Encyclopedia of human computer interaction

Encyclopedia of Human Computer Interaction Claude Ghaoui Liverpool John Moores University, UK IDEA GROUP REFERENCE Hershey • London • Melbourne • Singapore Acquisitions Editor: Development Editor: Senior Managing Editor: Managing Editor: Copy Editors: Typesetters: Support Staff: Cover Design: Printed at: Michelle Potter Kristin Roth Amanda Appicello Jennifer Neidig Shanelle Ramelb and Sue VanderHook Diane Huskinson Sharon Berger, Amanda Kirlin, and Sara Reed Lisa Tosheff Yurchak Printing Inc Published in the United States of America by Idea Group Reference (an imprint of Idea Group Inc.) 701 E Chocolate Avenue, Suite 200 Hershey PA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: cust@idea-group.com Web site: http://www.idea-group-ref.com and in the United Kingdom by Idea Group Reference (an imprint of Idea Group Inc.) Henrietta Street Covent Garden London WC2E 8LU Tel: 44 20 7240 0856 Fax: 44 20 7379 0609 Web site: http://www.eurospanonline.com Copyright © 2006 by Idea Group Inc All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI of the trademark or registered trademark Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of human computer interaction / Claude Ghaoui, Editor p cm Summary: "This encyclopedia presents numerous experiences and insights, of professional from around the world, on human computer interaction issues and perspectives" Provided by publisher Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 1-59140-562-9 (hardcover) ISBN 1-59140-798-2 (ebook) Human-computer interaction Encyclopedias I Ghaoui, Claude QA76.9.H85E 52 2006 004'.019 dc22 2005031640 British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library All work contributed to this encyclopedia set is new, previously-unpublished material The views expressed in this encyclopedia set are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher Editorial Advisory Board Ravin Balakrishnan, University of Toronto, Canada David Benyon, Napier University, UK Mary Czerwinski, Microsoft Research, USA David R Danielson, Stanford University, USA Gabriel Jacobs, University of Wales Swansea, UK John Knight, University of Central England, UK Ritchie Macefield, Staffordshire University, UK Kai Richter, Computer Graphics Centre (ZGDV), Germany Amy M Shapiro, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, USA List of Contributors Abhishek / Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India 295 Albers, Michael J / The University of Memphis, USA 338 Al-Hanbali, Nedal / Al-Balqa’ Applied University, Jordan 242 Alkhalifa, Eshaa M / University of Bahrain, Bahrain 79 Alpert, Sherman R / IBM T.J Watson Research Center, USA 100 Andrade, Javier / University of A Coruña, Spain 280, 381 Ares, Juan / University of A Coruña, Spain 280, 381 Atladóttir, Gyda / University of Iceland, Iceland 220 Ball, Linden J / Lancaster University, UK 211 Barboni, Eric / Université Paul Sabatier, France 154 Bardone, Emanuele / University of Pavia, Italy 1, 408 Bastide, Rémi / Université Paul Sabatier, France 603 Basu, Anupam / Indian Institute of Technology, Kharapur, India 295 Becker, Shirley Ann / Florida Institute of Technology, USA 457 Beekhuyzen, Jenine / Griffith University, Australia 680 Benyon, David / Napier University, UK 344 Berlanga, A J / University of Salamanca, Spain 504 Bevan, Nigel / Serco Usability Services, UK 362 Blecker, Thorsten / Hamburg University of Technology, Germany 722 Bocchiola, Michele / LUISS University, Italy 408 Boechler, Patricia M / University of Alberta, Canada 574, 648 Boucouvalas, Anthony C / Bournemouth University, UK 227, 324, 523 Bourguet, Marie-Luce / Queen Mary University of London, UK 451 Campos, José Creissac / Universidade Minho, Braga, Portugal 45 Carroll, John M / The Pennsylvania State University, USA 567 Chalmers, Patricia A / Air Force Research Laboratory, USA 179 Chen, Chaomei / Drexel University, USA 24, 273 Christou, Georgios / Cyprus College, Cyprus 668 Chroust, G / J Kepler University Linz, Austria 414 Clayton, John F / Waikato Institute of Technology, New Zealand 175, 435 Convertino, Gregorio / The Pennsylvania State University, USA 567 Danielson, David R / Stanford University, USA 652, 661, 713 de Freitas, Sara / Birbeck College, University of London, UK 553, 706 Demetriadis, Stavros / Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece 73 Devedžiæ, Vladan / University of Belgrade, Serbia and Montenegro 105 Diaper, Dan / Middlesex University, USA 579 Dix, Alan / Lancaster University, UK 548 Doff, Sabine / Ludwig Maximilians Universität, München, Germany 396 Drira, Khalil / Laboratoire d’Analyse et d’Architecture des Systèmes du CNRS (LAAS-CNRS), France 12, 128 Duchastel, Philip / Information Design Atelier, Canada 332 Elliott, Jessica Paradise / Georgia Institute of Technology, USA 317 Faiola, Anthony / Indiana University, USA 609 Fairweather, Peter G / IBM T.J Watson Research Center, USA 257 Farooq, Umer / IBM T.J Watson Research Center, USA 257 Ferre, Xavier / Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain 422 García, F J / University of Salamanca, Spain 486, 504 García, J / University of Salamanca, Spain 504 García, Rafael / University of A Coruña, Spain 280, 381 Garrett, Bernard Mark / University of British Columbia, Canada 160, 404 Gaudioso, Elena / Artificial Intelligence Department, UNED, Spain Ghaoui, Claude / Liverpool John Moores University, UK 441, 494 Gil, A B / University of Salamanca, Spain 486 Graf, Günter / University of Klagenfurt, Austria 722 Gunnarsdóttir, Sigrún / Siminn, Iceland 220 Häkkilä, Jonna / University of Oulu, Finland 680 Hall, Lynne / University of Sunderland, UK 303 Harrison, Michael D / University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK 45 Hassenzahl, Marc / Darmstadt University of Technology, Germany 266 Henley, Mary / Flow Interactive Ltd., London, UK 622 Henry, Pradeep / Cognizant Technology Solutions, India 626 Hindmarch, Mark / University of Sunderland, UK 641 Hua, Zhigang / Chinese Academy of Sciences, China 120 Hürst, Wolfgang / Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Germany 187, 355 Hvannberg, Ebba Thóra / University of Iceland, Iceland 220 Ip, Barry / University of Wales Swansea, UK 692 Jacobs, Gabriel / University of Wales Swansea, UK 692 Janvier, William A / Liverpool John Moores University, UK 494 Jaspers, M.W.M / University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands 597 Jefsioutine, Marie / University of Central England, UK 150 Jiang, Hong / University of Nebraska, USA 348 John, David / Bournemouth University, UK 227, 324, 523 Jorge, Joaquim A / Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal 441 Juristo, Natalia / Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain 422 Kantardzic, Mehmed / University of Louisville, USA 389 Karoulis, Athanasis / Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece 73 Keates, Simeon / IBM T.J Watson Research Center, USA 92, 317 Kettley, Sarah / Napier University, UK 31, 429 Kinshuk / Massey University, New Zealand 170 Knight, John / University of Central England, UK 150, 196, 199 Kontos, John / National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece 479 Kotzé, Paula / University of South Africa, South Africa 165 Koyama, Mauro F / Centro de Pesquisas Renato