Conceptual metaphors of love in the capenters’love songs

THESIS CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS OF LOVE IN THE CARPENTERS’ LOVE SONGS ẨN DỤ Ý NIỆM VỀ TÌNH YÊU TRONG NHỮNG TÌNH KHÚC CỦA THE CARPENTERS... Objectives of the Research In order to achieve

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY

M.A THESIS

CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS OF LOVE

IN THE CARPENTERS’ LOVE SONGS

(ẨN DỤ Ý NIỆM VỀ TÌNH YÊU TRONG NHỮNG TÌNH KHÚC CỦA THE CARPENTERS)

Also, my special thanks go to all the lectures of the M.A course at Hanoi Open University for their useful lessons from which I have benefited a lot for the accomplishment of this study

Finally, my warmest thanks are due to my parents for their support and spiritual encouragement in the process of study

ABSTRACT

It is not quite hard to learn and understand how to use metaphor in writing However, it is quite delicate to decode the meaning of these cognitive metaphors in particular works, especially the metaphor of love Since love is the-all-time favorite topic, the muse of every writer, poets, composers, etc Metaphor of Love is the great topic to study on, though it is not interested by many people It does not take much effort to see metaphor in love stories, love poetries, and love songs Particularly, music is considered as bridge to connect people together, and is the best way to communicate There is nobody saying no to love songs That is why studying metaphors of love through love songs is a great idea With the hope of creating a new direction of love’s values and highlighting the profound philosophy of human life in songs, this thesis would focus on the conceptual metaphors in the lyrics of The Carpenters’ love songs

In this thesis, the concept which is drawn out again is ‘love is a journey’ Furthermore, there are structural metaphors such as up-down, here-there repeatedly appearing in The Carpenters’ songs There are also some of the metaphoric expressions such as ‘love is music’, ‘love is movement’, ‘love

is religion’, etc The metaphoric expressions in the songs are enticing, even seductive, in their witty suggestiveness There are three types of conceptual metaphors investigated in the present study: orientational metaphors, structural metaphors and ontological metaphors Normally, more than one type of love appears in lyrics and this is logical only when one needs to take many roles in a relationship

Due to the fact that there is few researches on pop song lyrics, this thesis can be one of the leading head to take the lead and to open a new issue for further discussing and researching If anyone is interested in studying the topic of conceptual metaphors of love could find this thesis as useful material

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ABSTRACT

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Rationale 1

1.2 Aims of the Research 2

1.3 Objectives of the Research 2

1.4 Research Questions 2

1.5 Scope of the Research 3

1.6 Significance of the Research 3

1.7 Structure of the Research 4

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 5

2.1 Review of Previous Research 5

2.2 Review of the Theoretical Background 6

2.2.1 Metaphors from Traditional View 6

2.2.2 Metaphors from Cognitive View 8

2.2.3 Conceptual Metaphors 9

2.2.4 Love and Conceptual Metaphors of Love 11

2.3 Summary 15

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 16

3.1 Research Orientations 16

3.1.1 Research Questions 16

3.1.3 Research Approaches 16

3.1.4 Data Collection 16

3.2 Research Methods 16

3.2.1 Major Methods 17

3.2.2 Supporting Methods 18

3.2.3 Data Collection Techniques 18

3.2.4 Data Analysis Technique 19

3.3 Summary 19

CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 20

4.1 Orientational Metaphors 20

4.1.1 Up - Down 20

4.1.2 Here - There 22

4.2 Structural Metaphors 24

4.2.1 Love is a Journey 24

4.2.2 Love is Flying/Floating 29

4.2.3 Love is Movement 31

4.2.4 Loveis Music 32

4.2.5 Love is a Rapture/High 35

4.2.6 Love is Madness/Insanity 37

4.2.7 Love is Magic 39

4.2.8 Love is Religion 40

4.2.9 Love is Closeness 43

4.2.10 Love is a Unity of (Two complementary) Parts 46

4.2.11 Love is (Sun)Light 47

4.2.12 Love is Chromaticity 49

4.3 Ontological Metaphors 51

4.3.1 Love is a Nutrient 52

4.3.2 Love is a Plant 53

4.3.3 Love is a Fluid (In a container) 54

4.3.4 Love is a building/Construct 57

4.3.5 Love is a game (To play) 60

4.3.6 Love is a Sourceof Warmth 62

4.3.7 Love is an Astronomical Object/Phenomenon 63

4.4 Summary 65

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION 66

5.1 Recapitulation 66

5.2 Concluding Remarks 66

5.3 Limitations and Suggestions for Further Studies 68

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale

Metaphor is regarded as an issue of language including some figurative features understood due to the literal words and expressions In fact, metaphor, from the rhetorical perspective, is the method of changing the name which is based on the implicit comparison between two similar things

Recently, the definition of metaphor has considerably changed when the cognitive linguists suppose that metaphor is a powerful cognitive tool for human to give discrete concepts Metaphor is not only a dialect as the structuralists refers to but also a form of human thinking about the world Besides, metaphorical thinking depends on concepts In “Oxford Dictionary

of Psychology”, it is considered as "an expression of the spirit, an idea, or a thought that corresponds to a separate entity or a class entity, or that is the definition or the typical attributes of the entity types or classes of that entity, which may be specific or abstract”

Conceptual metaphors are also known as cognitive ones These are not only the chemical forms of the ideas but also a process of cognitive and functional manifestations forming new ideas The cognitive metaphors are exploited and decoded due to the background knowledge, cultural patterns, psychological characteristics, ethnic thinking, etc about the human spirit Thus, approaching language towards cognitive linguistics is a new direction

in which more current linguists and supporters are interested

Love is the all-time-favorite story, and it is love to be told not only by the romantic poets but by everyone So far, there have been several authors giving research works on love in different levels However, the studies of love

in terms of conceptual metaphors are not interested by many people Each of musical compositions contains its own emotion, feeling and inspiration

Various rhetoric devices are used to describe love, and metaphors appear to

be an effective way to do this among them

The study on the conceptual metaphors in the lyrics of The Carpenters’ love songs will contribute a new direction of love values as well as highlight the profound philosophy of human life in the songs For these reasons, the author has made a decision to choose the topic: "Conceptual metaphors of love

in The Carpenters’ love songs" Hopefully, the analysis of conceptual metaphors can help people have a better understanding of the implicit ideas employed in the lyrics of the songs

1.2 Aims of the Research

The study attempts to find out the conceptual metaphor patterns of love

in The Carpenters’ love songs

1.3 Objectives of the Research

In order to achieve the aim, the study is expected to reach the following objectives:

- To describe the orientational metaphors in The Carpenters’ Love songs;

- To find out the structural metaphors of love in The Carpenters’ Love songs;

- To analyze the ontological metaphors of love in the lyrics of The Carpenters’ Love songs

- What are the structural metaphors of love in The Carpenters’ Love songs?

