Gender and the Economic Crisis in Europe Politics, Institutions and Intersectionality GENDER AND POLITICS Edited by Johanna Kantola Emanuela Lombardo Gender and Politics Series Editors Johanna Kantola Senior Lecturer in Gender Studies University of Helsinki Helsinki, Finland Sarah Childs Professor of Politics and Gender University of Bristol Bristol, United Kingdom The Gender and Politics series celebrates its 5th anniversary at the 4th European Conference on Politics and Gender (ECPG) in June 2015 in Uppsala, Sweden The original idea for the book series was envisioned by the series editors Johanna Kantola and Judith Squires at the first ECPG in Belfast in 2009, and the series was officially launched at the Conference in Budapest in 2011 In 2014, Sarah Childs became the co-editor of the series, together with Johanna Kantola Gender and Politics showcases the very best international writing It publishes world class monographs and edited collections from scholars - junior and well established - working in politics, international relations and public policy, with specific reference to questions of gender The 15 titles that have come out over the past five years make key contributions to debates on intersectionality and diversity, gender equality, social movements, Europeanization and institutionalism, governance and norms, policies, and political institutions Set in European, US and Latin American contexts, these books provide rich new empirical findings and push forward boundaries of feminist and politics conceptual and theoretical research The editors welcome the highest quality international research on these topics and beyond, and look for proposals on feminist political theory; on recent political transformations such as the economic crisis or the rise of the populist right; as well as proposals on continuing feminist dilemmas around participation and representation, specific gendered policy fields, and policy making mechanisms The series can also include books published as a Palgrave pivot More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/14998 Johanna Kantola • Emanuela Lombardo Editors Gender and the Economic Crisis in Europe Politics, Institutions and Intersectionality Editors Johanna Kantola Department of Philosophy, History, Culture and Art Studies University of Helsinki, Finland Emanuela Lombardo Department of Political Science and Administration Faculty of Political Science and Sociology Madrid Complutense University, Spain Gender and Politics ISBN 978-3-319-50777-4 ISBN 978-3-319-50778-1 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-50778-1 Library of Congress Control Number: 2016962498 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2017 This work is subject to copyright All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations Cover illustration by Barbara Boyero Rabasco Printed on acid-free paper This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Acknowledgements It has been a real pleasure to put together this collection of chapters on the politics of the economic crisis in Europe from a gender perspective The economic crisis and the way that it has been framed in Europe has very much shaped our own lives and research on gender, politics, equality policies and the European Union for nearly a decade now Our greatest thanks go to our fellow researchers and authors of the chapters of this volume Leah Bassel, Rosalind Cavaghan, Anna Elomäki, Akwugo Emejulu, Roberta Guerrina, Sophie Jacquot, Heather MacRae, Ana Prata, Elaine Weiner, Stefanie Wöhl and Ania Zbyszewska Thank you for all the hard work you put into the chapters, for revising and rewriting them according to our suggestions and for bearing with us in relation to our never-ending requests! This collection grew out of our discussions on the topic and our research collaboration in Madrid in the winter of 2015 when Johanna was Visiting Scholar at Madrid Complutense University and we were working on our ‘other book’, Gender and Political Analysis We are very grateful to Rosalind Cavaghan and Sylvia Walby not only for sharing their path- breaking research and talks on the crisis with us but also because they were pivotal in putting together and discussing panels and workshops on the gendered impact of the economic restructuring in the EU in which many of the chapters of the book were presented Particularly inspirational was the workshop organized by Rosalind at the University of Nijmegen ‘Feminist Politics in Times of EU Austerity: Challenges and Strategies in a New Political Landscape’ 17–18 September 2015, which brought together scholars and activists working on gender and the crisis in the EU. v vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to all the participants and to Mieke Verloo in particular for her inspirational critical thinking about the times we are in, support, enthusiasm and friendship Other important and inspirational moments included the European Conference on Politics and Gender (ECPG) in Uppsala in June 2015 and we thank the conveners of the ECPR Standing Group on Gender and Politics Isabella Engeli, Elisabeth Evans and Liza Mügge for the huge work that they put into coordinating the Standing Group and organizing these conferences, which continue to provide important platforms for discussing feminist research The book also benefited from the ECPR Standing Group on EU (SGEU) Conference in Trento, in June 2016, the workshop on Gender and the Economic Crisis that Andrea Krizsan organized in Budapest in September 2016, the seminar that Ainhoa Novo organized in Bilbao in May 2013 on ‘Gender Equality Policies in Times of Crisis’, and the CRonEM Conference on ‘Sex, Gender, and Europe’ that Roberta Guerrina organized at the University of Surrey in June 2014 We are also very grateful to the anonymous reviewer of this book proposal for the extremely supporting and helpful comments we received and to the editors and anonymous reviewers of Feminist Theory for their constructive comments on a paper that articulates the ideas we develop more extensively in the book Emanuela also thanks the editors of Gender, Work & Organization and anonymous reviewers of a paper which the chapter on gender and the crisis in Spain draws from Johanna’s research was funded by the Academy of Finland five-year Academy Research Fellowship (decision no 259640) Emanuela wishes to acknowledge the travel funding received from the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad through the Evanpolge research project (Ref: FEM2012-33117), from the European Commission QUING research project and Erasmus teaching mobility fund, and the University of Helsinki Our thanks also go to our colleagues and feminist networks at the University of Helsinki and Madrid Complutense University, which we have had the chance to share with one another during the past four years of our research collaboration Emanuela would like to thank her Spanish colleagues Eva Alfama, María Bustelo and Julia Espinosa for the important special issue and debate they coordinated in 2015 on ‘Public Policies in Times of Crisis: a Gender Analysis’, to Margarita León for co-authoring a joint paper on the issue, to Alba Alonso and Natalia Paleo for their stimulating research on the role of conservative ideology in times of austerity, and to Marta Cruells and Sonia Ruiz for their pioneer work on ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vii intersectionality in Spanish anti-austerity movements She is also grateful to her Esponjadas group of feminist friends in Madrid for most empowering debates on the crisis as an opportunity for personal and collective change, right at the time in which austerity politics was hitting hard on Spanish peoples’ lives Johanna would like to thank all her colleagues at the University of Helsinki Gender Studies: especially Johanna Oksala for reading the Introduction, and Marjaana Jauhola, Marjut Jyrkinen, Milja Saari and Ville Kainulainen for joint research projects, publications, support and academic friendships Her special thanks go to Anna Elomäki, Anu Koivunen and Hanna Ylöstalo for shared feminist struggles, activism and research around and about the austerity politics in Finland in Tasa- arvovaje and for the many inspirational moments together We would like to thank Sarah Childs as the editor of Palgrave’s Gender and Politics Book Series, and Ambra Finotello, Imogen Gordon Clark and Britta Ramaraj at the Palgrave Macmillan for their professional and kind support during the editorial process We received valuable support from Elisabeth Wide who worked as a research assistant at the University of Helsinki and helped us to finalize the manuscript We thank Bàrbara Boyero for providing us with an inspirational photo for the cover of the book from one of the Spanish feminist demonstrations against austerity politics We dedicate the book to such actions and spirit: ‘¡Contra l’Ofensiva Patriarcal i Capitalista: Desobediéncia Feminista!’1 Helsinki and Madrid, November 2016 Note ‘Against Patriarchal and Capitalist Attacks: Feminist Disobedience!’ (translation from the Catalan) Contents 1 Gender and the Politics of the Economic Crisis in Europe 1 Johanna Kantola and Emanuela Lombardo 2 A Policy in Crisis The Dismantling of the EU Gender Equality Policy 27 Sophie Jacquot 3 The Gender Politics of EU Economic Policy: Policy Shifts and Contestations Before and After the Crisis 49 Rosalind Cavaghan 4 Opportunity and Setback? Gender Equality, Crisis and Change in the EU 73 Elaine Weiner and Heather MacRae 5 Gendering European Economic Narratives: Assessing the Costs of the Crisis to Gender Equality 95 Roberta Guerrina 6 Gendering Poland’s Crisis Reforms: A Europeanization Perspective 117 Ania Zbyszewska ix x Contents 7 The Gender Dynamics of Financialization and Austerity in the European Union—The Irish Case 139 Stefanie Wöhl 8 The Visibility (and Invisibility) of Women and Gender in Parliamentary Discourse During the Portuguese Economic Crisis (2008–2014) 161 Ana Prata 9 Whose Crisis Counts? Minority Women, Austerity and Activism in France and Britain 185 Akwugo Emejulu and Leah Bassel 10 Austerity Politics and Feminist Struggles in Spain: Reconfiguring the Gender Regime? 