Archer—CenPRA, Brazil .12 Lacaze, Xavier / Université Paul Sabatier, France 154 Lauer, Tobias / Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Germany 355 Levene, Mark / Birbeck College, University of London, UK 553, 706 Lobo, Natasha / Drexel University, USA 24, 273 Lu, Hanqing / Chinese Academy of Sciences, China 120 Luppicini, Rocci J / University of Ottawa, Canada .68 Ma, Wei-Ying / Microsoft Research Asia, China 120 Macefield, Ritchie / Staffordshire University, UK 112 Macfadyen, Leah P / The University of British Columbia, Canada 143, 373, 396, 471 Magnani, Lorenzo / University of Pavia, Italy 1, 408 Magoulas, George D / University of London, UK 729 Malagardi, Ioanna / National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece 479 Mandl, Thomas / University of Hildesheim, Germany 53 Mohamed, Khaireel A / Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Germany 463 Montero, Miguel / Centro de Profesores y Recursos de Albacete, Spain Moreno, Ana M / Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain 422 Nabuco, Olga / Centro de Pesquisas Renato Archer—CenPRA, Brazil 12 Navarre, David / Université Paul Sabatier, France 154, 603 Noyes, Jan / University of Bristol, UK 205, 622 Ottmann, Thomas / Institut fur Informatik, Germany 463 Oulasvirta, Antti / Helsinki Institute for Information Technology, Finland 630 Owen, Robert S / Texas A&M University-Texarkana, USA 615, 673 Palanque, Philippe / Université Paul Sabatier, France 154, 603 Pearson, Will / Sheffield Hallam University, UK 85 Pereira, Edeneziano D / Centro de Pesquisas Renato Archer—CenPRA, Brazil .12 Polovina, Simon / Sheffield Hallam University, UK 85 Pombortsis, Andreas / Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece 73 Poole, Alex / Lancaster University, UK 211 Qudrat-Ullah, Hassan / York University, Canada 311 Rashad, Sherif / University of Louisville, USA 389 Rentroia-Bonito, Maria Alexandra / Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal 441 Richter, Kai / Computer Graphics Centre (ZGDV), Germany 287 Roda, Claudia / American University of Paris, France 38, 686 Rodríguez, Santiago / University of A Coruña, Spain 280, 381 Roibás, Anxo Cereijo / University of Brighton, UK 634, 699 Röse, Kerstin / University of Kaiserslautern, Germany 136, 253 Rosson, Mary Beth / The Pennsylvania State University, USA 567 Roth, Volker / OGM Laboratory LLC, USA 287 Sadeghian, Pedram / University of Louisville, USA 389 Sadoun, Balqies / Al-Balqa’ Applied University, Jordan 234, 242 Salovaara, Antti / Helsinki Institute for Information Technology, Finland 630 Sas, Corina / Lancaster University, UK 511 Seoane, María / University of A Cora, Spain 381 Seta, Kazuhisa / Osaka Prefecture University, Japan 588 Shapiro, Amy M / University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, USA 518 Sharples, Mike / University of Nottingham, Jubilee Campus, UK 542 Silva, Andrés / Technical University of Madrid, Spain 280 Singh, Shawren / University of South Africa, South Africa 165, 261, 548 Singley, Mark K / IBM T.J Watson Research Center, USA 257 Soh, Leen-Kiat / University of Nebraska, USA 18, 348 Suárez, Sonia / University of A Coruña, Spain 381 Tan, Huachun / Tsinghua University, Beijing, China 60 Thomas, Julie / American University of Paris, France 38, 686 Toprani, Kaushal / Drexel University, USA 273 Trauth, Eileen / The Pennsylvania State University, USA 567 Trewin, Shari / IBM T.J Watson Research Center, USA 92, 317 Verhaart, Michael / Eastern Institute of Technology, New Zealand 170 Villemur, Thierry / LAAS-CNRS, France 128 Whitworth, Brian / New Jersey Institute of Technology, USA 533, 559 Woods, Sarah / University of Hertfordshire, UK 303 Woolrych, Alan / University of Sunderland, UK 641 Xiao, Lu / The Pennsylvania State University, USA 567 Xie, Xing / Microsoft Research Asia, China 120 Xu, Zhe / Bournemouth University, UK 227, 324, 523 Zhang, Yujin / Tsinghua University, Beijing, China .60 Contents Abduction and Web Interface Design / Lorenzo Magnani and Emanuele Bardone Adaptable and Adaptive Web-Based Educational Systems / Elena Gaudioso and Miguel Montero Agent-Based System for Discovering and Building Collaborative Communities / Olga Nabuco, Mauro F Koyama, Edeneziano D Pereira, and Khalil Drira 12 Agent-Supported Interface for Online Tutoring / Leen-Kiat Soh 18 Analyzing and Visualizing the Dynamics of Scientific Frontiers and Knowledge Diffusion / Chaomei Chen and Natasha Lobo 24 Art as Methodology / Sarah Kettley 31 Attention Aware Systems / Claudia Roda and Julie Thomas 38 Automated Deduction and Usability Reasoning / José Creissac Campos and Michael D Harrison 45 Automatic Evaluation of Interfaces on the Internet / Thomas Mandl 53 Automatic Facial Expression Analysis / Huachun Tan and Yujin Zhang 60 Case Study on the Development of Broadband Technology in Canada, A / Rocci J Luppicini 68 Cognitive Graphical Walkthrough Interface Evaluation / Athanasis Karoulis, Stavros Demetriadis, and Andreas Pombortsis 73 Cognitively Informed Multimedia Interface Design / Eshaa M Alkhalifa 79 Communication + Dynamic Interface = Better User Experience / Simon Polovina and Will Pearson 85 Computer Access for Motor-Impaired Users / Shari Trewin and Simeon Keates 92 Computer-Based Concept Mapping / Sherman R Alpert 100 Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning / Vladan Devedž iæ 105 Conceptual Models and Usability / Ritchie Macefield 112 Cooperative Framework for Information Browsing in Mobile Environment, A / Zhigang Hua, Xing Xie, Hanqing Lu, and Wei-Ying Ma 120 CSCW Experience for Distributed System Engineering / Thierry Villemur and Khalil Drira 128 Cultural Diversity and Aspects of Human Machine Systems in Mainland China / Kerstin Röse 136 Culture(s) of Cyberspace, The / Leah P Macfadyen 143 Design Frameworks / John Knight and Marie Jefsioutine 150 Design Rationale for Increasing Profitability of Interactive Systems Development / Xavier Lacaze, Philippe Palanque, Eric Barboni, and David Navarre 154 Development of the Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) Interface, The / Bernard Mark Garrett 160 Development Methodologies and Users / Shawren Singh and Paula Kotzé 165 Dynamic Personal Portfolio Using Web Technologies, A / Michael Verhaart and Kinshuk 170 Education, the Internet, and the World Wide Web / John F Clayton 175 Effect of Usability Guidelines on Web Site User Emotions, The / Patricia A Chalmers 179 Elastic Interfaces for Visual Data Browsing / Wolfgang Hürst 187 Engagability / John Knight 196 Ethics and HCI / John Knight 199 Expectations and Their Forgotten Role in HCI / Jan Noyes 205 Eye Tracking in HCI and Usability Research / Alex Poole and Linden J Ball 211 From User Inquiries to Specification / Ebba Thóra Hvannberg, Sigrún Gunnarsdóttir, and Atladóttir Gyda 220 Fuzzy Logic Usage in Emotion Communication of Human Machine Interaction / Zhe Xu, David John, and Anthony C Boucouvalas 227 GIS Applications to City Planning Engineering / Balqies Sadoun 234 GIS-Based Interactive Database System for Planning Purposes, A / Nedal Al-Hanbali and Balqies Sadoun 242 Web-Based Human Machine Interaction in Manufacturing Web-based HMI changes and enhances several workflows, especially in manufacturing information processing (AWK, 1999) This triggers several consequences