- How are the ontological metaphors of love manifested in the lyrics of The Carpenters’ Love songs?

1.5 Scope of the Research

The thesis is limited to the conceptual metaphors in the lyrics of The Carpenters’ Love songs, and the other issues related to cognitive linguistics are mentioned as a more convenient way to clarify the conceptual metaphor models within the scope of the subject Indeed, the research is about love between men and women throughout The Carpenter’s Love songs

In order to select the song lyrics with the exact metaphors needed to be analyzed, we focus on the songs belonging to some key words such as “love together”, “love with you”, “love separate”, “love something between” and

“love bond” All the key words are believed to be conventionally used in the metaphors of love with different focused meanings In this study, love simply means love between male and female people Due to the limitation of time and the author’s ability, there are twenty songs investigated and analyzed in the present study

1.6 Significance of the Research

Theoretically, the research results will confirm the theory of cognitive linguistics as a believable approach to analyze the language in general and clarify several issues about the conceptual metaphors through the lyrics of The Carpenters’ Love songs in particular Indeed, conceptual metaphor, which is not just a figure of speech but also a matter of thinking, is an extremely important mechanism for people to perceive the world

Practically, the findings of the research, to some extent, are applied to analyze, evaluate and translate English songs They help the readers and the listeners uncover the implicit thinking of The Carpenters through the lyrics they use in their Love songs By this, we mean that knowledge from this sort

of work will be of great benefit to translators, who should be able to find the possible equivalents in the target language, and the teachers, who would apply these kinds of patterns to their semantic teaching periods

1.7 Structure of the Research

The present study consists of five chapters, in addition to the appendices and the references:

Chapter 1 is begin with the introduction, which gives the reason for choosing the subjects and sets up the aims, the objectives, the scope and the significance of the study

Chapter 2 is aimed at exploring the theoretical background for the thesis, the chapter presents the results of previous researchers about metaphor, conceptual metaphors, love, conceptual metaphors of love

Chapter 3 gives a brief account of the purpose, the participants, and research methods This chapter focus on the background information of the subjects of the study, the instruments used to collect the data, and the procedure of data collection

Chapter 4 is devoted to a detailed description of data analysis and a thorough discussion of the findings of the study In this chapter some explanations and interpretations of the findings are explored

Chapter 5, the conclusion of the thesis, presents the summary of the findings, some limitations and some recommendations for further research

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Review of Previous Research

There have been several studies of conceptual metaphors, in which LOVE has been focused on Xiaowei Fu (2010) supposed that LOVE IS A UNITY metaphor, and the analyst referred to one particular conceptual domain which describes LOVE In Fu’s research (2010), the occurrences of LOVE IS

A UNITY metaphors were investigated, and this research illustrated various instances of the subcategories of the LOVE IS A UNITY metaphor; LOVE described as A UNITY OF TWO COMPLEMENTARY PARTS, PHYSICAL CLOSENESS, or PHYSICAL STABILITY Fu (2010) chose to analyze these subcategories through analyzing various love songs, and the qualitative study showed that LOVE was often described in those songs as a bond between two people which can be irreplaceable, unbreakable or rather fragile

Conceptual metaphors have also been studied by Tissari (2001), and while Fu did not include the diachronic perspective in the study of LOVE IS

A UNITY Tissari did consider this particular phenomenon Unlike Fu (2010), Tissari (2001) did not use lyrics as the focus of her study, instead she used corpora with texts from the Early Modern and Present-Day English period Tissari's (2001) analysis revealed that there is a change in the metaphors of LOVE, but there exists a stability as well Tissari (2001) wrote “People keep fetching their metaphors from the spatial, temporal and sensory domains”, showing that metaphors have been, and are still, reflecting what people experience Moreover, she also found that metaphors connected to agriculture used in Present-Day English are not as clear as in Early Modern English, indicating that people's usage of conceptual metaphors can indeed change over time

In 2011, Tran Thi Thanh Thao gave a comparison between English and Vietnamese songs in terms of the semantics of metaphors of love in her MA

thesis Indeed, the findings of the study reveal some typical metaphorical images of love used in English and Vietnamese love songs, and the value of traditional and contemporary views on metaphors of love

2.2 Review of the Theoretical Background

2.2.1 Metaphors from Traditional View

A metaphor is a figure of speech that refers, for rhetorical effect, to one thing by mentioning another thing It may provide clarity or identify hidden similarities between two ideas Where a simile compares two items, a metaphor directly equates them, and does not use "like" or "as" as does a simile

Metaphors have been studied extensively and there are many different theories concerning them The traditional view on metaphor originates from Aristotle who discussed it in his texts, for example in Poetics According to Aristotle, metaphor is “the application of an alien name by transference either from genus to species or from species to species, or by analogy, that is, proportion” Aristotle agrees that metaphoric use of language gives language distinction, but then again he refers to it by a means of making language more beautiful and less ordinary Some figures of speech Aristotle considers as metaphors do not actually fit in the definition anymore; instead, as for example Rapp (2002/2010) writes, some of them are seen as cases of metonymy or synecdoche Rapp considers Aristotle’s view on metaphor to be actually slightly closer to the modern approach as he says that the later tradition to interpret metaphors sees them as instruments of decoration to delight the hearer

