Principles of chemistry a molecular approach 3rd ed nivaldo tro 2016

giaso trinfh Principles of chemistry a molecular approach 3rd ed nivaldo tro 2016 Principles of chemistry a molecular approach 3rd ed nivaldo tro 2016 Principles of chemistry a molecular approach 3rd ed nivaldo tro 2016 Principles of chemistry a molecular approach 3rd ed nivaldo tro 2016 Principles of chemistry a molecular approach 3rd ed nivaldo tro 2016 Principles of chemistry a molecular approach 3rd ed nivaldo tro 2016 Principles of chemistry a molecular approach 3rd ed nivaldo tro 2016 Principles of chemistry a molecular approach 3rd ed nivaldo tro 2016 Principles of chemistry a molecular approach 3rd ed nivaldo tro 2016

Main groups 1Aa 1 H 1.008 2A Li Be 6.94 9.012 11 Na 12 Mg 22.99 24.31 19 K Main groups Metals Metalloids Transition metals 26 Fe 8B 27 Co 54.94 55.85 58.93 43 Tc 44 Ru 45 Rh [98] 101.07 102.91 20 Ca 3B 21 Sc 4B 22 Ti 5B 23 V 6B 24 Cr 7B 25 Mn 39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 37 Rb 38 Sr 39 Y 40 Zr 41 Nb 42 Mo 85.47 87.62 88.91 92.91 95.95 56 Ba 57 La 91.22 55 Cs 132.91 137.33 138.91 178.49 180.95 183.84 186.21 190.23 87 Fr 88 Ra 89 Ac 104 Rf 105 Db 106 Sg 107 Bh [223.02] [226.03] [227.03] [261.11] [262.11] [266.12] 58 Ce 72 Hf Lanthanide series Actinide series 5A 15 N 6A 16 7A 17 4.003 B 4A 14 C O F 10 Ne 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18 13 Al 14 Si 15 P 16 S 17 Cl 18 Ar 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.06 35.45 39.95 3A 13 Nonmetals 8A 18 He 10 28 Ni 1B 11 29 Cu 2B 12 30 Zn 58.69 63.55 65.38 69.72 72.63 74.92 78.97 79.90 83.80 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.90 131.29 78 Pt 79 Au 80 Hg 81 Tl 82 Pb 83 Bi 84 Po 85 At 86 Rn 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.2 208.98 [208.98] [209.99] [222.02] 108 Hs 109 Mt 110 Ds 111 Rg 112 Cn 113 114 Fl 115 116 Lv 117* 118 [264.12] [269.13] [268.14] [271] [272] [285] 59 Pr 60 Nd 61 Pm 62 Sm 63 Eu 64 Gd 65 Tb 66 Dy 67 Ho 68 Er 69 Tm 70 Yb 71 Lu 140.12 140.91 144.24 [145] 150.36 151.96 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.05 174.97 90 Th 91 Pa 92 U 93 Np 94 Pu 95 Am 96 Cm 97 Bk 98 Cf 99 Es 100 Fm 101 Md 102 No 103 Lr 232.04 231.04 238.03 [237.05] [244.06] [243.06] [247.07] [247.07] [251.08] [252.08] [257.10] [258.10] [259.10] [262.11] 73 Ta 74 W 75 Re 76 Os 77 Ir 46 Pd 47 Ag 48 Cd 31 Ga 32 Ge 49 In 50 Sn 33 As 51 Sb by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry Atomic masses in brackets are the masses of the longest-lived or most important isotope of radioactive elements *Element 117 is currently under review by IUPAC 52 Te 35 Br 53 I 36 Kr 54 Xe [292] [289] a The labels on top (1A, 2A, etc.) are common American usage The labels below these (1, 2, etc.) are those recommended 34 Se List of Elements with Their Symbols and Atomic Masses Element Actinium Aluminum Americium Antimony Argon Arsenic Astatine Barium Berkelium Beryllium Bismuth Bohrium Boron Bromine Cadmium Calcium Californium Carbon Cerium Cesium Chlorine Chromium Cobalt Copernicium Copper Curium Darmstadtium Dubnium Dysprosium Einsteinium Erbium Europium Fermium Flerovium Fluorine Francium Gadolinium Gallium Germanium Gold Hafnium Hassium Helium Holmium Hydrogen Indium Iodine Iridium Iron Krypton Lanthanum Lawrencium Lead Lithium Livermorium Lutetium Magnesium Manganese Symbol Ac Al Am Sb Ar As At Ba Bk Be Bi Bh B Br Cd Ca Cf C Ce Cs Cl Cr Co Cn Cu Cm Ds Db Dy Es Er Eu Fm Fl F Fr Gd Ga Ge Au Hf Hs He Ho H In I Ir Fe Kr La Lr Pb Li Lv Lu Mg Mn Atomic Number 89 13 95 51 18 33 85 56 97 83 107 35 48 20 98 58 55 17 24 27 112 29 96 110 105 66 99 68 63 100 114 87 64 31 32 79 72 108 67 49 53 77 26 36 57 103 82 116 71 12 25 a Mass of