209 Emanuela Lombardo 11 Austerity Politics and Feminist Resistance in Finland: From Established Women’s Organizations to New Feminist Initiatives 231 Anna Elomäki and Johanna Kantola 12 Conclusions: Understanding Gender and the Politics of the Crisis in Europe 257 Johanna Kantola and Emanuela Lombardo Index271 268 J KANTOLA AND E LOMBARDO The political debate in times of crisis is gender-blind in Portugal too, argues Prata, but when gender makes its appearance in parliamentary debates it is through two main patterns: the victimization of women and the hegemony of the economic framing Women are portrayed as victims of a problem of domestic violence that is attributed not to patriarchal culture or violent perpetrators but to unemployment or cuts in social provisions Women are also presented in Portuguese parliamentary debates as victims of gender inequality in the labour market that is constructed as the result of the economic crisis, rather than of cultural, employment, and institutional patterns of gender discrimination that pre-existed the crisis The hegemonic economic crisis framing is discursively used in such a way that it avoids questioning the ‘unequal balance of power between the sexes’ (Prata in this volume) that was in place before the economic crisis Conclusions Feminist analyses of the political dimension of the crisis in Europe developed in this book have employed and differently combined approaches that focused on women, gender, intersectionality, and deconstruction of gender These analytical perspectives have allowed contributors to grasp the multiple facets of power that are at work in policy responses to the economic crisis in Europe EU policy shifts in times of crisis have shown the increasing dominance of the neoliberal project (Walby 2015) This trend is reflected in the Europeanization of member states’ equality policies, institutions, regimes, and political debates, with detrimental consequences for gender equality, institutions, and policies EU and member states’ neoliberal austerity politics has promoted practices and processes of de-democratization that negatively affect the fates of democracy and gender equality (Verloo forthcoming) As Walby (2015: 117) argues ‘The neoliberal project of deregulation is a project of de-democratization’ because it removes from public democratic accountability ‘t]he governance of major public services, such as finance, health, education and care’ (2015: 116) De-democratization is exemplified in the shift in the balance of institutional powers in the EU that attributes an increasing weight to the member states, especially the Council of Economic and Finance Ministers, while new regulations on ‘strategic’ reports have reduced the chances for the Parliamentary FEMM Committee, that has always had a key role in advancing gender equality, to see its own-initiative reports presented and voted in plenary sessions CONCLUSIONS: UNDERSTANDING GENDER AND THE POLITICS 269 Democracy is at stake in Europe when spaces for public deliberation on economic issues are reduced in countries such as Ireland or Finland, or freedom of expression is limited such as in the Spanish ‘gag law’ The curtailing of spaces for public deliberation not only goes against democracy (Walby 2015) but also tends to ‘insulate from contestation’ (Cavaghan in this volume) the harmful impacts of austerity politics on women and men The neoliberal project in Europe is at times interacting with conservative and racist power, as shown in the position of Finnish populist right party against migrant people, the restriction of sexual and reproductive rights in Spain, and the negative impacts of austerity on minority women in France and the UK However, despite the challenges it poses to equality and democracy in Europe, austerity politics has also revitalized civil society and feminist struggles and alliances to defend social justice, equality, and democracy It has prompted the emergence of autonomous feminist movements that challenge the gendered impacts of austerity It has triggered the further questioning of existing privileges based on gender, race, and class When looked from feminist political lenses, the crisis opens both opportunities and challenges for democracy and gender equality In times of crisis, neoliberal, conservative, and racist powers place Europe’s democracy under pressure A revitalized European democracy—feminist political analyses in this book argue—relies on the politicization of the public arena including economic decision-making, the accountability of governments’ decisions in processes of public deliberation, the democratic governance of public welfare services, voices and participation of minoritized people, gender balanced