Metaphors are part of figurative language use Some authors defined metaphors as figurative expressions in which words were used in deviating from their literal meaning and common context of use According to Kovecses (2002/2010), most people like to understand metaphors as figures

of speech comparing one thing with another by saying that one is another; for

example she is a tigress The traditional concept of metaphors gave them the following five figures (Kovecses, 2002/2010):

Metaphors are properties of words and they are linguistic phenomena Metaphors are used in order to add some artistic and rhetorical purpose Metaphors are based on a resemblance between the entities compared and identified by them

Metaphors are used consciously and deliberately and using them requires certain talent

Metaphors are by no means an inevitable feature of language; instead, they are used for special effects

When talking about metaphors in the traditional sense, we need to be able to grasp three concepts that are actually the elements of metaphor:

‘tenor’, ‘vehicle’ and ‘ground’ Through these concepts, it will be easier to understand the corresponding concepts in Lakoff and Johnson’s theory Montgomery et al (2007) stated that the vehicle was the word or phrase in a sentence that cannot be taken literally in the context whereas the tenor was the implied meaning of, or the meaning that was referred to, by the vehicle The ground can be understood when we identify what tenor and vehicle have in

common - their ‘common ground’, that is and filter the aspects of the vehicle

not related to tenor, they continue They also make a distinction between two groups of metaphors: explicit and implicit metaphors; when a metaphor is explicit, both vehicle and tenor are clearly specified and also present in the

text This can be seen in the example love is a roller coaster ride, for instance

In this metaphoric expression, love is the tenor, a roller coaster ride is the

vehicle and the ground is the similarity between the two Similarly to a roller coaster ride, love has its ups and downs, for example; going uphill is usually slower and less exhilarating compared to the ride down, but the anticipation and the memories of excitement and thrill carries through the tough times

2.2.2 Metaphors from Cognitive View

The cognitive metaphor theory takes a completely different approach to metaphors It does not see them as unnecessarily flamboyant language use of poetry but rather as an integral part of our being human beings Kövecses (2002/2010) sketched the idea by giving examples of metaphoric language use: He’s without direction in life

I’m where I want to be in life

I’m at a crossroads in my life

She’ll go places in life

He’s never let anyone get in his way

She’s gone through a lot in life

All these examples speak about life and use expressions to do with journeys Kövecses (2002/2010) explained that the domain of journey was used extensively when referring to the sometimes very abstract concept of life According to cognitive linguists, we do this in order to grasp the abstract concept that is of life in terms of the more concrete and tangible concept of journey, he continues According to him, in order for us to try to fully understand an abstract concept, it was actually better to use a concept more concrete, physical or tangible than the abstract target concept we was trying to grasp the idea of He saw only natural and logical beings to rely on our experiences with the physical world as a foundation in this process

Lakoff and Johnson introduced their groundbreaking and at the time even radical theory on metaphors in their book Metaphors We Live By (1980/2003) They did not consider metaphor as simply “a device of the poetic imagination and the rhetorical flourish” and a mere tool of extraordinary language use with little or no connection to our thought and action as understood according to the prevalent theories of metaphor Instead, they claimed that metaphors was in fact present in our everyday life and not only in language use, but in thought and action as well This pervasive nature

of metaphors arises from the fact that the very nature of our ordinary conceptual system was fundamentally metaphoric, they continued, and the concepts governing our thought were not only matters of the intellect but they also governed our everyday functioning It is our concepts that structure what

we perceive and even how we relate to other people and this means our conceptual system indeed plays a crucial part in defining our everyday realities, Lakoff and Johnson wrote Bearing in mind the metaphoric nature of our conceptual system, the metaphor indeed is omnipresent in the way we think, what we experience and what we do every day Language is where our conceptual system can be studied as we are typically not aware of how this system works

2.2.3 Conceptual Metaphors

Conceptual metaphors are seen in language in our everyday lives Conceptual metaphors shape not just our communication, but also shape the way

we think and act In Lakoff and Johnson's work, Metaphors We Live By (1980),

we see how everyday language is filled with metaphors we may not always notice An example of one of the commonly used conceptual metaphors is

"argument is war" This metaphor shapes our language in the way we view argument as war or as a battle to be won It is not uncommon to hear someone say "He won that argument" or "I attacked every weak point in his argument" The very way argument is thought of is shaped by this metaphor of arguments being war and battles that must be won Argument can be seen in other ways than a battle, but we use this concept to shape the way we think of argument and the way we go about arguing Conceptual metaphors are used very often to understand theories and models A conceptual metaphor uses one idea and links

it to another to better understand something For example, the conceptual metaphor of viewing communication as a conduit is one large theory explained with a metaphor So not only is our everyday communication shaped by the language of conceptual metaphors, but so is the very way we understand

scholarly theories These metaphors are prevalent in communication and we do not just use them in language; we actually perceive and act in accordance with the metaphors

A primary tenet of this theory is that metaphors are matter of thought and not merely of language: hence, the term conceptual metaphor The metaphor may seem to consist of words or other linguistic expressions that come from the terminology of the more concrete conceptual domain, but conceptual metaphors underlie a system of related metaphorical expressions that appear on the linguistic surface Similarly, the mappings of a conceptual metaphor are themselves motivated by image schemas which pre-linguistic schemas are concerning space, time, moving, controlling, and other core elements of embodied human experience

Conceptual metaphors typically employ a more abstract concept as target and a more concrete or physical concept as their source For instance, metaphors such as 'the days [the more abstract or target concept] ahead' or 'giving my time' rely on more concrete concepts, thus expressing time as a path into physical space, or as a substance that can be handled and offered as

a gift Different conceptual metaphors tend to be invoked when the speaker is trying to make a case for a certain point of view or course of action For instance, one might associate "the days ahead" with leadership, whereas the phrase "giving my time" carries stronger connotations of bargaining Selection of such metaphors tends to be directed by a subconscious or implicit habit in the mind of the person employing them