longest-lived or most important isotope b The names of these elements have not yet been decided Atomic Mass a 227.03 26.98 243.06a 121.76 39.95 74.92 209.99a 137.33 247.07a 9.012 208.98 264.12a 10.81 79.90 112.41 40.08 251.08a 12.01 140.12 132.91 35.45 52.00 58.93 285a 63.55 247.07a 271a 262.11a 162.50 252.08a 167.26 151.96 257.10a 289a 19.00 223.02a 157.25 69.72 72.63 196.97 178.49 269.13a 4.003 164.93 1.008 114.82 126.90 192.22 55.85 83.80 138.91 262.11a 207.2 6.94 292a 174.97 24.31 54.94 Element Meitnerium Mendelevium Mercury Molybdenum Neodymium Neon Neptunium Nickel Niobium Nitrogen Nobelium Osmium Oxygen Palladium Phosphorus Platinum Plutonium Polonium Potassium Praseodymium Promethium Protactinium Radium Radon Rhenium Rhodium Roentgenium Rubidium Ruthenium Rutherfordium Samarium Scandium Seaborgium Selenium Silicon Silver Sodium Strontium Sulfur Tantalum Technetium Tellurium Terbium Thallium Thorium Thulium Tin Titanium Tungsten Uranium Vanadium Xenon Ytterbium Yttrium Zinc Zirconium *b *b Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Mass Mt Md Hg Mo Nd Ne Np Ni Nb N No Os O Pd P Pt Pu Po K Pr Pm Pa Ra Rn Re Rh Rg Rb Ru Rf Sm Sc Sg Se Si Ag Na Sr S Ta Tc Te Tb Tl Th Tm Sn Ti W U V Xe Yb Y Zn Zr 109 101 80 42 60 10 93 28 41 102 76 46 15 78 94 84 19 59 61 91 88 86 75 45 111 37 44 104 62 21 106 34 14 47 11 38 16 73 43 52 65 81 90 69 50 22 74 92 23 54 70 39 30 40 268.14a 258.10a 200.59 95.95 144.24 20.18 237.05a 58.69 92.91 14.01 259.10a 190.23 16.00 106.42 30.97 195.08 244.06a 208.98a 39.10 140.91 145a 231.04 226.03a 222.02a 186.21 102.91 272a 85.47 101.07 261.11a 150.36 44.96 266.12a 78.97 28.09 107.87 22.99 87.62 32.06 180.95 98a 127.60 158.93 204.38 232.04 168.93 118.71 47.87 183.84 238.03 50.94 131.293 173.05 88.91 65.38 91.22 113 115 284a 288a Principles of Chemistry A Molecular Approach Third ediTion NivAldo J Tro Westmont College Editor-in-Chief: Jeanne Zalesky Senior Acquisitions Editor: Terry Haugen Director of Development: Jennifer Hart Marketing Manager: Will Moore Development Editor: Erin Mulligan Program Managers: Jessica Moro / Sarah Shefveland Project Manager: Beth Sweeten Text Permissions Project Manager: Tim Nicholls Program Management Team Lead: Kristen Flatham Project Management Team Lead: David Zielonka Production Management: Francesca Monaco, CodeMantra Compositor: CodeMantra Design Manager: Derek Bacchus Interior Designer: Gary Hespenheide Cover Designer: Gary Hespenheide Illustrator: Precision Graphics Photo Researchers: Lauren McFalls / Mark Schaefe, Lumina Datamatics Photo Leads: Maya Melenchuk / Eric Shrader Operations Specialist: Maura Zaldivar-Garcia Cover and Chapter Opening Illustrations: Quade Paul Credits and acknowledgments for materials borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within the text or on p xxx Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America This publication is protected by Copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited 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theoretical Textbooks Chemistry, Physical and theoretical Study and teaching (Higher) I Title QD453.3.T76 2016 540 dc23 2014040200 10—V011—16 15 14 13 12 ISBN 10: 0-321-97194-9; ISBN 13: 978-0-32197194-4 www.pearsonhighered.com To Michael, Ali, Kyle, and Kaden About the Author Nivaldo Tro is a professor of chemistry at Westmont College in Santa Barbara, California, where he has been a faculty member since 1990 He received his Ph.D in chemistry from Stanford University for work on developing and using optical techniques to study the adsorption and desorption of molecules to and from surfaces in ultrahigh vacuum He then went on to the University of California at Berkeley, where he did postdoctoral