political and economic decision-making, and the effective mainstreaming of gender in all policymaking Note For reports on increased discrimination in Europe see: International Labour Conference, 101st Session 2012, Report of the Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations, Greece, ILO Conventions 98, 100, 102, 111, and 156: http://www ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:11003:0::NO and FEMM (2010) Report on gender aspects of the economic downturn and financial crisis (2009/2204(INI)), (12 May 2010) and FEMM (2013a) Report on the impact of the economic crisis on gender equality and women’s rights (2012/2301(INI)), (28 February 2013) 270 J KANTOLA AND E LOMBARDO Bibliography Allen, Amy 1999 The Power of Feminist Theory Domination, Resistance and Solidarity Boulder: Westview Press Arendt, Hannah 1970 On Violence New York: Harcourt Brace & Co Brown, Wendy 2015 Undoing the Demos: Neoliberalism’s Stealth Revolution New York: ZONE BOOKS Crenshaw, Kimberlé 1991 Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique 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Gaus, 281–303 London: Croom Helm and St Martin’s Press Verloo, Mieke Forthcoming The Challenge of Gender Inequality In Chapter 14 Democracy and Equality, ed Richard Bellamy and Wolfgang Merkel International Panel on Social Progress IPSP Report Rethinking Society for the 21st Century Online Accessed https://www.ipsp.org/ Walby, Sylvia 2015 Crisis Cambridge: Polity Weber, Max 1919/1994 The Profession and Vocation of Politics In Max Weber: Political Writing, ed P. Lassman and R. Speirs Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Woll, Cornelia, and Sophie Jacquot 2010 Using Europe: Strategic Action in Multi-Level Politics Comparative European Politics 8(1): 110–126 Index A academics, 12, 34, 100, 108, 187, 233, 242, 251n5 accession, 120, 121, 125, 130 activism, 17, 18, 20, 21, 141, 185–205, 221, 225, 232, 234, 237, 243, 244, 249 advocacy, 20, 50, 96, 98–102, 106, 108, 110, 111, 188, 201, 240, 241, 261, 262 African, 189, 191, 200, 203 African American women’s struggle, 189 age, 14, 15, 59, 123, 124, 127, 131, 133n9, 144, 151, 164, 186, 216, 220 alliance, 6, 18, 152, 154, 212, 222, 224, 232, 267, 269 All Party Parliamentary Group for Race and Community (APPG), 189–91, 197 Alonso, Alba, 164, 212, 219, 221–3, 225 Amsterdam Treaty, 59, 81 Anti-Austerity Alliance–People before Profit, 152 Anti-Crisis Bill, 122, 126, 128 anti-immigration, 16, 21, 232, 234, 236, 239 anti-Semitic, APPG See All Party Parliamentary Group for Race and Community (APPG) Austria, 142, 143 B bailout, 74, 84, 124, 146, 153, 161, 170 Bakker, Isabella, 51, 65, 143 Ballester-Pastor, 218 Bangladeshi, 189, 191 banking, 1, 4, 150, 153 Barcelona, 59, 105, 129, 224 Barcelona Summit, 59 Barroso Commission, 12, 35 Note: Page numbers followed by ‘n’ refer to notes © The Author(s) 2017 J Kantola, E Lombardo (eds.), Gender and the Economic Crisis in Europe, Gender and Politics, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-50778-1 271 272 INDEX Bassel, Leah, 6, 17, 18, 20, 185–205, 232, 259, 266 Bauer, Michael W., 28, 43, 84 Beijing Declaration, 81 Bettio, Francesca, 4–6, 8, 10, 11, 14, 36, 51, 83, 106, 107, 210, 216, 217, 219–21 Bieling, Hans-Jürgen, 117, 140–2 Black African, 191 Black and minority ethnic, 188 Black Caribbean, 191 Blackness, 192 Black women’s activism, 189 boomerang effect, 222 Brexit, 18, 205n3 Britain, 20, 140, 142, 143, 145, 185–205 Broad Economic Policy Guidelines, 60, 62 Brown, Wendy, 261 budget cuts, 15, 83, 124, 128, 133n7, 133n11, 210, 219, 221 Budget Stability Law, 215 Busch, 8–10 business, 4, 86, 123, 127, 130, 132n5, 153, 200, 215, 231, 234, 239, 242 Bustelo, 12, 209–11, 213, 214, 223, 225 C Cameron, David, 196, 205n3 Cannon, 152, 153, 193 Capparucci, 15 care, 4, 13–16, 57, 75, 103, 105, 109, 112, 123, 124, 126–30, 140, 142, 144, 147, 151, 155, 167, 196, 197, 209, 211, 213, 214, 217–19, 234, 242, 246, 247, 261, 263, 265, 268 Caribbean, 189, 191 Castilla-La Mancha, 221 Catalan, 218 Catholic Church, 131 Cavaghan, Rosalind, 19, 49–66, 259–62, 267, 269 CDA See Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) CEDAW See Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) CEE See Central Eastern European (CEE) Central Bank, 2, 117, 179n6, 195, 196, 223 Central Eastern European (CEE), 118, 120, 131 Charkiewicz, 121, 123, 130 childcare, 15, 57, 59–62, 105, 107, 109, 151, 196, 197, 211, 218, 219, 225, 237, 240, 250 children, 15, 59, 105, 124, 127–9, 133n10, 148, 152, 155, 164, 166, 171, 174–6, 189, 191, 211, 217, 218, 220, 234, 240, 241 citizenship, 12, 44n3, 44n4, 52, 101, 145, 153, 188, 201 civic platform, 122–6, 128, 129, 131, 223 civil society, 2, 3, 16–21, 34, 36, 38, 43, 50, 98–100, 102, 108–11, 141, 153, 167, 178, 186, 204, 209–12, 214, 216, 218, 221–5, 235, 266, 267, 269 CJEU See Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) Clarke, 195 class, 5, 14, 15, 107, 140, 141, 144, 167, 186, 192–4, 212, 262, 