The principle of unidirectionality states that the metaphorical process typically goes from the more concrete to the more abstract, and not the other way around Accordingly, abstract concepts are understood in terms of prototype concrete processes The term "concrete," in this theory, has been further specified by Lakoff and Johnson as more closely related to the developmental, physical neural, and interactive body (see embodied

philosophy) One manifestation of this view is found in the cognitive science of mathematics, where it is proposed that mathematics itself, the most widely accepted means of abstraction in the human community, is largely metaphorically constructed, and thereby reflects a cognitive bias unique to humans that uses embodied prototypical processes (e.g counting, moving along a path) that are understood by all human beings through their experiences

2.2.4 Love and Conceptual Metaphors of Love

As this thesis deals with metaphors of love, I considered it necessary to try to define love or at least how love is generally understood in the Western world and cultures Of course, in the confines of this study it is impossible to include an exhaustive description and definition but this section will shed at least some light on how our conception of love has become what it is today

2.2.4.1 Love?

Love carries different kinds of meaning and in fact one can define

different types of love In The Four Loves, Lewis (1960) gives affection,

friendship, erotic love, and the love of God as four archetypes of love These have been studied and define further and for example Tissari (2001) mentioned five varieties of love: ‘eros’ (romantic and sexual love), ‘storge’ (family love), ‘philia’ (friendship love), ‘agape’ (religious love) and ‘khreia’ (love of things) She suggested that of different types of love, eros was the most frequent in different text categories

Ketonen (1984) considered love the most written theme in world literature and continues by writing that the meaning of love is ancient indeed and it seems

to have had an essential role in making human beings human beings (cited in Harpela 2015) In addition, Protasi (2008) agreed that it was indeed eros, the romantic love, which we usually thought of when thinking of love She defined eros as “the passionate attachment we feel for one special individual, who is seen

as beautiful, desirable and valuable” (cited in Harpela 2015)

Love is one of our basic emotions, along with happiness, sadness, anger and fear, for example, as Kövecses (1995/2007) states Although the same general basic emotion categories can be found possibly in all languages and cultures, there seems to be at least minor differences between them Despite these possible differences, we can safely assume that at least some of these basic emotion categories are something that people from different cultures or language background have in common

Why then do we write and sing about love? Rauhala (1984) claims that the possibility of being or falling in love is actually one of the most profound characteristics of the very concept of human being and that love has a strong influence on balancing and enriching our worldview (cited in Harpela 2015) Salo (2008) considered love as a theme timeless, universal, omnipresent and, at least to some degree, part of everyone’s life (cited in Harpela 2015) In this light, it was only logical that love was also one of the most common song themes, although Salo warned that within this air of commonness lies a danger: creating new figures of speech on love can be very difficult (cited in Harpela 2015)

2.2.4.2 Conceptual Metaphors of Love

To approach the subject, we need to take a look the role of (conceptual) metaphors on basic emotion concepts, to which love as well belongs Again, I refer to Lakoff and Johnson’s and Kövecses’study on the matter In their work, they mention some common conceptual metaphors, according to which the metaphoric linguistic expressions in the data will be categorize in the analysis in section 4 To complete the categorizing, some conceptual metaphors have been adopted from other sources as well

Conceptual metaphors and their role in emotion concepts can be culture specific, as Kövecses (1995/2007) wrote, also posing the question of whether the conceptual metaphors are constitutive of the cultural models associated to emotions, or whether they only reflect them He referred to Quinn, who

considered the latter to be true (cited in Kövecses, 1995/2007) Kövecses himself disagreed and, basing his point of view on the study on the prevalent container metaphor for anger, states to a probability of conceptual metaphors with other factors actually contributing to how emotion concepts are constitute Still, Kövecses said that such a black-and-white approach to the matter might not be the best one, agreeing that some metaphors indeed can create reality but some cannot

As mentioned earlier, source domains that are easier to fathom are utilized to define more complicated ones Lakoff and Johnson (1980/2003) state that the concept of LOVE is structured mostly in metaphorical terms The conceptual metaphors used as categories of metaphors in section 4 originate from different sources Among the many conceptual metaphors of love they give, Lakoff and Johnson mentioned the following:

LOVE IS A JOURNEY It is a bumpy ride

THEORIES ARE BUILDINGS Her theory is well- constructed

LOVE IS MADNESS I’m just crazy about Harry

LOVE IS MAGIC I was spellbound

LIFE IS A GAMBLING GAME He’s bluffing

Of these conceptual metaphors, THEORIES ARE BUILDINGS became LOVE IS A BUILDING/CONSTRUCT and LIFE IS A GAMBLING GAME was changed into LOVE IS A GAME (TO PLAY) to meet the needs

of the data better

According to Kövecses (1990), container metaphors3 are central to metaphors of love and in understanding any emotion When in conjunction with emotions, container metaphors work in two different ways: either the emotion is the container, LOVE IS A CONTAINER, or the emotion can be contained in the human body, LOVE IS FLUID IN A CONTAINER Agreeing with both Lakoff and Johnson’s and Kövecses’views, Tissari

(2001) considers subcategories of containment (my heart is empty), amount

(endless love) and exchange (I give my love to you) very common when the

target domain is love She continued by suggesting that when the target domain

was love, people tend to fetch metaphors from spatial (love is lifting me higher), temporal (eternal love) and sensory (blinded by love) domains Also subcategories of containment (my heart is empty), amount (endless love) and exchange (I give my love to you) very common when the target domain is love

Tissari (2006) mentioned the conceptual metaphors LOVE IS A PLANT and LOVE IS A RELIGION/RELIGIOUS RITE, both of which were suitable for the data although the latter became LOVE IS RELIGION Two conceptual metaphors have been adopted from Tammela (2009)In his extensive Licentiate thesis on metaphors of love, Tammela utilized the conceptual metaphor theory He used the conceptual metaphors RAKKAUS

ON ASTRONOMIAA (LOVE IS ASTRONOMY) and RAKKAUS ON MUSIIKKIA (LOVE IS MUSIC) in this study The data required a slight alteration to Tammela’s LOVE IS ASTRONOMY and it became LOVE IS AN ASTRONOMICAL OBJECT/PHENOMENON instead (cited in Harpela 2015) Furthermore, Kövecses (2002/2010) gave the conceptual metaphor LOVE IS

A COLLABORATIVE WORK OF ART, from which I believe Tammela has deduced his conceptual metaphors LOVE IS ART and LOVE IS MUSIC The conceptual metaphor LOVE IS MUSIC suits the purposes of this study the best and the aspect collaborativeness, which Kövecses strongly emphasized in conjunction with LOVE IS A COLLABORATIVE WORK OF ART, will be kept in mind (cited in Harpela 2015)

The data required inventing some additional conceptual metaphors of love as it includes metaphoric expressions that do not match any of the abovementioned conceptual metaphors

LOVE IS FLYING/FLOATING Love is lifting me up

LOVE IS MOVEMENT I want to dance to your beat

LOVE IS CHROMATICITY You show me all the colors of love.