CONSEQUENCES OF WEB-BASED HMI Through the standardized technologies used in Webbased HMI, all other forms of applications that build upon Internet technologies are distributable on the shop floor to every worker The consequences affect the following fields of activity with extended HMI processes: Collaboration on the shop floor Data collection Communication and coordination with the management HMI processes themselves The availability of a full networked computer enables collaboration applications (e.g., workflow management systems, instant messaging, and voiceover Internet Protocol (IP) on the shop floor Internet technologies enable the intuitive integration of those technologies and interfaces that support the worker in his or her special environment For example, workers in the assembly may interact directly with engineers via the IP-based speech and video connections to solve special problems or to learn specific work processes cooperatively The aerospace industry uses such methods for the assembly of complicated parts of planes Those intraorganizational virtual relationships help to reduce costs through Webswitched communication by reducing or, in the case of wireless techniques, by replacing the necessary cable lanes and a markedly eased setup of infrastructure through the use of open standards The Web-based interfaces enable an accompanying data collection through the integration of dataentry screens into the normal workflow screens of the interface The mobilization of computers allows the worker to have a personalized pad, which enables mobile data collection in various applications (e.g., logistics or quality assurance) Those pads or devices have sufficient computation power and offer connectivity to use specialized equipment, such as Bluetooth724 headsets for speech entry The networked local computer may use a Web service on a remote server for speech recognition The high resolution of screens and the integration into an intranet on the shop floor push the setup of Web-based training on the job in manufacturing Especially relearned, low-educated workers show good results, if they are trained in short lessons during their work hours (Schmidt/Stark, 1996) Furthermore, an effect of the extended use of computers and the training on abilities to handle computers has positive effects on the diffusion of new information systems and the resulting processes (Rozell & Gardner, 1999) The extended Web-based interaction abilities also virtualize the communication and coordination with the management of the organization Operators have access to upper level information via Web browsers, and the top-down communication becomes more intuitive, which directly simplifies the coordination structures (Eberts, 1997) Although the improved interfaces have widespread effects on information handling on the shop floor, the most important aspect remains the HMI itself HMI has several similarities to human computer interaction in the office world, although there are important differences These include the extensive application of touch-screen interaction and the feedback via the activities of the controlled machine The other interaction scenarios are comparable with common HCI scenarios Indeed, there are differences in the work environment (industrial settings), the design of the computers (use of touch screens, no keyboards or mice) and the abilities of the workers (Fakun& Greenough, 2002) These differences require an analysis of Web-based HMI on the shop floor that differentiates from the results of common HCI The Web-enabled facilities induce two contrary consequences: Web-based information distribution leads to a more intuitive and efficient HMI, which decreases the interaction complexity for the human This induces reduced qualification requirements, because the handling of machines requires less specialized knowledge This leads to the hypothesis that there are lesser skills necessary for workers interacting with machines Web-Based Human Machine Interaction in Manufacturing The diffusion of Internet technologies enables a networking of machines and information systems, which demands the usage of those optimization possibilities for competitive improvements This results in an increasing HMI complexity, because much more information is to be handled on the shop floor, which requires additional skills of the workers Furthermore, the span of control of a single worker over different machines may increase This leads to the hypothesis that additional skills of workers are necessary Workers on the shop floor may not have the necessary skills for the extended screen-oriented information handling, although they are often specialists and well-trained (Mikkelsen et al., 2002) Therefore, cooperation between the human resources and planning departments in manufacturing has to clarify whether the workers should receive extended training or whether the screen and information design has to be adapted according to the user’s abilities To evaluate the consequences in practical cases, we have to consider the resulting behavior that is necessary for fulfilling the tasks within manufacturing Those behaviors can be categorized as follows (Strahe, 1995): Skill-Based Behavior: Well-learned, sensory-motor behavior analogous to nearly instinctive hand and foot actions while driving a car Rule-Based Behavior: Actions triggered by a certain pattern of stimuli A computer using an if-then algorithm to initiate an appropriate response could execute these actions Knowledge-Based Behavior: Responding to new situations High-level situation assessment and evaluation, consideration of alternative actions in light of various goals (making decisions and multifactor scheduling of actions) HMI has shifted dramatically the possible behaviors in operating machines Skill-based behavior has dominated the pre-computerized HMI, where machines only were usable based on the skills of workers The rise of numeric control pushed the rule-based behavior into the forefront Workers have only assisted the machines by inserting punch cards, which have been prepared by engineers The diffusion of computerized, programmable control architectures enabled the direct influence of skilled workers again (Strahe, 1995) and is promoted through the upcoming Web-based HMI knowledge-based behavior on the shop floor Compromising the technological advances in HMI has changed the machine control itself as well as the interaction with all actors on and off the shop floor To benefit from those changes, a coordinated implementation of the technology and organizational processes is required (Wu, 2002) FUTURE TRENDS The realization of the potential of Web-based HMI requires an adequate implementation of technical and organizational structures First, management has to assure whether a ubiquitous Web-based HMI infrastructure is desirable The additional benefits of Web-based HMI are reasonable only if there is a demand for it (Stolovitch, 1999) Therefore, an implementation of the described technologies and organizational changes should be accomplished if: Extended knowledge-based behaviors are required; and Complex manufacturing tasks with extended information processing requirements on the shop floor are necessary If those tasks are not necessary, an isolated application of