research on ultrafast reaction dynamics in solution Since coming to Westmont, Professor Tro has been awarded grants from the American Chemical Society Petroleum Research Fund, from the Research Corporation, and from the National Science Foundation to study the dynamics of various processes occurring in thin adlayer films adsorbed on dielectric surfaces He has been honored as Westmont’s outstanding teacher of the year three times and has also received the college’s outstanding researcher of the year award Professor Tro lives in Santa Barbara with his wife, Ann, and their four children, Michael, Ali, Kyle, and Kaden In his leisure time, Professor Tro enjoys mountain biking, surfing, reading to his children, and being outdoors with his family iii Brief Contents Preface Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving xv 2 Atoms and Elements 42 Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations 76 Chemical Quantities and Aqueous Reactions 124 Gases 176 Thermochemistry 220 The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom 262 Periodic Properties of the Elements 300 Chemical Bonding I: The Lewis Model 340 10 Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Shapes, Valence Bond Theory, and Molecular Orbital Theory 11 Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces 428 Solutions Chemical Kinetics Chemical Equilibrium Acids and Bases Aqueous Ionic Equilibrium Free Energy and Thermodynamics Electrochemistry Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry 478 776 Appendix I: Common Mathematical Operations in Chemistry A-1 Appendix II: Useful Data A-7 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 iv 378 518 562 602 646 692 734 Appendix III: Answers to Selected Exercises A-17 Appendix IV: Answers to In-Chapter Practice Problems A-42 Glossary G-1 Credits C-1 Index i-1 Contents Preface xv Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving 1.1 Atoms and Molecules 1.2 The Scientific Approach to Knowledge 1.3 The Classification of Matter The States of Matter: Solid, Liquid, and Gas Classifying Matter According to Its Composition: Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 1.4 Physical and Chemical Changes and Physical and Chemical Properties 1.5 Energy: A Fundamental Part of Physical and Chemical Change 1.6 The Units of Measurement 12 13 The Standard Units 13 The Meter: A Measure of Length 14 The Kilogram: A Measure of Mass 14 The Second: A Measure of Time 14 The Kelvin: A Measure of Temperature 14 Prefix Multipliers 16 Derived Units: Volume and Density 17 Volume 17 Density 18 Calculating Density 18 1.7 The reliability of a Measurement 19 Counting Significant Figures 21 Exact Numbers 22 Significant Figures in Calculations 23 Precision and Accuracy 24 1.8 Solving Chemical Problems 25 Converting from One Unit to Another 25 General ProblemSolving Strategy 27 Units Raised to a Power 29 Problems Involving an Equation 30 Chapter in review 33 Key Terms 33 Key Concepts 33 Key Equations and Relationships 34 Key Learning Objectives 34 Exercises Problems by Topic 34 Cumulative Problems 38 Challenge Problems 39 Conceptual Problems 40 Questions for Group Work 41 Answers to Conceptual Connections 41 34 Atoms and Elements 2.1 imaging and Moving individual Atoms 2.2 Modern Atomic Theory and the laws That led to it 42 43 45 The Law of Conservation of Mass 45 The Law of Definite Proportions 46 The Law of Multiple Proportions 47 John Dalton and the Atomic Theory 48 2.3 The discovery of the Electron 48 Cathode Rays 49 Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment: The Charge of the Electron 50 2.4 The Structure of the Atom 2.5 Subatomic Particles: Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons in Atoms 50 52 Elements: Defined by Their Numbers of Protons 53 Isotopes: When the Number of Neutrons Varies 54 Ions: Losing and Gaining Electrons 56 2.6 Finding Patterns: The Periodic law and the Periodic Table 57 Ions and the Periodic Table 59 2.7 Atomic Mass: The Average Mass of an Element’s Atoms 2.8 Molar Mass: Counting Atoms by Weighing Them 61 62 The Mole: A Chemist’s “Dozen” 62 Converting between Number of Moles and Number of Atoms 63 Converting between Mass and Amount (Number of Moles) 64 Chapter in review 68 Key Terms 68 Key Concepts 69 Key Equations and Relationships 69 Key Learning Objectives 69 Exercises 70 Problems by Topic 70 Cumulative Problems 72 Challenge Problems 73 Conceptual Problems 74 Questions for Group Work 74 Answers to Conceptual Connections 75 v vi Contents Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations 76 3.1 Hydrogen, oxygen, and Water 3.2 Chemical Bonds 77 79 Ionic Bonds 79 Covalent Bonds 80 3.3 representing Compounds: Chemical Formulas and Molecular Models 80 Types of Chemical Formulas 80 Molecular Models 82 3.4 An Atomic-level view of Elements and Compounds 3.5 ionic Compounds: Formulas and Names 82 86 Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds 87 Naming Ionic Compounds 87 Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms Only One Type of Cation 89 Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms More Than One Kind of Cation 90 Naming Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions 91 Hydrated Ionic Compounds 92 3.6 Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names 93 Naming Molecular Compounds 93 Naming Acids 94 Naming Binary Acids 95 Naming Oxyacids 95 96 Molar Mass of a Compound 97 Using Molar Mass to Count Molecules by Weighing 97 3.8 Composition of Compounds 99 Conversion Factors from Chemical Formulas 101 102 Chapter in review 107 111 114 Key Terms 114 Key Concepts 114 Key Equations and Relationships 115 Key Learning Objectives 116 Exercises 4.1 Climate Change and the Combustion of Fossil Fuels 125 4.2 reaction Stoichiometry: How Much Carbon dioxide? 127 4.3 limiting reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield 131 Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield from Initial Reactant Masses 133 Solution Concentration 138 Using Molarity in Calculations 139 Solution Stoichiometry 143 4.5 Types of Aqueous Solutions and Solubility Writing Balanced Chemical Equations 109 3.11 organic Compounds 124 4.4 Solution Concentration and Solution Stoichiometry 137 Calculating Molecular Formulas for Compounds 104 Combustion Analysis 105 3.10 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations Aqueous reactions Making Pizza: The Relationships Among Ingredients 127 Making Molecules: Mole-to-Mole Conversions 128 Making Molecules: Mass-to-Mass Conversions 128 3.7 Formula Mass and the Mole Concept for Compounds 3.9 determining a Chemical Formula from Experimental data Chemical Quantities and 144 Electrolyte and Nonelectrolyte Solutions 145 The Solubility of Ionic Compounds 146 4.6 Precipitation reactions 148 4.7 representing Aqueous reactions: Molecular, ionic, and Complete ionic Equations 152 4.8 Acid–Base and Gas-Evolution reactions 154 Acid–Base Reactions 154 Gas-Evolution Reactions 157 117 Problems by Topic 117 Cumulative Problems 120 Challenge Problems 121 Conceptual Problems 122 Questions for Group Work 122 Answers to Conceptual Connections 122 4.9 oxidation–reduction reactions 159 Oxidation States 161 Identifying Redox Reactions 163 Combustion Reactions 165 Chapter in review 167 Key Terms 167 Key Concepts 167 Key Equations and Relationships 168 Key Learning Objectives 168 Exercises 168 Problems by Topic 168 Cumulative Problems 172 