263, 266, 269 coalition, 16, 34, 96, 146, 152, 172, 176, 180n15, 196, 234–8, 240, 261 INDEX Colau, Ada, 224 Combat Poverty Agency, 154, 266 Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality (FEMM), 11, 20, 37, 38, 50, 51, 75, 76, 85, 96, 99, 102–6, 111, 261, 268 Common Market, 74, 80–2, 86, 87 community, 40, 43, 80, 87n1, 140, 147, 155, 166, 167, 189, 191, 197, 200, 213, 265 competitiveness, 10, 86, 130, 142, 148, 168, 231, 232, 238, 239, 241, 243, 245, 246, 248, 249, 250n1, 264, 265 conflict, 78, 119, 241, 245, 258 conservatism, 2, 16, 18, 20, 21, 232, 234–6, 242, 248, 249, 264, 267 Constitutional Court, 222, 226n15 constructivist, 119, 120 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), 223, 225, 232 Costa, 164, 165 Council of Economic and Finance Ministers, 8, 268 Council of Ministers, 13, 37, 58 Council of Ministers for Finance and Economics, 58 Council Recommendations, 210, 215, 216 Country Specific Recommendation, 65, 110 Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU), 145, 226n13 Coventry, 187 Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), 168–9 Cruells, Marta, 212, 224 Cullen, Pauline, 19, 39, 155 273 D DAPHNE, 32, 88n4 debt, 8, 9, 60, 63, 74, 83, 95, 123, 139–41, 143–55, 161, 170, 175, 195, 214, 226n13, 234 deconstruction, 3–6, 28, 34, 258, 268 democracy, 3, 163, 212, 223, 224, 258, 261, 266–9 DG Eco Fin See Directorate Economics and Finance (DG Eco Fin) DG Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities, 12, 35, 39, 63, 64, 73, 75, 100, 220 DG Justice, Fundamental Rights and Citizenship, 12 DG Research, 55 Directorate Economics and Finance (DG Eco Fin), 58, 60, 61 Directorate-General for Equal Opportunities, 12, 35, 58, 73, 75, 220 Directorate-General for Justice, 75 disciplinary neoliberalism, discourse, 3, 6, 8, 9, 18, 20, 21, 39, 41, 63, 96, 97, 100–12, 119, 121, 130, 142–4, 153, 155, 161–80, 198–202, 223, 224, 233, 235–8, 246–8, 258, 260, 264, 265, 267 discrimination, 1, 2, 12, 13, 19, 28, 30, 32, 35, 38, 39, 41, 56, 80–2, 87, 108, 127, 173–5, 190, 200, 218, 220, 223, 260, 261, 268 diversity, 37, 41, 44n3, 82, 104, 107, 188 domestic, 2, 3, 8, 13, 14, 16, 20, 42, 105, 118–20, 125, 127, 148, 162, 164, 166, 174, 175, 199, 205n1, 209, 211, 212, 216–18, 222, 224, 225, 262–5, 267, 268 domestic violence, 2, 42, 148, 162, 166, 174, 175, 199, 205n1, 268 274 INDEX Dryzek, 163 Dublin, 147, 148, 154, 155 E Eastern Europe, 13, 17, 118–21 EC See European Commission (EC) ECB See European Central Bank (ECB) ECOFIN, 8, 9, 145 Edinburgh, 187, 199, 200 education, 14, 103, 123, 124, 128, 129, 133n7, 147, 149, 164, 166, 188, 199, 213, 215, 219, 224, 267, 268 EERP See European Economic Recovery Plan (EERP) EESC See European Economic and Social Committee (EESC) EFSF See European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF) EGGE See Expert Group on Gender and Employment (EGGE) Elomäki, Anna, 16–18, 20, 231–51, 259, 260, 267 Elson, Diane, 2, 4, 15, 56, 57, 139, 140, 143, 241 Emejulu, Akwugo, 6, 17, 18, 20, 185–205, 232, 259, 266 empathy, 6, employment, 4, 9–15, 33, 35, 39, 41, 42, 51, 52, 58, 59, 61–5, 73, 75, 81, 82, 96, 99, 100, 103, 105–7, 109, 110, 120–3, 125–30, 133n9, 142, 146, 149, 151, 152, 162, 164, 165, 179n4, 188, 190, 191, 197, 198, 201, 209–11, 214, 215, 217, 218, 224, 225, 240, 243, 263, 268 Employment Chapter, 59 Employment Guidelines, 62 EMU See European Monetary Union (EMU) ENEGE See European Network of Experts on Gender Equality (ENEGE) England, 185, 187, 190, 192, 193, 197, 198, 200–4 enlargement, 13, 100, 101, 112, 120 enterprise, 9, 200–2, 216 EPSCO Council, 39 Equality and Human Rights Commission’s statutory code on employment, 191 equality law, 214 equality policies, 3, 7–16, 19–21, 27–45, 50–2, 121, 139, 146, 209, 210, 212, 214, 219–22, 225, 232, 247–9, 257, 259–68 EQUAL programme, 32 Espírito Santo, 164, 167, 180n14 ethnicity, 5, 107, 186, 188, 191, 193, 220 EU2020, 10 EU Equal Opportunities Unit, 12 EU Financial transparency system database, 29 Eurobarometer, 162 European Central Bank (ECB), 2, 8–10, 117, 179n6, 195, 196 European Charter of Fundamental Rights, 35 European Commission (EC), 2, 8–10, 12, 29, 30, 32, 34, 37, 42, 55, 58, 74–5, 80, 83–5, 87, 88n9, 96, 100–1, 106–8, 117, 121, 124, 128–9, 145, 153, 179n6, 195, 215, 261 European Commission’s Advisory Committee on Equal opportunities for Women and Men, 75, 83 European Commission’s Directorate- General for Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities, 75 INDEX European Commission Strategy, European Community, 80, 87n1, 213 European Council, 8, 10, 75, 85, 125, 131, 145, 215 European Council President, 131 European Economic and Social Committee (EESC), 32, 44n4 European Economic Recovery Plan (EERP), 11, 63, 83, 84 European Employment Strategy (EES), 10, 59, 110 European equality agenda, 98–101, 103, 104, 108, 112 European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF), 84, 88n6 European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE), 36 