Web-based HMI will bring forth some benefits on the existing work processes However, the gain of the full potentials of Web-based HMI requires an integration of the various information systems on the shop floor, the implementation of adequate organizational structures, managerial processes, as well as education strategies for online training on the job Those action fields induce bundled measures in many aspects of the factory and at the same time form the main future trends in Web-based HMI We concentrate here on the issues concerning the interactions of humans and (Web-enabled) machines 725 Web-Based Human Machine Interaction in Manufacturing Adaptation Information Systems and Machining Infrastructure Technological barriers are critical Web-based HMI scenarios require adequate machinery that has embedded computation power Moreover, there has to be a networking infrastructure Barriers result from the existing infrastructure Technology management has to ensure the implementation of Internet technologies within the production system Facilities as well as information systems have to be strategically equipped with Internet technologies (Blecker, 2006) This also means that existing information systems may be extended to meet the new requirements Development of an Education Strategy Indirect communication over different Internet-based communication technologies requires employees to have sufficient knowledge in handling information technologies They also should have a basic understanding of how the omnipresent network operates; otherwise, they are likely to see it as a black box This would lead to a passive use of the information network, where an active use really is required Therefore, human resource management has to train employees to meet the requirements The training also should reduce the resistance of employees The suggested mechanisms make the work environment more transparent Indeed, this transparency has to be dealt with carefully, because it also allows the detailed reconstruction of the usage and the spying of the interaction behavior of the employees Ergonomics and Motivation Yi and Hwang (2003) have shown that applicationspecific self-efficacy, enjoyment, and learning-goal orientation all determine the actual usage of a Webbased information system Those aspects have to be considered during the setup of a Web-based humanmachine infrastructure Especially in the exposed areas on the shop floor, the design of the devices and the interaction possibilities beyond traditional HCI are important Therefore, the distributed content has to be adopted for use on the shop floor, although the representation also has to satisfy the requirements 726 of normal screen design, as is shown in Ozok and Salvendy (2004) The adoption should boil down the information to the most important messages This can be assured using semantic technologies (Geroimenko & Chen, 2003) and the use of short abstracts and keywords The input workflows should be implemented in wizard style, for example, so that scrolling and additional mouse-like movements on the screen can be omitted Production Portals for Visual Representation To design enterprise-wide screen guidelines based on the information system integration, it is necessary to set up a strategy for visual integration of information systems as well as the machine control for the workers on the shop floor Production portals are a solution to those challenges A production portal is a digital enterprise portal that is used by a manufacturing organization or plan as a means to assist its decision-making activities (Huang & Mak, 2003) These portals are able to deliver adapted interfaces, for example, for experts or beginners with the help of dynamically generated pages based on Web technologies Through the dynamic linking capabilities of Web technologies (e.g., the use of Web services for the delivery of information from enterprise resource planning systems), the integration of all information sources into one screen design can be realized Due to the characteristics of work on the shop floor, multitasking also is not a desired feature An explorer-like tree (Botsch & Kunz, 2001) organizes all of the personalized features that are relevant for the worker In this case, workers not have to work with different application windows but can navigate in one browser window between information sources and data entry forms through relatively simple links CONCLUSION The evolution in human machine systems will be driven in the future by new information technologies Management has to react to those changes by the application of the latest technological advancements in interface design Special attention is to be further placed on input technologies such as augmented Web-Based Human Machine Interaction in Manufacturing reality or, for example, data gloves, which will be integrated into the human-machine system through Internet technologies (Roco & Bainbridge, 2003) Furthermore, human-centered aspects, such as cognitive models of workers, that are psychologically tested also have to be integrated into screen and/or input interface design Web-based infrastructures enable the necessary flexibility and adaptability of interfaces REFERENCES AWK, Aachener Werkzeugmaschinen-Kolloquium (1999) Internet-Technologien für die Produktion— Neue Arbeitswelt in Werkstatt und Betrieb In AWK (Hrsg.), Wettbewerbsfaktor Produktionstechnik, Aachener Perspektiven (pp 357-398) Aachen Balint, L (1995) Adaptive human-computer interfaces for man-machine interaction in computerintegrated systems Computer Integrated Manufacturing Systems, 8(2), 133-142 Blecker, Th (2003) Towards a production concept based on Internet technologies Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Production Management - IEPM’03, Port, Portugal Blecker, Th (2006) Web based manufacturing Berlin: Erich Schmidt Verlag.University of Klagenfurt Botsch, V., & Kunz, C (2001) Visualization and navigation of networked information spaces, the Matrix BrowserI Retrieved February 6, 2004, from http://www.hci.iao.fraunhofer.de/ fileadmin/ user_upload/BotschKunz2002_Matrix Browser.pdf Chittaro, L (2003) Human-computer interaction with mobile devices and services Berlin: Springer Eberts, R.E (1997) Computer based instruction In M Helander, T.K Landauer, & P Prabhu (Eds.), Handbook of human-computer interaction (pp 825-841) Amsterdam: Elsevier Fakun, D., & Greenough, R.M (2002) User-interface design heuristics for developing usable industrial hypermedia applications Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing, 12(2), 127-149 Geroimenko, V., & Chen, C (2003) Visualizing the semantic Web—XML-based Internet and information visualizationI Berlin: Springer Huang, G.Q., & Mak, K.L (2003) Internet applications in product design and manufacturing Berlin: Springer Mikkelseen, et al (2002) Job characteristics and computer anxiety in the production industry Computers in Human Behaviour, 18, 223-239 Nagamachi, M (Ed.) (1992) Design for manufacturability: A systems approach to concurrent engineering and ergonomics Washington, DC: CRC Press Ozok, A.A., & Salvendy, G (2004) Twenty guidelines for the design of Web-based interfaces with consistent language Computers in Human Behavior, 20, 149-161 Roco, M., & Bainbridge, W.S (Eds.) (2003) Converging