Also metonymy (i.e part for a whole or part for another part) can be treated similarly as metaphors, as Kövecses shows:

INABILITY TO BREATHE STANDS

PHYSICAL CLOSENESS STANDS

SEX STANDS FOR LOVE: They made love.

Of the concepts introduced in this section, the different types of love will

be essential in analyzing the data Eros and storage are the most typical ones

2.3 Summary

In this chapter, we have examined several issues which focus attention

on metaphors from different views Traditionally, a metaphor is a figure of speech that refers, for rhetorical effect, to one thing by mentioning another thing It may provide clarity or identify hidden similarities between two ideas From cognitive view, metaphors are not seen as unnecessarily flamboyant language use of poetry but rather as an integral part of our being human beings The concept of LOVE is structured mostly in metaphorical terms (Lakoff and Johnson 1980/2003) When in the relationship with emotions, container metaphors work in two different ways: either the emotion is the container, LOVE IS A CONTAINER, or the emotion can be contained in the human body, LOVE IS FLUID IN A CONTAINER

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research Orientations

3.1.1 Research Questions

- How are the orientational metaphors organized in The Carpenters’ Love songs?

- What are the structural metaphors of love in The Carpenters’ Love songs?

- How are the ontological metaphors of love manifested in the lyrics of The Carpenters’ Love songs?

3.1.3 Research Approaches

My approach is empirical and mostly qualitative in nature I analyze the data through the cognitive theory of metaphor, using sources that deal with interpreting symbols and symbolic items in supporting my views and interpretations Again, the cognitive theory of metaphor is present, working as a framework for my categorizing, analyzing and interpreting the data I also give each definition one to two examples from The Carpenters’ Love song lyrics, in

order to classify the features and explain what is observed

3.1.4 Data Collection

The Carpenters:

The Carpenters were an American vocal and instrumental duo consisting of siblings Karen and Richard Carpenter Producing a distinctively

soft musical style, they became among the best-selling music artists of all

time During their 14-year career, the Carpenters recorded 11 albums, 31

singles, five television specials, and a short-lived television series Their

career ended in 1983 by Karen's death from heart failure brought on by complications of anorexia Extensive news coverage surrounding the circumstances of her death increased public awareness of eating disorders The duo's brand of melodic pop produced a record-breaking run of hit recordings on the American Top 40 and Adult Contemporary charts, and they became leading sellers in the soft rock, easy listening and adult contemporary genres The Carpenters had three No 1 singles and five No 2 singles on the Billboard Hot 100 and fifteen No 1 hits on the Adult Contemporary chart In addition, they had twelve top 10 singles To date, the Carpenters' album and single sales total more than 100 million units

The Carpenters’ love songs:

hit, "(They Long to Be) Close to You" to their later songs, like "Make Believe It's Your First Time" and "Where Do I Go from Here?" It remained on

the Billboard charts for over six months and was certified Gold

3.2 Research Methods

3.2.1 Major Methods

Due to the main aims and objectives of the study, library research methods would be mainly carried out throughout the process While Tissari (2001) studied LOVE metaphors over time, and Fu (2010) investigated a particular LOVE metaphor in song lyrics, The Carpenters’ use of conceptual metaphors of LOVE has not yet been examined Consequently, the lyrics of The Carpenters’ love songs were analyzed to see which conceptual metaphors they used and if their usage of them has changed

The lyrics were analyzed and the occurrences which describe LOVE, or certain other aspects strongly connected to the idea of LOVE, such as

relationships and couples, were singled out and placed in appropriate metaphor categories The matter of which category the phrases belonged to was selected mostly with the help of the descriptions of conceptual metaphors made by other linguists The phrases with similar structure and meaning as the references were subsequently put in the appropriate category Metaphorical phrases were selected after careful consideration and analysis by the researcher, but since the analysis of the lyrics is based on the mental interpretations of the situations, the selection of phrases is somewhat arbitrary

3.2.2 Supporting Methods

conceptual categories to give the system of the basis conceptual metaphors and derivative conceptual metaphors, thereby analyzing the interaction between the layer concept, interoperability of metaphor and cultural harmony

in order to explain the concept in each models studied metaphor The statistical methods will also help us find each type of cognitive metaphors in the lyrics of the songs

conceptual system (or spiritual vocabulary systems) Not only is the simple product of the intellect, but also the system was structured concept feelings, emotions, behavior, among human being By analysis the concepts in each song, clarifying the nature of the conceptual/cognitive metaphor model in the role as perceptions, thoughts, feelings and human activities

3.2.3 Data Collection Techniques

The data for analysis are mainly samples taken from love songs released in 1997 by The Carpenters The major technique to collect data is survey with the observation of instances of linguistic expressions used to signal metaphors The lyrics were gathered from a web page called http://www.metrolyrics.com/, a data bank of many song lyrics

3.2.4 Data Analysis Technique

We collect metaphors of love in The Carpenters’ Love songs All the collected data are descriptively and qualitatively processed The samples are interpreted contextually with the reference to the traditional linguists’ maxims and contemporary ones’ to check if these metaphors should be analyzed in the most preferable and reasonable way Metaphors are divided into different categories according to the procedure of transferring meanings from the vehicles to the tenors

Then we seek other metaphors that belong to the same catalogue and study their meanings to find out the inter-relationship between them If there

is a cognitive relationship between these metaphors, they are looked from contemporary view If there is not, the traditional views are used Therefore, metaphors are divided into two groups from two different views

Afterwards, we find out the similarities and differences of metaphors of love in those love songs