Europeanization, 3, 7, 13–17, 19, 20, 117–33, 209, 212, 257–9, 262–6, 268 European Monetary Union (EMU), 9, 124 European Network of Experts on Gender Equality (ENEGE), 13, 36, 75, 83, 85 European Parliament, 2, 9, 11, 20, 21n2, 32, 34, 36–8, 44n4, 45n7, 50, 51, 75, 85, 88n9, 96, 99, 101–6, 111, 222, 250, 261 European Pillar of Social Rights, 87 European Semester, 9, 10, 12, 63, 65, 84, 106, 110, 214 European Social Fund (EFS), 44n2, 121 European Stability Mechanism (ESM), 9, 10, 84, 147 European Treaties, 75 European Women’s Lobby (EWL), 19, 20, 39, 51, 75, 83, 96, 98, 99, 101, 102, 108–12, 261 Euro Plus Pact, 9, 10, 63 Eurosceptic, 131 275 Eurozone, 8, 9, 13, 60, 74, 84, 88n6, 95, 117, 118, 124, 205n2, 264 Evans, Elizabeth, 17, 233, 234, 236 everyday life, 17, 194, 197 evictions, 20, 146–8, 152, 154, 155, 201, 223, 224, 226n13 EWL See European Women’s Lobby (EWL) Excessive Deficit Procedure 104, 60 Expert Group on Gender and Employment (EGGE), 13, 87 Expert Group on Gender, Social Exclusion, Health and Long- Term Care (EGGSIE), 13 F Fáil Fianna, 149, 152 family, 2, 15, 82, 97, 111, 112, 123, 126–30, 148–51, 154, 164–6, 171, 175, 178, 187, 192, 198, 213, 217–20, 235, 236, 247, 263–5 family-friendly, 80, 127, 166, 265 Fawcett Society, 98 feminism, 17, 232, 233 Feminist Open Forum, 154 Feminist Political Economy, 49–51, 56, 62, 65 FEMM See Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality (FEMM) FEMM Committee (Women’s Rights and Gender Equality Committee of the European Parliament), 11, 20, 37, 38, 44n5, 50, 51, 75, 76, 85, 96, 99, 102, 106, 111, 261, 268 Ferreira, Virginia, 162, 164–8, 180n16 finance, 4, 8, 17, 36, 58, 73, 109, 140, 142, 145, 153, 155, 195, 276 INDEX 204, 212, 215, 231, 234, 235, 239, 264, 268 Finland, 11, 16, 18, 21, 231–51, 260, 262, 264, 267, 269 Fiscal Compact, 9, 145, 153 Foucauldian, 163 Framework Agreement, 30 Framework for Action on Gender Equality, 39 France, 17, 20, 125, 150, 185–205, 262, 266, 269 Freire, Andre, 162, 163, 167, 176, 177 G Gael Fine, 152 Gag law, 16, 18, 224, 269 Galicia, 221 Gender Aspects of the Economic Downturn & Financial Crisis, 102, 269n1 gender equality,, 3, 27, 50, 73, 100, 118, 139, 162, 188, 209, 231, 258 Gender Impact Now!, 219, 223 Gender Impact Report, 219 Gender Knowledge Contestation Analysis, 49–51, 53–6, 64, 66n2 gender mainstreaming, 5, 11, 12, 19, 27, 29, 33, 34, 37, 40, 44n1, 50–3, 60, 63, 74–6, 81, 83, 101, 118, 119, 121, 126, 127, 129, 130, 216, 260, 261 gender regime, 5, 14, 20, 28, 37, 40, 41, 209–27, 232, 261, 263–5 Gendered International Political Economy, 140 General Council of Judicial Power, 223 Germany, 9, 125, 142, 143 Glasgow, 187, 197, 200, 203 González, Elvira, 15, 210, 217, 218 Gourevitch, Peter, 27 governance, 5, 7–9, 11, 12, 17, 18, 34, 36, 65, 66, 84, 85, 88n8, 95–101, 103, 104, 106, 111, 112, 118, 140, 146, 212, 214, 246, 259, 268, 269 Great Britain, 140, 142, 143, 145 Great Recession, 44, 95, 101 Greece, 1, 2, 5, 15, 17, 83, 140, 147, 153, 156n1, 179n3, 264, 269n1 Greens, 176 Griffin, Penny, 5, 17 growth, 8–10, 44n6, 57, 59–63, 65, 84, 86, 110, 118, 121, 125, 130, 140, 141, 146, 150, 202, 215, 216, 241, 265 Guaranteed Employment Benefit Fund, 123 Guerrina, Roberta, 20, 81, 95–112, 259, 261, 262 guilt, 6, 152 H health, 9, 13, 14, 57, 75, 124, 142, 144, 145, 147, 151, 154, 166, 167, 179n6, 179n11, 213, 214, 219–21, 224, 236, 266–8 High Level Group on Gender Mainstreaming, 27, 37, 44n1 Hill Collins, Patricia, 189 Hollande, Franỗois, 196 Holyrood, 196 homeownership, 1436, 148, 149 household, 8, 15, 16, 20, 104, 107, 139–47, 149–52, 155, 164, 165, 191, 196, 201, 211, 213, 217 INDEX 277 housing, 142, 143, 145–9, 152, 154, 155, 179n6, 187, 201, 223, 224, 249, 261, 263, 264, 267 Human Rights Commission and Equal Authority, 154, 266 J Jacquot, Sophie, 11–13, 18, 19, 27–45, 51, 59, 81, 82, 259–61, 263 Jamaican patois, 192 I Iceland, ICTU Fighting Back Biennial Women’s Conference, 154 immigrants, 15, 151, 187, 188, 190, 191, 193, 237 immigration, 31, 88n4, 150, 193, 236, 249 Impacto de Género ya!, 219 implementation, 10, 19, 31, 50, 54, 55, 65, 75, 120, 130, 132n1, 149, 167, 179n6, 179n11, 215 Independents for Change, 152 India, 189, 191, 199 Indignados, 6, 152, 224, 225, 267 institutionalism, 19, 77–9, 87n2 insurance, 123, 124, 143–5, 248 Integrated Guidelines for Growth and Jobs, 61–3 Integration project, 79, 82, 141 International Labour Organisation (ILO), 96, 98, 269n1 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 2, 9, 10, 117, 132n2, 179n6, 195 Interpretative Policy Analysis, 53 intersectionality, 3–7, 17, 20, 41, 186–9, 258, 266, 268 Ireland, 1, 20, 140, 141, 143, 146–55, 260, 262–4, 266, 269 Irish Feminist Network, 154 Irish Fiscal Advisory Council, 153 Irish Housing Network, 154, 155 Italy, 1, 15, 140 K Kantola, Johanna, 1–21, 34, 38, 42, 45n8, 50, 81, 82, 231–51, 257–69 Karamessini, Maria, 1, 4, 6, 8, 10, 11, 13–15, 51, 74, 76, 96–8, 117, 126, 140, 162, 164 Keynesian, 57 L Labour Code, 118, 122, 123, 132n5 