technologies for improving human performance Dordrecht Rozell, E.J., & Gardner III, W.L (1999) Computerrelated success and failure: A longitudinal field study of the factors influencing computer-related performance Computers in Human Behavior, 15, 1-10 Schmidt, H., & Stark, G (1996) Computer-based training in der betrieblichen lernkultur Bielefeld Stahre, J (1995) Evaluating human/machine interaction problems in advanced manufacturing Computer Integrated Manufacturing Systems, 8(2), 143-150 Stolovitch, D (Ed.) 1999) Handbook of human performance technology: Improving individual and organizational performance worldwide San Francisco: Pfeiffer Wu, B (Ed.) (2002) Handbook of manufacturing and supply systems design: From strategy formulations to system operation Washington, DC: CRC Press Yi, M.Y., & Hwang, Y (2003) Predicting the use of Web-based information systems: Self-efficacy, enjoyment, learning goal orientation, and the technology acceptance model International Journal of Human-Computer Studies 59, 431-449 727 Web-Based Human Machine Interaction in Manufacturing KEY TERMS Embedded Devices: Full-featured computers that are integrated into machines HMI in Manufacturing: Relation between a human operator and one or more machines via an interface for embracing the functions of machine handling, programming, simulation, maintenance, diagnosis, and initialization Industrial Ethernet: Ethernet technology that is adjusted to specific environmental conditions (e.g., regarding electromagnetic compatibility, shaking, moisture, and chemical resistance in manufacturing) Production Portal: The linking of all available information systems into one standardized screen Production portals aggregate heterogeneous systems in manufacturing and provide secure, structured, and personalized information for individual users (e.g., based on job functions) Ubiquitous Computing: Trend to integrate information and communication technologies into all devices 728 Voice-Over IP: Standard for making telephone calls via an Internet connection It enables the flexible use of different input devices, including video telephone applications Web-Based HMI: An advanced and extended form of computerized HMI characterized by the logical separation of the computer unit from the machine itself Web Pad (or Handheld PC): Devices that are connected via wireless technologies to an intranet (WLAN, Bluetooth, GPRS/UMTS) and offer a fullfeatured operating system with a Web browser Web Service: The term Web services describes a standardized way of integrating Web-based applications using the XML, SOAP, WSDL, and UDDI open standards over an Internet protocol backbone XML is used to tag the data, SOAP is used to transfer the data, WSDL is used to describe the services available, and UDDI is used to list what services are available Used primarily as a means for businesses to communicate with each other and with clients, Web services allows organizations to communicate data without intimate knowledge of each other’s IT systems behind the firewall 729 Web-Based Instructional Systems George D Magoulas University of London, UK INTRODUCTION Information and communication technologies have played a fundamental role in teaching and learning for many years Technologies, such as radio and TV, were used during the 50s and 60s for delivering instructional material in audio and/or video format More recently, the spread of computer-based educational systems has transformed the processes of teaching and learning (Squires, Conole, & Jacobs, 2000) Potential benefits to learners include richer and more effective learning resources using multimedia and a more flexible pace of learning In the last few years, the emergence of the Internet and the World Wide Web (WWW) have offered users a new instructional delivery system that connects learners with educational resources and has led to a tremendous growth in Web-based instruction Web-based instruction (WBI) can be defined as using the WWW as the medium to deliver course material, manage a course (registrations, supervision, etc.), and communicate with learners A more elaborate definition is due to Khan (1997), who defines a Web-based instructional system (WIS) as “ a hypermedia-based instructional program which utilises the attributes and resources of the World Wide Web to create a meaningful learning environment where learning is fostered and supported.” Relan and Gillani (1997) have also provided an alternative definition that incorporates pedagogical elements by considering WBI as “ the application of a repertoire of cognitively oriented instructional strategies within a constructivist and collaborative learning environment, utilising the attributes and resources of the World Wide Web.” Nowadays, WISs can take various forms depending on the aim they serve: • Distance-learning (DL) systems’ goal is providing remote access to learning resources at a reduced cost The concept of DL (Rowntree, 1993) is based on: (i) learning alone, or in small • • • groups, at the learner’s pace and in their own time and place, and (ii) providing active learning rather than passive with less frequent help from a teacher Web-based systems, such as intelligent tutoring systems (Wenger, 1987), educational hypermedia, games and simulators (Granlund, Berglund, & Eriksson, 2000), aim at improving the learning experience by offering a high level of interactivity and exploratory activities, but require a significant amount of time for development The inherent interactivity of this approach leads learners to analyse material at a deeper conceptual level than would normally follow from just studying the theory and generates frequently cognitive conflicts that help learners to discover their possible misunderstandings and reconstruct their own cognitive models of the task under consideration Electronic books provide a convenient way to structure learning materials and reach a large market (Eklund & Brusilovsky, 1999) Providers of training aim to offer innovative educational services to organisations for workplace training and learning, such as to supplement and support training in advance of live training, update employee skills, develop new skills The main difference between WBI and the traditional computer-based instructional programs lies in the way information is presented to the user The WISs’ approach to e-learning does not only provide “active learning,” which according to Bates (1991) is the most effective way to learn, but also interactivity, which is a well-known facilitator of the learning experience (Mason & Kaye, 1989) Thus, we have, on the one hand, traditional instructional programs which present educational content in a linear fashion using a static structure, and on the other hand, WISs that exploit the hypermedia capabilities, for example, offering flexibility in the deliv- Copyright © 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited Web-Based Instructional Systems ery of instruction through the use of hyperlinks (Federico, 1999) As a consequence, WBI has led to a new model for teaching and learning that focuses on the learner not as passive recipient of knowledge but as an active, self-directed participant in the learning process Nevertheless, this approach to instruction has also created a