After we obtain the taxonomy of the linguistic devices carrying these semantic features, we suggest some ways of perceiving metaphors and look for their distribution in the value of songs The information obtained will be used for studying the similarities and differences between the two views and drawing one procedure of comprehending metaphors

3.3 Summary

The research orientations and the research methods are presented in this chapter Data for the present analysis, which are collected from The Carpenters’ Love songs, form a corpus of 20 songs The approach is empirical and mostly qualitative in nature Due to the main aims and objectives of the study, library research methods would be mainly carried out throughout the process Statistical, descriptive, and analytical methods are also regarded as supporting methods of the study

CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 4.1 Orientational Metaphors

Orientational metaphors typically have something to do with spatial orientation They are based on our physical bodies and the way our bodies function in our physical environment Orientational metaphors could have been placed under LOVE IS A JOURNEY, based on them being spatial movement

of a kind (love is lifting me up) Two spatial pairs occur frequently in the data:

up-down and here-there

I used to say, no promises

Let's keep it simple

But freedom only helps you say goodbye

It took a while for me to learn

That nothin' comes for free

The price I've paid is high enough for me

“The Carpenters - I Need To Be In Love”

In the lyrics of “I need to be in love”, The Carpenters use orientational metaphors to express that having regret in love is paying high price The protagonist was saying no promises to him or her relationship in the past, and then realizes that freedom is the primary reason lead to break up As a result,

the lesson was learned but the protagonist will pay even a costly price to

getting back love The lyrics seem to suggest the protagonist is needed to be

A little hope, goes up in smoke

Just how it goes, goes without saying

Solitaire

And by himself it's easy to pretend

He'll never love again

Ohhh

And keeping to himself he plays the game

Without her love it always ends the same

While life goes on around him everywhere

He's playing solitaire

Solitaire, solitaire

“Solitaire - The Carpenters”

The “Solitaire” song is expressing the same feeling that the protagonist describes hope as a thing, and it is very fragile Goes up here is an instance of container metaphor - hope could goes up in smoke The lyrics tell about the man who cannot forget his one and only love, and how important the woman means to him

Sharing horizons that are new to us

Watching the signs along the way

Talkin' it over, just the two of us

Workin' together day to day

Together

Together

And when the evening comes, we smile

So much of life ahead

We'll find a place where there's room to grow

And yes, we've just begun

“We’ve only just begun - The Carpenters”

In “We’ve only just begun”, the lyric shows us a lot of activities like sharing horizons, watching the sighs, talking and working Although they are new things or the thing which happens every day, the protagonist emphasize the word “together” by saying it many times that proves the couple wanted to

be with each other so much Furthermore, the lyric includes cases of orientational metaphor is we will find a place where there’s room to grow Grow means improve or increase of something, and in this occasion, the protagonist want to grow his relationship

Similarly, “You’re the one” also includes cases of orientational metaphors

You've grown so deep inside of me

You're everything I feel and see

And you're the one, you're the one I love

The protagonist wants to tell that his or her lover is grown deeper

interesting choice of words as it creates tension, causing the stanza stand out

In fact, grown deeper is an instance of container metaphor - the protagonist

wants to get deeper in something The lyrics are rich in metaphorical

expressions and the song will be discussed in other subsections as well The lyrics tell about how meaningful the protagonist’s lover to him/her The Carpenters’choices of metaphoric expressions utilizing the vertical orientational metaphors support this air of sublime love

4.1.2 Here - There

Another pair of orientational aspects The Carpenters often use in the selected lyrics is here-there Again, this refers to us as physical beings in a physical environment with spatial dimensions Usually HERE is good and THERE is not good; one wants to enjoy the moment here and now Then

again, one might, when dissatisfied with the current situation and surroundings, want to be somewhere else, somewhere good - THERE

Dreamin', I must be dreamin'

Or am I really lyin' here with you

And there I go I just fall in love again, and when I do

Can't help myself, I fall in love with you

’I just fall in love again’ (The Carpenters love songs album)

In ‘I just fall in love again’, the protagonist wish to be here but instead is being there; being with the object of her/his love The reality there is so far away

from what the protagonist would with to be true that s/he simply desperately

wants things to be well again and wants to be here with the loved one

Similar occurrence with the pair here–there can be found in ‘Feels So Good’: That tomorrow will be just the same for you and me

All I need will be mine if you are here

‘Top Of The World’ (The Carpenters Love songs album)

When the object of the protagonist’s love is here with the protagonist, everything will be mine; love is here as well with them Here is a place for loving

In a similar fashion, The Carpenters write in ‘Fine’ about turning

Where do I go from here?

Tell me where do I go from here?

You said you'd take me through the years

So where do I go from here?’Fine’

‘Where do I go from here?’(The Carpenters Love song album)

In this occasion, there is the threatening possibility that the

protagonist’s love interest will go away from HERE to somewhere not HERE

(which equals to THERE, of course) As the protagonist is HERE, she wishes the love interest to be HERE as well, as it is indeed HERE where love is

The lyrics of these three songs all utilize the spatial relationship of here and there but The Carpenters use words and metaphoric expressions in different ways in order to add emphasis or contrast to the lyrics This proves how different types of metaphors can coexist in one metaphoric expression, overlapping each other – and that metaphoric expressions can be interpreted

the travelers ⇒ the lovers

the vehicle ⇒ the love relationship itself the journey ⇒ events in the relationship

the distance covered ⇒ the progress made

the obstacles encountered ⇒ the difficulties experienced

decisions about which way to go ⇒ choices about what to do

the destination of the journey ⇒ the goal(s) of the relationship This systematic set of correspondences characterizes the conceptual metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEY Kövecses points out that these elements were not included within the domain of love until it was structured by the

domain of journey In a way, the concept of journey as a matter of fact helped create the concept of love (p 9) As Lakoff and Johnson (1980/2003) write, when utilizing the domain of journey, the emotional aspects of love are

almost never under the lovers’ active control - love can be off the tracks, or on