Challenge Problems 173 Conceptual Problems 174 Questions for Group Work 175 Answers to Conceptual Connections 175 Gases 5.1 Breathing: Putting Pressure to Work 5.2 Pressure: The result of Molecular Collisions Pressure Units 179 176 177 178 vii Contents 6.4 Quantifying Heat and Work 230 Heat 230 Thermal Energy Transfer 232 Work: Pressure–Volume Work 234 6.5 Measuring 𝚫E for Chemical reactions: Constantvolume Calorimetry 235 6.6 Enthalpy: The Heat Evolved in a Chemical reaction at Constant Pressure 238 Exothermic and Endothermic Processes: A Molecular View 240 Stoichiometry Involving ∆H: Thermochemical Equations 241 5.3 The Simple Gas laws: Boyle’s law, Charles’s law, and Avogadro’s law 180 Boyle’s Law: Volume and Pressure 181 Charles’s Law: Volume and Temperature 183 Avogadro’s Law: Volume and Amount (in Moles) 185 5.4 The ideal Gas law 5.5 Applications of the ideal Gas law: Molar volume, density, and Molar Mass of a Gas 186 188 Molar Volume at Standard Temperature and Pressure 189 Density of a Gas 189 Molar Mass of a Gas 191 5.6 Mixtures of Gases and Partial Pressures 192 Collecting Gases over Water 196 5.7 Gases in Chemical reactions: Stoichiometry revisited 6.7 Constant-Pressure Calorimetry: Measuring 𝚫Hrxn 6.8 Hess’s law and other relationships involving 𝚫Hrxn 6.9 Enthalpies of reaction from Standard Heats of Formation 242 244 247 Standard States and Standard Enthalpy Changes 247 Calculating the Standard Enthalpy Change for a Reaction 249 Chapter in review 253 Key Terms 253 Key Concepts 253 Key Equations and Relationships 254 Key Learning Objectives 254 Exercises 255 Problems by Topic 255 Cumulative Problems 258 Challenge Problems 259 Conceptual Problems 260 Questions for Group Work 260 Answers to Conceptual Connections 261 198 Molar Volume and Stoichiometry 200 5.8 Kinetic Molecular Theory: A Model for Gases 201 The Nature of Pressure 202 Boyle’s Law 202 Charles’s Law 202 Avogadro’s Law 202 Dalton’s Law 202 Temperature and Molecular Velocities 203 5.9 Mean Free Path, diffusion, and Effusion of Gases 205 5.10 real Gases: The Effects of Size and intermolecular Forces 207 The Effect of the Finite Volume of Gas Particles 207 The Effect of Intermolecular Forces 208 Van der Waals Equation 209 Chapter in review 210 Key Terms 210 Key Concepts 210 Key Equations and Relationships 211 Key Learning Objectives 211 Exercises 212 Problems by Topic 212 Cumulative Problems 215 Challenge Problems 217 Conceptual Problems 218 Questions for Group Work 218 Answers to Conceptual Connections 219 Thermochemistry 6.1 Chemical Hand Warmers 6.2 The Nature of Energy: Key definitions 220 221 222 Units of Energy 224 6.3 The First law of Thermodynamics: There is No Free lunch Internal Energy 225 225 The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom 7.1 Schrödinger’s Cat 7.2 The Nature of light 262 264 264 The Wave Nature of Light 265 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 267 Interference and Diffraction 268 The Particle Nature of Light 270 7.3 Atomic Spectroscopy and the Bohr Model 273 7.4 The Wave Nature of Matter: The de Broglie Wavelength, the Uncertainty Principle, and indeterminacy 275 The de Broglie Wavelength 276 The Uncertainty Principle 277 Indeterminacy and Probability Distribution Maps 279 ... countries, of Pearson Education, Inc or its affiliates Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Tro, Nivaldo J Principles of Chemistry : a molecular approach / Nivaldo J Tro, WestmontCollege... www.pearsonhighered.com To Michael, Ali, Kyle, and Kaden About the Author Nivaldo Tro is a professor of chemistry at Westmont College in Santa Barbara, California, where he has been a faculty... 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