series of challenges that users of educational technology, such as teachers, learners, providers of educational content, educational institutions and so forth, have to meet: (i) ensure the improvement of learning experience, as usual technology-driven innovations consume prodigious amounts of time and money to little educational effect; (ii) bring a real and substantial change in education by improving their understanding of learning and teaching with the use of this new technology This article presents the main features of Webbased instructional systems, including their advantages and disadvantages It discusses critical factors that influence the success and effectiveness of WISs It stresses the importance of pedagogy on WBI and explores the pedagogical dimensions of the interface tools and functionalities of WISs Lastly, it summarises future trends in Web-based instruction space and are able to follow paths through the subject content produced by designers, or to develop their own routes according to individually-prescribed requirements (Large, 1996) Another attractive element is the flexibility to access course contents through intranets and the Internet at any time and from different places, which is considered as the main reason many educators have tried to develop distance learning programs on the WWW This flexibility creates many opportunities for exploration, discovery, exchange/sharing of information and learning according to learners’ individual needs Flexibility, however, comes at a price: • • • BACKGROUND The appeal of WISs lies in their ability to actively engage learners in the acquisition and use of information, support multiple different instructional uses (tutoring, exploration, collaboration, etc.), support different learning styles and promote the acquisition of different representations that underlie expertlevel reasoning in complex, ill-structured domains (Selker, 1994) Learners select the knowledge they perceive as being most suited to their needs But, although the act of browsing is a pleasing experience, browsing in an unknown domain is not likely to lead to satisfactory knowledge acquisition at all (Jonassen, Mayes, & McAleese, 1993) Thus, navigational aids, such as a pre-defined hierarchical structure of the subject matter, are necessary especially in large domains The pre-defined structure of the domain knowledge provides learners (especially novices) with guidance during their study, offering them a sense of safety and a reliable navigation path In this way, learners are supported in constructing their own individualised model of the knowledge 730 • • • The complexity of the system may increase (Ellis & Kurniawan, 2000) Users may need more time to search for the information (Ng & Gunstone, 2002), and the dynamism and richness of the content may negatively affect learners’ level of comprehension (Power & Roth, 1999) Despite the plethora of communication tools, learners sometimes find feedback insufficient, feel isolated or not supported enough, and drop out of the course (Quintana, 1996) It is unlikely all learners are equally able to performing their own sequencing, pacing, and navigation Moreover, the learner is not always going to choose the content to study next in a way that will lead to effective learning (Hammond, 1992; Leuthold, 1999) Previous knowledge of the domain content varies for different learners, and indeed knowledge may grow differently through the interaction with the system (Winkels, 1992) Learners tend to get lost, especially when the educational content is large and/or when they are novices This can lead to disorientation experienced when users not know where they are within hypertext documents and how to move towards the desired location, commonly known as “lost in hyperspace” (Brusilovsky, 2001) Learners may fail to get an overview of how all the information fits together when browsing In the absence of information that might help them formulate knowledge goals and find relevant information, learners may stumble through the content in a disorganised and instructionally Web-Based Instructional Systems inefficient manner (Hammond, 1992) Furthermore, if learners are too accustomed to memorising and are faced with multiple explanations of the same knowledge, they may attempt to memorise them all This is one of the aspects of a problem known as “information overload” which is usually experienced by users of WISs (McCormack & Jones, 1998) CRITICAL ISSUES FOR DESIGNING AND DELIVERING WEB-BASED INSTRUCTION The Role of the Users In WBI, the roles of teachers and learners are different from their classic definitions Thus, teachers design educational content that is attractive to learners in order to motivate them, interact with the learners, and act as facilitators of the learning process Learners are mainly responsible for their own learning, assessment of knowledge goals and objectives As a consequence, learners need to be able to form their own ideas about the content and understand the educational material in their own way That change of roles requires course broadening of skills and competencies for teachers and learners Table highlights the differences in users’ roles and the impact of WBI The Pedagogy of Web-Based Instruction The need for changing instructional methods has come partly in response to demands of the workplace and partly because of re-assessment of instructional methodologies Individuals are now expected to be adaptable to modern ways of communication, such as e-mail systems, the Internet, intranets, the WWW, conferencing systems They are also expected to apply high cognitive skills, such as analysing, summarising, and synthesising information as well as engaging in creative and critical thinking (Vogel & Klassen, 2001) In principle, WISs can serve this purpose but the greatest benefits of their use can occur via a pedagogic approach that most effectively uses the characteristics of this technology to increase the quality of the learning experience as already explained earlier As a result, a number of educational trends emerged in recent years have played a particularly important role in Web-base instruction; three of these are presented in the following: • • Individualised Learning: This approach provides learners the capability to select the mode of delivery and timing of module material For example, learners can choose a blended way for learning which consists of lectures, participation in traditional face-to-face communication in a classroom, and collaborative work in a remote environment on the WWW Constructivist Theory: The constructivist perspective describes learning as change in meaning constructed from experience (Newby, Stepich, Lehman, & Russell, 1996) Constructivism covers a wide diversity of perspectives that consider learning as an active process of constructing rather than acquiring knowledge and instruction as a process of supporting that construction rather Table Users, roles, and Web-based instruction Teachers’ role Instructor Facilitator Response to questions; Identification of providing consistent and learning outcomes; structuring and timely feedback; sequencing of encouraging discussion domain knowledge; among learners; designing motivating learners and educational activities reinforcing