The conceptual metaphors LOVE IS FLYING/FLOATING and LOVE IS MOVEMENT have been included in this subsection as they, although not being journeying as such, can include the element of it The conceptual metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEY is used by Lakoff and Johnson, and later by Kövecses

On our way:

This subsection includes the metaphoric linguistic expression in the data, where source domains are related to traffic As traffic itself is closely related to journeying, placing them here was a natural choice In the lyrics of

‘We’ve only just begun’ words and phrases such as on our way are from the lexical field of traffic

We've only just begun to live

White lace and promises

A kiss for luck and we're on our way

‘We’ve only just begun’ (The Carpenters Love song album)

Traffic is related to journeying or to vehicles and pedestrians using routes of transportation Instead of uncharted territory, the protagonist is venturing on well-known paths as s/he is cruising on a way This must refer to speed, as the person is definitely not taking her/his time on a pedestrian path, for example, but has chosen an express route to whatever destination s/he is to reach A highway is a main road that is open to everyone so there will be no road tolls to be paid and the stops on the way have been minimized by the choice of the route There will be no scenic spots to marvel at and most probably no other sights than those of infrastructure and possible some big, notable natural sights that cannot be avoided The protagonist is extremely

determined in her/his decision and wants to reach her/his destination very quickly and reliably and with as little delay as possible

In ‘Goodbye to love’, the protagonist is just as determined to reach the destination:

So I've made my mind up

I must live my life alone

And though it's not the easy way

I guess I've always known

I'd say goodbye to love

‘Goodbye to love’ (The Carpenters Love song album)

S/he does not wish to be taken to easy way, indicating again that s/he

does not believe in love anymore but instead believes in doing rather than trying to do something S/he is determined to reach the destination, whatever

it may be, and s/he will not be contented until s/he has finished the journey For the protagonist, there is no easy way, just need to say goodbye

Actually, in the lyrics of ’Rainy days and Mondays’, The Carpenters refer to the kinds of threats or obstacles mentioned earlier:

Some kind of lonely clown

Rainy days and Mondays always get me down

’Rainy days and Mondays’ (The Carpenters Love song album)

Here the protagonist and her/his companion in love are facing obstacles

or Rainy days and Mondays Bearing in mind what Kövecses (2002/2012, pp 8-9) said about the symbolism of LOVE IS A JOURNEY, these Rainy days

as an obstacle two loved ones might meet when trying to reach their goals,

in their relationship In those days, it made the protagonist feeling down, and

so should it be in the lovers’ destination as well

The protagonist of ’I just fall in love again’ has taken a more active role

in the pursuit of love:

Magic, it must be magic

The way I hold you and the night just seems to fly

Easy, for you to take me to a star

Heaven is that moment when I look into your eyes

’I just fall in love again’ (The Carpenters album)

The protagonist in ’I just fall in love again’ hold her/his loved one to stay with her/him through the path the protagonist has chosen S/he considers this path her/his own but wants the other person to stay with her/him The

protagonist is also able or willing to fly to reach the object of love quicker this

way or maybe s/he needs help from the loved one What is important is that the lovers stay together and walk this way together so they will find love

In ’All you get from love is a love song’ talks about get from love is a

Oh it's a dirty old shame

When all you get from love is a love song

That's got you layin' up nights just waitin'

For the music to start

’All you get from love is a love song’ (The Carpenters album)

The protagonist and possibly also her/his love interest know the road

they have taken which takes them music to start which is at the same time both

this destination instead of the one they intended or maybe the author wants to emphasize that the couple is strictly following the path they have chosen It is also possible the couple got a ride to the destination by a third party or even more likely, it was love itself that carried the couple to their destination In any

case, this destination, this dirty old shame, is only the starting point for their

real journey They needed to reach this destination so that they could begin a new one, as if everything before that particular point in time had only taken

place so that the lovers would be able to get from love

Girls in town:

The metaphoric expressions that show a specific destination, even a vaguely expressed one, are placed under this subsection, the destination of the journey often equals to the goal or goals of the relationship in question Indeed, love can take us to places both familiar and strange

In ’Close to you’ the protagonist wants her/his love interest to follow the protagonist into town in her/his dreams

That is why all the girls in town

‘Close to you’ (The Carpenters album)

This states the protagonist is in charge, it is her/his dreams that set the

path for the lovers to follow The destination is town, which first of all is far

away, within a great distance The distance covered may portray the progress made in the relationship, which would mean the lovers will progress well in their relationship The protagonist is obviously longing for something new, something s/he has not experienced before This time her/his dreams will guide the lovers into love they have never felt before, something revitalizing and rejuvenating, giving them a novel experience of love

In contrast, the protagonist of ‘I won’t last a day without you’ gives the reins of love to the love interest:

So many times when the city seems to be

Without a friendly face, a lonely place

It's nice to know that you'll be there if I need you

And you'll always smile, it's all worthwhile

‘I won’t last a day without you’ (The Carpenters album, 2010)

The protagonist is expecting her/his angelic love interest is a lonely

participant during the lovers’ journey The protagonist wants the love interest

to be need and to guide and guard on their journey of love

4.2.2 Love is Flying/Floating

Flying is a way to travel, either by an aircraft, wings or some other means As Biedermann (1993) tells, there are numerous mythical figures and creatures with wings: angels, demons, fairies and spirits, for example Any winged creature is a creature of sky or heaven; their feathers make them able to rise above the world of human beings with its limits and they also have the power to carry the creature to gods (p 334) One of the most intriguing stories about flying is the myth of Icarus Biedermann (1993) discusses also this myth and connects it to the eternal wish of man to be able to rise above the earth like a bird Icarus’father Daedal us made his son wings of wax and feathers so that they could escape and end their imprisonment In addition, Biedermann mentions the common interpretation and the moral of the story: despite his father’s warning, Icarus soars higher and higher until the sun melts the waxen wings and