Labour Fund, 123 labour market, 9, 11–16, 18, 30, 31, 33, 42, 44n2, 58, 59, 62, 105–7, 109, 118, 121–31, 139, 189–91, 200, 215–18, 224, 225, 231, 234, 242, 247, 248, 260, 264, 265, 268 Labour Party, 152, 154 Labour Reform, 217, 218, 224, 263 Latin America, 153 law, 3, 16, 29–31, 40, 43, 54, 55, 117, 124–7, 131, 146, 213–15, 218, 219, 221, 222, 225, 226n13, 226n15, 235, 247, 260, 263 Legal Experts Network, 13, 36 Lehman Brothers, 1, Lehman Sisters, Leite, Jorge, 164, 165 León, Margarita, 210, 213, 218, 219 LGBTQ, Lisbon Strategy, 33, 58–65 Lisbon Treaty, 28, 30, 37 278 INDEX Lisi, Marco, 162, 164, 176, 177 lobbying, 18, 19, 50, 108, 236, 237 local, 52, 118–20, 133n7, 148, 153, 154, 187, 203, 219, 221, 224, 225, 243, 266 Locher, Birgit, 42, 52, 100 Lombardo, Emanuela, 1–21, 40, 41, 53, 120, 146, 152, 177, 191, 209–27, 232, 257–69 London, 187, 199 Lyon, 187 M Maastricht Criteria, 60, 141 Maastricht Treaty, 140 MacRae, Heather, 10, 19, 52, 73–88, 117, 146, 259–61 macroeconomic, 9–11, 20, 33, 118, 122, 131, 132n1, 214, 260, 262, 267 Macroeconomic Imbalances Procedures, 63 Madrid, 221, 222, 224 mareas ciudadanas, 223 Marxist, 57 masculinity, 77, 97, 111 McRobbie, Angela, 233 media, 6, 152, 166, 232, 238–47 Meier, Petra, 88n3 Memoranda of Understanding, 147 Memorandum of Agreement, 165, 178, 179n6 men, 3–5, 11, 15–17, 27, 28, 30, 31, 34, 40, 44n2, 52, 53, 56, 65, 75, 79, 80, 83, 85, 95, 97, 103, 105–7, 109–11, 117, 124, 127, 129, 133n9, 143, 144, 151, 152, 162, 164–7, 173, 177, 179n3, 186, 189, 190, 192, 193, 211, 217, 218, 235, 236, 245, 249, 251n5, 258, 259, 261, 269 Merkel, Angela, migrant women, 2, 14, 178, 187, 190, 200, 203, 237 minimum wage, 145, 174 minority women, 1, 17, 18, 20, 185–205, 261–3, 266, 267, 269 Monteiro, Rosa, 165, 167, 168, 172, 180n16 Montgomerie, Johnna, 140, 144 mortgage, 139–41, 143–50, 155, 194, 195, 226n13 mothers, 15, 126, 145, 152, 169, 171, 173, 175, 176, 178, 192, 213, 222, 250n1, 263 Moury, Catherine, 163 Murcia, Galicia, 221 Murphy, Mary, 146–9, 152–5 N National Health Services (NHS), 219 National Partnership Agreements, 150, 154 National Platform of Feminist Organizations, 222 National Reform and Stability Programmes, 210, 215 National Women’s Council of Ireland, 154, 155 Neo-Gramscian, 141, 264 neoliberal, 2–4, 6, 8, 11, 13–132, 140, 141, 145, 147, 149, 153–5, 186, 200–2, 205n4, 210, 212, 216, 224, 225, 232, 233, 236, 238, 242, 245, 246, 249, 258, 260, 263–9 neoliberalism, 6–8, 17, 18, 21, 83, 86, 118, 119, 153, 232, 234, 236, 242, 248, 249, 261, 264, 267 network, 13, 31, 36, 75, 88n8, 96, 97, 99, 101, 102, 106, 108, 119, INDEX 120, 154, 155, 166, 179n10, 188, 203, 243, 244, 249, 260, 261 Newman, Janet, 195, 197 NGO, 19, 45, 237 Niemeyer, Simon, 163 Nordic, 16 Northern, 7, 17 O O’Callaghan, 147, 149 Occupy Wall Street, 224 OECD, 128, 129, 151, 190 Osborne, George, 196, 205n3 P Pakistan, 189, 191, 197 Paleo, Natalia, 164, 212, 219, 221–3 Paris, 187, 192, 193, 199, 204 part-time, 14, 15, 145, 151, 155, 165, 211, 218, 247, 248, 265 paternity leave, 129, 213, 214, 218 Pavolini, Emmanuele, 212, 219 pay, 15, 28, 40, 50, 59, 60, 79, 80, 100, 109, 147, 149, 165, 175, 190, 194, 200, 217, 240, 245, 247, 248, 250, 265 Phoenix, Aisha, 192 Phoenix, Ann, 192 Platform Against Housing Evictions (PAH), 152, 155 Platform of people affected by housing evictions, 223, 224 Podemos, 17, 152, 224 Poland, 13, 16, 20, 117–33, 150, 262, 264, 265 political behaviour, 189 political parties, 17, 154, 167, 169, 177, 189, 214, 236–41 Popular party, 222, 265 279 populist, 2, 6, 16, 17, 131, 224, 231, 234, 236, 239, 269 Portugal, 1, 20, 140, 147, 161–6, 168, 170, 178, 179n6, 179n11, 180n17, 260, 263, 265, 268 post-deconstruction, 6, 258 post-feminism, 233 poverty, 1, 5, 17, 20, 33, 62, 104, 107, 110, 127, 128, 151, 152, 155, 164, 174, 176, 189, 191–4, 199, 201, 204, 261, 263 power, 2, 6, 7, 9, 19, 34, 36, 43, 60, 77, 78, 81, 83, 85, 86, 97, 98, 101, 104, 111, 143, 148, 150, 154, 163, 166, 167, 174, 178, 194, 200–2, 204, 223, 225, 244, 247, 249, 250, 258–60, 266–9 Prata, Ana, 20, 161–80, 259, 260, 268 precarious, 109, 131, 165, 194, 197, 217, 261, 263–6 precarity/precariousness, 173, 174, 186, 189, 190, 193, 196, 198, 200, 201, 218, 224 pregnant, 108, 175, 222, 265 President of the European Commission, 80 President of the European Council, 125 privatization, 16, 125, 128–30, 142, 145, 147, 155, 212, 216, 224, 225, 261, 264 PROGRESS programme, 32, 39, 44n3 property, 144, 145, 147–50, 152 Prügl, Elisabeth, 4, 17, 45n8, 52, 100 Public Expenditure and Reform (PER), 153 public sector, 4, 14, 15, 105, 107, 109, 125, 139, 144, 147, 149, 153, 154, 162, 164, 165, 196, 217, 234, 239, 247, 248, 250n5, 263, 264 280 INDEX public spending, 8, 9, 63, 148, 150, 151, 196, 234 R racism, 2, 16, 18, 20, 200, 203, 232, 234, 236, 239, 240, 242, 243, 245, 248, 249, 267 Rajoy, 220 refugee, 5, 16, 187, 204, 236, 239 regional, 14, 15, 164, 215, 219, 221, 222, 224, 227, 265, 266 resistance, 3, 7, 17–21, 61, 98, 141, 146, 152–5, 