effective study habits and assessments Learners’ role Study the educational content; undertake responsibility for their learning; adopt new forms of communication and new ways of learning WBI Interactive tools; information sharing and communication mechanisms; individualised assessment; distributed educational resources 731 Web-Based Instructional Systems • than communicating knowledge (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996) Experiential Learning: According to Kolb (1984), experiential learning involves the following steps: concrete experience; observation and reflection; formulation of abstract concepts and generalisations; testing of the implications of the concepts in new situations Experiential learning can take different forms: learning by doing (Graf & Kellogg, 1990); experience-based learning, trial and error and applied experiential learning (Gentry, 1990); reflection in action (Senge, 1995); action learning (Pedler, 1997) But experience must be accompanied by reflection, as experience alone does not automatically lead to learning This is important for both teachers and students The WWW and especially hypermedia provide an eminently suitable environment for the development of educational systems that adopt these instructional models; that is, educational hypermedia are considered as excellent representations of constructivist approaches in theory (Jonassen et al., 1993) To set up a WIS to facilitate these forms of learning, one should ensure it contains the set of elements such as attraction of attention, recall of prior knowledge, consistent presentation style and structure, group work or individual tasks, self-assessment questions, practice/exercises, feedback, review, learning guidance, post knowledge The use of the WWW adds extra dimensions to teaching and learning But for learning to take place, the learner has to be not only active but also engaged in the learning process Table provides a, example, making a link between learner’s involvement and acquired skills (following Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy of intellectual behaviour) with the types of educational content in a WIS Planning, designing, and implementing WBI includes several dimensions, which of course contribute to the effectiveness of this approach Among a number of factors, the user interface of the educational system, the communication facilities offered and the educational content are of particular importance Table gives an overview of pedagogical considerations for designing a WIS The considerations for the components in Table show that WBI strives to create environments that favour a constructivist model of learning that allows: learners actively construct, transform and extend Table Pedagogical aspects of Web-based instruction Skills/abilities Knowledge: recall studied content Comprehension: grasp the meaning of the content Application: apply learned material to new and concrete situations Analysis: break down material into components and understand the organisational structure of the content 732 Learner’s involvement Memorisation of knowledge (from specific facts to complete theories) Interpreting, explaining or summarising the material; estimating future trends (predicting consequences or effects) Taking up tests about knowledge of facts, theories, procedures, etc Type of content Hypertext and images Hypertext and images, self-assessment questions Applying principles, concepts, laws, and theories Examples, selfassessment questions Identification of components, analysis of their interrelationships, and recognition of the organisational principles involved An understanding of the content and the structural form of the material is required Examples, selfassessment questions Synthesis: put parts of material together to form a new whole Production of a unique communication, a work plan or set of abstract relations between concepts Develop creative behaviours with major emphasis on the formulation of new patterns or structure Interactive tools, simulations, case studies, selfassessment questions Evaluation: judge the value of the content for a given purpose/task Making conscious judgements based on clearly defined criteria or goals Interactive tools, simulations, case studies, selfassessment questions Web-Based Instructional Systems Table Pedagogical dimension of system’s components in Web-based instruction Component User interface Pedagogical Role – Reduce learner’s anxiety: consistent and easy-to-use – Support learners and teachers in tasks completion: provide tools based on users’ profile – Enhance cognitive skills: help formulate ideas, elaborate on the subject matter Communication – Support collaboration and interaction: among learners themselves and/or facilities between learners and educators – Main source of information: use of a user-friendly language, accessible, easily understandable – Support different learning styles: include types of content, various levels of difficulty Educational – Emphasise exploration: adopt a hypermedia form of presentation, provide content different types of resources, simulations, learning by discovery – Enhance social skills: include group work, projects – Evaluate knowledge: self-assessment questions, projects, various types of assessment their knowledge; active engagement in the interpretation of the content and reflection on their interpretations; linking educational content with real-world situations (Jonassen, 1994) Thus, through exploration of educational material, which addresses different knowledge levels, learning objectives, and learning styles, learners take the responsibility of their learning • • Individual Differences Learners differ in traits such as skills, aptitudes and preferences for processing information, constructing meaning from information, and applying it to realworld situations Recent approaches to WBI try to take into account various dimensions of individual differences, such as the level of knowledge or literacy, gender, culture, spatial abilities, cognitive styles, learning styles, accessibility issues for the disabled and elderly To this end, learner-centered approaches, which have been motivated by sociocultural and constructivist theories of learning (Soloway et al., 1996), have been proposed Learnercentered design acknowledges that understanding of learners needs is of primary importance to provide effective WBI to heterogeneous student populations (Soloway, Guzdial, & Hay, 1994; Quintana, Krajcik, & Soloway, 2000) The impacts of individual differences on WBI have been investigated along different dimensions: • Cognitive and learning styles that refer to a user’s information processing habits have an impact on user’s skills and abilities, such as preferred modes of perceiving, thinking, remembering, and problem solving (Ford & Chen, 2000, 2001; Shih & Gamon, 2002) Gender differences affect WBI in the sense that males and females have different requirements with respect to navigation support and interface features The preferences of males and females also differentiate remarkably in terms of information seeking strategies, media preferences, and learning performance (Campbell, 2000; Large, Beheshti, et al., 2002; Leong & Hawamdeh, 1999; Liu, 2003) Prior knowledge and system experience