Icarus falls down and dies - hubris leads to downfall being the moral of the

story One should not reach for the skies (p 84)(cited in Harpela 2015) Metaphors concerning flying may be connected to orientational metaphors as flying happens in vertical space with an up and a down as well Therefore HAPPY IS UP, which can be altered to LOVE IS UP, may be applicable to some of these and may help to open the metaphors One can be

carried by the wings of love, first love can be seen as testing one’s wings and when one is experiencing elation, one is flying high, for example Floating

usually happens either in air or on water (or other liquid) When one floats,

one is most often motionless or moved only by currents, winds or other such factors Floating also occurs when there is no gravity When used in conjunction with love, it is often with container metaphors; one can float in love, for example LOVE IS A FLUID (IN A CONTAINER)

In ‘We’ve only just begun’, we find the protagonist fly

Before the risin' sun, we fly

So many roads to choose

We'll start out walkin' and learn to run

(And yes, we've just begun)

‘We’ve only just begun’ (The Carpenters album)

The protagonist’s feet are above the ground, which usually refers to positive feelings or feeling good S/he is experiencing elation and feeling as if elevated by the power of love

In ‘Where do I go from here?’, the author writes about flying as well, but in a different sense

Like fallin' leaves on windy days

Flutter past and they fly away

I though I knew you oh so well

And I need you now

I need to fell you in the night

I need to your smile so warm and bright

I wish my mind could let you go

‘Where do I go from here?’ (The Carpenters album)

The lyrics tell about dreams of flying but then noticing feet still being

which in this context might refer to the protagonist being afraid to place complete trust in love The love the two lovers share proves out to be stronger than this fear, carrying them on its wings over all the hurt and sorrow The protagonist wants to take wing in order to rise above the ground; to reach for

the skies instead of being flutter past S/he is reaching for something better,

aiming higher and higher S/he does not want ordinary, mundane love but is instead longing for sublime love

The love the protagonist of ‘All you get from love is a love song’ feels

has made the world lighting up

Although tomorrow I know the sun is rising

Lighting up the world for everyone, but not for me

‘All you get from love is a love song’ (The Carpenters album)

It is as if s/he is about to break the nature order; love has broken the chains that bind the protagonist and drag her/him down The world will be free to lighting up in the sun of love or fly to the destination of her/his choice with her/his lover

4.2.3 Love is Movement

Movement happens in a certain space; it is changing one’s position or place from one to another It is not necessarily journeying as such – it can be moving for fun (physical exercise, sport, etc.) or involuntary moving, such as falling Thus, physical exercise and doing sport are included in LOVE IS A JOURNEY and under LOVE IS MOVEMENT as they are movement as well Some of the metaphors here could just as well have been placed under LOVE

IS A GAME, as in playing and doing sport share some aspects, such as competition, rules and a controlled environment Still, as this would have ripped the aspect of moving in space from them, this was the best solution

In ‘We’ve only just begun’, the author gives run and walking as

opposites

Before the risin' sun, we fly

So many roads to choose

We'll start out walkin' and learn to run

(And yes, we've just begun)

’We’ve only just begun’ (The Carpenters album)

Running will take a person to the destination quicker than walking but both of them indicate the wish to use one’s own feet Moving on foot is often more beneficial than driving, for example Furthermore, the terrain may cause challenges for vehicles and moving on foot is always a health-conscious choice Regulating one’s speed is easier on foot and stopping is easy The protagonist of ‘We’ve only just begun’ proposes the preference of walking over running to or with her/his loved one They obviously want to walk or run (i.e journey) together but there is no rush, they have the time to marvel what their environment has to offer and to enjoy each other’s company The lyrics

lets one assume the lovers have walking often in the past, enjoying their love

with no rush Then again, it seems inevitable that this shall be their last walk

in the sun - perhaps their love is about to come to end for some reason Later

in the lyrics the protagonist confesses that s/he cannot and most probably will not slow down as s/he is eager to enjoy the journey, the events in their relationship and their love The protagonist being unable to slow down suggests that s/he has lost control of her/his emotion; love has taken over Then again, running can be understood as running away The lovers have no need to run away or escape; they are enjoying what their love has to offer LOVE IS A JOURNEY is a conceptual metaphor under which a multitude of various kinds of metaphorical linguistic expression can be placed All the elements of journeying are present: the travelers, the means of transport, the types of journeying, the journey itself, the destinations, and so

on Also rides, even amusement rides, can be part of this Journeying is moving from one place to another, so flying, floating and moving as such are included as well Orientational metaphors are present as well, as journeying is moving in a physical space

4.2.4 Love is Music

As music is a form of art, the heading of this section could be LOVE IS ART, but the data required the more precise conceptual metaphor, as almost

all the occasions in which The Carpenters album uses the domain of art in their metaphoric expressions use the domain of music This is no surprise as The Carpenters album is indisputably an expert in that field However, The

Carpenters album does refer to love as an art in the lyrics of ‘Password’ but

as the metaphor is not extended in the lyrics and as she uses the domain of music more extensively in the lyrics selected, this section will concentrate on the conceptual metaphor LOVE IS MUSIC

Although I use the conceptual metaphor LOVE IS MUSIC, the conceptual metaphor LOVE IS A COLLABORATIVE WORK OF ART Lakoff and Johnson and Kövecses write about shares a great deal of characteristics and qualities with it and most of them can be almost directly applied to LOVE IS MUSIC Lakoff and Johnson (1980/2003) define the conceptual metaphor LOVE IS A COLLABORATIVE WORK OF ART to be

“particularly forceful, insightful and appropriate” (pp 140) Through the metaphor, we can make sense of our experiences of love, Lakoff and Johnson continues According to them, the metaphor needs to be interpreted through a whole chain of metaphors, depending on how we perceive collaborativeness, work and art Some of the entailments we include in the words are metaphorical

in nature, as seen in love is an aesthetic experience for example, while others are not, such as love involves shared responsibility (pp 140-144) Kövecses

(2002/2010) considers this conceptual metaphor utilizing less-conventional source domains He points out that conventional metaphors of love concentrate mostly on passive aspects of romantic love, whereas LOVE IS A COLLABORATIVE WORK OF ART highlights the collaborativeness Kövecses writes an extensive list of qualities of this collaboration, but the basic idea behind it is that the lovers must together decide and work through all the phases of the work of art in question He defines it as “the product of two ordinary people attempting to make sense of their everyday love experiences” (p 36), which can be done through (pop) lyrics as well