189, 195, 197, 210, 217–19, 225, 231–51, 257, 259, 266–8 retirement, 15, 124, 127, 151, 165, 216 retrenchment, 65, 103, 107, 109, 162, 165, 167, 178, 196, 212, 213, 219 Rey, John, 80 rights, 2, 6, 7, 16–18, 21, 28–35, 38, 39, 41, 96–102, 105–11, 155, 176, 187, 199, 201, 204, 210, 212–14, 218, 221–4, 226n13, 231, 234, 237, 238, 240, 241, 243, 260, 261, 264, 265, 269 Roadmap for Equality between Men and Women, 31 Roberts, Adrienne, 8, 144 Rolandsen-Agustín, Lise, 11 Rubery, Jill, 4–6, 8, 10, 11, 13–15, 51, 76, 96, 98, 111, 112, 117, 121, 126, 139, 140, 162, 164 Ruiz, Sonia, 212, 224 rural, 128, 148, 149 S San José, Begoña, 217, 223 Sarkozy, Nicolas, 9, 193 Schäuble, Wolfgang, 142 Schroeder, Gerhard, 142 Scotland, 185, 187, 190, 196, 197, 200, 201, 203, 204 Second World War, 196 Segales, Marcelo, 15, 210, 217, 218 sexual, 6, 186, 220, 221, 225, 269 sexuality, 186 SGP See Stability and Growth Pact (SGP) Single Currency, 99 single market, 60, 111, 141, 142 Sintra, 175 Sipilä, Juha, 234, 235, 242, 250 six pack, 9, 10, 84, 85, 88n9, 117, 125, 132n1, 145, 146 Slovenia, 140 Smith, Mark, 10–13, 51, 60, 63, 64, 73, 75, 87, 98, 126, 216 Smith, Mitchell P., 95 Smith, Nicola, social benefits, 123, 165, 166, 174, 212, 263, 265 socialists, 171, 176, 177, 196, 209, 213, 214, 220–2 social justice, 80, 98, 176, 186, 188, 197, 198, 202, 205, 269 social movements, 153, 177, 188, 203–4, 218, 224, 232, 267 social reproduction, 58, 139, 140, 143–6, 155, 262 social structures, 97 Sociology of Knowledge, 53, 54 solidarity, 6, 20, 110, 186, 200, 203, 204 South Asian, 202 Southern, Southern European, 8, 15, 149, 161, 162 Spain, 1, 2, 6, 15–18, 20, 140, 146–8, 152–5, 179n3, 209–27, 260, 262, 263, 265–7, 269 INDEX Stability and Growth Pact (SGP), 9, 60, 63, 84, 140, 141, 146 Starkey, David, 192 Steinhilber, Jochen, 140–2 Strategy for equality between women and men, 31 Strategy for Europe 2020, 31 Stratigaki, Maria, 36, 81, 82, 88n4, 121, 130 Strolovitch, Dara, 185, 193, 194 struggle, 3, 8, 17–21, 112, 163, 176, 178, 189, 194, 203, 209–27, 257–60, 263, 266, 267, 269 surveillance, 9, 10, 60, 125, 132n1, 212, 214 Sweden, 11, 241 Syriza, 17 T tax, 123, 144, 148, 150–5, 162, 178, 195, 196, 216, 248, 264 temporary, 14, 122, 123, 190, 217 Thatcher, Margaret, 145 trade unions, 122, 123, 131, 153, 189, 214, 218, 232, 243, 246–8, 250, 250n5, 267 Treaty of Rome, 28, 79 troika, 2, 9, 117, 153, 161, 170, 176, 179n6, 205n2 True, Jacqui, 2, 4, 5, 81, 140 Tusk, Donald, 125, 131 U UK See United Kingdom (UK) unemployment, 1, 17, 59, 103–5, 107, 109, 121, 131, 140, 145, 147, 151, 152, 164–6, 171, 173, 174, 178, 189, 190, 192–4, 197, 211, 217, 265, 268 281 Union pour un Mouvement Populaire (UMP), 199 United Kingdom (UK), 6, 9, 15, 17, 18, 148, 234, 236, 241, 262, 266, 269 United Nations (UN), 221, 223 United States (US), 1, 74, 140, 142–6, 148, 224, 234, 236 V Vaga de Totes, 218 van der Vleuten, Anna, 12, 79, 99, 101, 142 velvet triangle, 12, 13, 34, 36, 37, 43, 100, 101, 108, 112 Verashchagina, Alina, 15 Verge, Tania, 167, 180n14, 223 Verloo, Mieke, 16, 41, 51, 53, 79, 81, 142, 213, 268 Viegas, José Manuel Leite, 162, 176, 177 Villa, Paola, 10–13, 51, 60, 63, 64, 98, 126, 216 Vilnius, 36 violence, 2, 5, 7, 17, 32, 35, 41, 42, 88n4, 109, 148, 162, 163, 166, 174, 175, 186, 193, 198, 199, 203, 204, 205n1, 214, 221, 236, 239–41, 268 W wage, 8, 9, 15, 57, 60, 65, 80, 107, 144, 145, 147, 151, 154, 174, 175, 190, 194, 215, 217, 263 Walby, Sylvia, 2, 4, 5, 8, 14, 16, 41, 75, 76, 96–8, 100, 104, 112, 118, 126, 210–12, 224, 235, 268, 269 Weiner, Elaine, 10, 19, 52, 73–88, 117, 146, 259–61 282 INDEX welfare state, 15, 16, 103–5, 107, 142, 150, 162, 164, 165, 167, 178, 196, 205n1, 210, 212, 213, 219, 234, 238, 241, 242 West African, 200, 203 Western European, 123 Westminster, 196 WI See Woman’s Institute (WI) Wöhl, Stefanie, 9, 10, 14, 20, 75, 85, 86, 139–56, 259, 260, 262–4 Woman’s Institute (WI), 213, 214, 220, 266 Women of Debt Justice Action, 154 Women’s Budget Group, 98 Women’s Charter of 2010, 31, 42 Women’s Democratic Movement, 177 Women’s Economic Independence in times of austerity, 110 Women’s International Day, 177 women’s movements, 167, 168, 177, 236, 237, 241, 242, 248, 260, 267 Woodward, Alison, 12, 34, 81, 82, 100, 101, 106, 108, 112 Z Zapatero, 209, 211, 213, 214, 218, 220 Zbyszewska, Ania, 13, 14, 16, 20, 117–33, 259, 263–5 ... on the questions We focus on five feminist perspectives: (i) women and the crisis, (ii) gender and the crisis, (iii) deconstruction of gender and the crisis, (iv) intersectionality and the crisis. .. Spain © The Author(s) 2017 J Kantola, E Lombardo (eds. ), Gender and the Economic Crisis in Europe, Gender and Politics, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-50778-1_1 2 J KANTOLA AND E LOMBARDO Pearson and. .. increases in gender violence points to the ways in which the economic, political and social consequences of the crisis are gendered in complex ways At the same time there is increasing space in gender