affect learners’ interactions with the WIS and their level of knowledge of the educational content The impact of this individual differences’ dimension depends on learners’ previous understanding of the educational content, that is, because of relevant studies, and their familiarity with the WIS’s features and functionalities, that is, familiarity with distancelearning systems (Reed & Oughton, 1997; Lawless & Kulikowich, 1998; Last, O’Donnell, & Kelly, 2001) The empirical evaluation of the effects of individual differences on the degree of success or failure experienced by learners needs to be explored in more detail to fully understand their impact on the 733 Web-Based Instructional Systems quality of learning attained within WISs (Magoulas, Papanikolaou, & Grigoriadou, 2003) Actually, the main problems in exploiting such information in a WIS is to determine which characteristics should be used (are worth modelling) and how (what can be done differently for learners with different preferences or styles) (Brusilovsky, 2001) In the next section, this problem is addressed in the context of personalisation technologies, which are considered a promising approach to accommodate individual differences FUTURE TRENDS Personalised learning environments (PLEs) have instantiated a relatively recent area of research that aims at alleviating the information overload and lost in hyperspace problems by integrating two distinct technologies in WBI: intelligent tutoring systems (ITS) and educational hypermedia systems This is in effect a combination of two approaches to WISs: the more directive tutor-centred style of traditional tutoring systems and the flexible learner-centred browsing approach of educational hypermedia systems (Brusilovsky, 2001) PLEs adapt the content, structure, and/or presentation to each individual user’s characteristics, usage behaviour, and/or usage environment Personalisation usually takes place at three different levels: content level, presentation level, and navigation level For example, in a system with personalisation at the content level, the educational content is generated or assembled from various pieces depending on the user Thus, advanced learners may receive more detailed and deep information, while novices will be provided with additional explanation At the presentation level, adaptive text and adaptive layout are two widely used techniques Adaptive text implies that the same Web page is assembled from different texts following learner’s current need, such as removing some information from a piece of text or inserting extra information to suit the current user Adaptive layout aims to differentiate levels of the subject content by changing the layout of the page, instead of the text, such as font type and size, and background colour At the navigation level, the most popular techniques include direct guidance, adaptive ordering, link hiding, and link annotation Table Web-based instructional systems that employ personalisation features (adapted from Magoulas et al., 2003) System and Subject domain Individual Differences Dimension Pedagogical Approach Learning style Presentation Media selection based on learners’ learning style AST (Specht et al., 1997) Introductory Statistics Knowledge level; Learning style; User preferences Content; Navigation Multiple teaching strategies ELM-ART II (Weber & Specht, 1997) Programming in Lisp Knowledge level; User preferences Content; Navigation Example-based programming DCG (Vassileva, 1997, 1998) Domain Independent Knowledge level; Learning goal; User preferences Content Generic Task Model Theory Content; Navigation N/A Navigation Project-based learning INTERBOOK (Brusilovsky et al., 1998) Knowledge level Domain Independent KBS-HYPERBOOK (Henze et al., 1999) Knowledge level; Learning Introduction to Programming using goals Java 734 Level of Personalisation CS383 (Carver et al., 1996) Computer Systems ARTHUR (Gilbert & Han, 1999) Computer Science Programming Learning style Content Multiple instructional styles: visual-interactive, auditory-text, auditory-lecture, text style INSPIRE (Papanikolaou et al., 2003) Computer Architecture Knowledge level; Learning style Presentation; Content; Navigation Component Display Theory; Elaboration Theory AES-CS (Triantafillou, Pomportsis, & Demetriadis, 2003) Multimedia Technology Systems Knowledge level, Cognitive style Presentation; Content; Navigation Multiple instructional strategies Web-Based Instructional Systems Table (adapted from Magoulas et al., 2003) presents the features of several PLEs with respect to: the individual student characteristics used to guide the personalisation (see “Individual Differences” column), the type of personalisation provided (see “Level of Personalisation” column), and the teaching/learning approach or theory (see “Pedagogical Approach” column) Several approaches to evaluate the performance of PLEs have been proposed in the literature, and the empirical results look really promising (Weibelzahl, Lippitsch, & Weber, 2002) However, many questions are still open in this context Among the most critical ones are questions related to the level of tutor and learner control over the PLE, the development of appropriate methods of assessing information about the behaviour of the learner in the course of learner-system interaction, and the systematic evaluation of the effectiveness of personalisation CONCLUSION Advances in technology are increasingly impacting the way in which the curriculum is delivered and assessed The ever-increasing learner needs make particularly important for Web services to provide learning tools The attraction of WISs lies in their capability to actively engage the learner in the learning process, support multiple instructional uses (tutoring, exploration, research, etc.) and different learning styles, provide feedback mechanisms and promote the acquisition of various skills There are of course some critical factors that influence the use of WISs in an educational setting This article covered issues related to teachers’ and learners’ new roles, learner-centered design and pedagogical considerations, which in our opinion are the most important ones to fully exploit the benefits of WBI in education REFERENCES Bates, A W (1991) Interactivity as a criterion for media selection in distance education Never Too Far, 16, 5-9 Bloom, B S (1956) Taxonomy of educational objectives: Cognitive domain (Handbook I) New York: McKay Brusilovsky, P (2001) Adaptive hypermedia User Modeling and User-adapted Interaction, 11, 87-110 Campbell, K (2000) Gender and educational technologies: Relational frameworks for learning 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Encyclopedia of human computer interaction / Claude Ghaoui, Editor p cm Summary: "This encyclopedia presents numerous experiences and insights, of professional from around the world, on human computer interaction. .. Patricia M Boechler 574 Task Analysis at the Heart of Human- Computer Interaction / Dan Diaper 579 Task Ontology-Based Human- Computer Interaction / Kazuhisa Seta 588 Think Aloud... demands and expectations as users of technology increased There is currently no agreement upon definition of the range of topics which form the area of humancomputer interaction Based on the definition