseira baccata The cosmetics industry chose to designate this brown alga by the INCI name Phyllacantha fibrosa Somatoline Cosmetic 50 Plus Slimming Treatment®, a product for women that has been on the market for over 50 years, contains a C baccata extract in combination with a J rubens extract and caffeine As is the case with Jania, there is no scientific evidence that justifies the presence of such extracts in a slimming product Since this alga is capable of absorbing mercury, cadmium, and lead dissolved in water (Herrero et al., 2005; Lodeiro et al., 2006), caution should be exercised in this case as well ALGAE EXTRACTS AS ACTIVE INGREDIENTS FOR MOISTURIZING AND ANTIAGING PRODUCTS Water and Skin The adult human body is made up of 60–65% water on average, of which 6–8 L is contained in the skin, mainly in the dermis where it is fixed by proteoglycans and glycoproteins The epidermis only contains around 120 mL of water (60% of its mass) and the stratum corneum contains less than 20 mL (10–13% of its mass) The water is fixed thanks to hygroscopic substances known by the generic name of NMF (natural moisturizing factor) NMF is made up of amino acids (40%), including serine (20–30%), pyrrolidone carboxylic acid (12%), lactic acid (12%), urea (8%), sugars, minerals, and a fraction that remains undetermined (Pashkovski et al., 2009) A transepidermal flux of water takes place, as the lower the relative humidity and the higher the temperature of the surrounding area, the more water is lost by the skin This nonapparent diffusion is called insensible water loss This is equivalent to about 5 g/m2/h It is an indicator of skin barrier integrity In atopical children, it can reach 13–18 g/m2/h, as in this case the skin is no longer working effectively as a barrier (Marty, 2002; Roguenas-Contios and Lorette, 2007) There are different types of dry skin Congenital ichthyosis (from ictus, which means “fish” in Greek) can be distinguished This is a genetic skin disorder, the most serious form of which is known as collodion baby (1 in 300,000 births) Collodion baby, also sometimes called harlequin-type ichthyosis, appears at birth in the form of severe hyperkeratosis of the whole of the skin, which is crusty, hard, brownish, and cracked, impeding movements and sucking This disease can put the child’s   Macroalgae as a Source of Active Ingredients life at risk because of associated respiratory, infectious, and nutritional problems (Akiyama, 1999; Bridoux et al., 1999) Although this type of situation is unsuitable for treatment with cosmetics, the same cannot be said for xerosis (from the Latin word stringere, meaning “tight”), a phenomenon causing thin, rough, squamous, and uncomfortable skin, described by the patient as feeling tight The Interest of Algae in the Field of Skin Moisturizing Faced with this demand, oil/water emulsions are formulated that avoid excessive water loss thanks to occlusive ingredients and fix the water in the skin thanks to moisturizing active ingredients Although the extracts of Laminaria are the choice ingredient in this case, a large number of algae can be used in this field It is now known that NMF, ceramides, and aquaporins are the key elements of skin moisturizing (Draelos, 2013) Seaweeds rich in amino acids, especially serine, such as Undaria pinnatifida, are therefore of particular interest here, as are those rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (Cardozo et al., 2007; Kim et al., 2013) Fatty acids enable the reconstruction of the intercellular cement and thus reinforce the skin barrier Among the fatty acids, linoleic acid should be mentioned; this is an omega polyunsaturated fatty acid that is proving to be particularly effective The increased transepidermal water loss (TEWL) may be returned to normal by the introduction of linoleic acid to the diet or by the cutaneous application of linoleic acid (Basnayake and Sinclair, 1956; Prottey et al., 1975) In general, the ability to restore TEWL to normal resides within the n-6 family of essential fatty acids and specifically in the 18 carbon atom fatty acids, linoleic acid and γ-linolenic acid (Hartop and Prottey, 1974; Ziboh and Chapkin, 1987; Campos et al., 2006; Cano et al., 2007) Blidingia minima is a species of the family of Ulvaceae, described by Johann Kylin in 1947 A patent filed in 2009 by Jean-Noël Thorel, founder of the BiodermaEsthederm group, proposes the use of an aqueous extract of this alga in order to “improve the state of the skin.” It apparently contains a polysaccharide with moisturizing properties Moreover, DNA extracted from algae can be used for skin moisturization, including extracts obtained from U pinnatifida, Durvillaea antarctica, and Ascophyllum nodosum It seems important to pay special attention to the harvesting locations and calendar, as seasonal variations of the compositions are now well known The concentrations in molecules of interest fluctuate, as does the content in unwanted elements such as heavy metals (Davis et al., 2003) Algae Extracts as Active Ingredients for Antiaging Products The antiaging products sector is in good shape The reason for this is the present age of the baby boomers, as evidenced by the wide range of products offered by cosmetics laboratories Reminders About Skin Aging Aging is an unavoidable, slow, and complex phenomenon with intrinsic (mainly genetic) as well as extrinsic or environmental causes, with chronic exposure to 427 428 CHAPTER 14  Seaweed Application in Cosmetics radiation playing a major role Solar exposure (natural or in a tanning booth), tobacco, and exposure to bad weather (wind, etc.) stand out among these causes We cannot speak about aging without talking about Dr Denham Harman and his free-radical theory of aging This justifies the use of antioxidant substances such as vitamin C, vitamin E, retinol, and coenzyme Q-10 The use of ascorbic acid is all the more justified as this active ingredient is capable of stimulating the synthesis of type I and type II procollagen by fibroblasts (Tajima and Pinnell, 1996; Thomas et al., 2013) These antioxidant properties allow it to protect the natural antioxidant systems present in the skin (superoxide dismutase, gluthatione peroxidase, etc.) (Jagetia et al., 2003) Wrinkles, which are a visible sign of aging, are deemed age indicators In 1985 they were classified by Kligman He distinguished three types of wrinkle: crinkles, nonpermanent wrinkles that disappear when the skin is stretched and are linked to the degradation of the elastic fibers of the dermis, which is a type of early-onset degradation as it starts as early as 30 years of age; glyphic wrinkles, wrinkles that are permanent and correspond to the accentuation of the cutaneous or dermatoglyphic microrelief; and facial linear wrinkles, which are permanent wrinkles corresponding to expression lines (Hatzisn, 2004) The Advantage of Algae in the Field of Antiaging Stimulating collagen synthesis is still one of the mechanisms most frequently employed to combat wrinkles SEPPIC, a supplier of ingredients for the cosmetics industry, is offering a lipophilic extract of an edible brown alga, Alaria esculenta (Kalpariane® AD) A significant reduction of cutaneous progerin has been demonstrated (Verdy et al., 2011) The mutated form of the gene implicated in over 90% of the known cases of progeria or Hutchinson–Gilford syndrome, which is characterized by accelerated aging, was identified in the early 2000s The gene involved is the LMNA gene, which is located on chromosome and codes for the lamin A and C proteins The mutated form of this gene produces a truncated protein, progerin, which remains anchored to the nuclear membrane in cells, where it accumulates and causes dysfunctions (De Sander-Giovannoli et al., 2003; Eriksson et al., 2003; Goldman et al., 2003) In addition, the A esculenta extract is apparently capable of significantly reducing the expression of the Pmel17 gene implicated in the transfer of melanin to melanosomes Hence applications in the area of age spot removal are conceivable (Verdy et al., 2012) The selling points of Kalpariane® AD are limited to claims that it increases the firmness and elasticity of the skin when used at a recommended dose of 1% in the formulated product A esculenta extract is one of the active ingredients of Algologie Firming Anti-Dark Spot Serum® The matricines have potential for stimulating collagen synthesis They are composed of short chains of amino acids (