Seafoods: Chemistry, Processing Technology and Quality Seafoods: Chemistry, Processing Technology and Quality Edited by FEREIDOON SHAHIDI Departments of Biochemistry and Chemistry Memorial University of Newfoundland and J RICHARD BOTTA Inspection Branch Canada Department of Fisheries and Oceans SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.Y First edition 1994 © 1994 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht Origina11y published by Chapman & Hali in 1994 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 18t edition 1994 Typeset in 1O/12pt Times by Cambrian Typesetters, Frimley, Surrey ISBN 978-1-4613-5913-5 ISBN 978-1-4615-2181-5 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-2181-5 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publicat ion may not be reproduced, stored, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction only in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK Enquiries concern ing reproduction outside the terms stated here shou1d be sent to the publishers at the Glasgow address printed on this page The publisher makes no representation, express or imp1ied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 94-71014 00 Printed on permanent acid-free text paper, manufactured in accordance with ANSIINISO Z39.48-1992 (Permanence of Paper) Preface Seafoods are important sources of nutrients for humans Proteins and nonprotein nitrogenous compounds play an important role in the nutritional value and sensory quality of seafoods Consumption of fish and marine oils is also actively encouraged for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases and rheumatoid arthritis Highly unsaturated long-chain omega-3 fatty acids are regarded as the active components of marine oils and seafood lipids The basic chemical and biochemical properties of seafood proteins and lipids, in addition to flavour-active components, their microbiological safety and freshness quality, are important factors to be considered A presentation of the state-of-the-art research results on seafoods with respect to their chemistry, processing technology and quality in one volume was made possible by cooperative efforts of an international group of experts Following a brief overview, the book is divided into three sections In Part (chapters to 8) the chemistry of seafood components such as proteins, lipids, flavorants (together with their properties and nutritional significance) is discussed Part (chapters to 13) describes the quality of seafoods with respect to their freshness, preservation, microbiological safety and sensory attributes The final section of the book (chapters 14 to 16) summarizes further processing of raw material, underutilized species and processing discards for production of valueadded products The up-to-date information on research and development presented in this volume, together with its extensive data and references, provide an invaluable overview of the basic and applied concepts of seafood research for scientists and technologists The book may also be used as a supplementary text for food and flavour chemistry courses for graduate and advanced undergraduate students We are grateful to the department of Fisheries and Oceans, Fisheries Development Division, Newfoundland Region and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, for financial support towards the organization of the symposium on seafoods We wish to extend our thanks to all authors for their efforts and commendable contributions which made the publication of the book possible Fereidoon Shahidi and J Richard Botta Series foreword The 8th World Congress of Food Science and Technology, held in Toronto, Canada, in 1991 attracted 1400 delegates representing 76 countries and all five continents By a special arrangement made by the organizers, many participants from developing countries were able to attend The congress was therefore a most important international assembly and probably the most representative food science and technology event in that respect ever held There were over 400 poster presentations in the scientific programme and a high degree of excellence was achieved As in previous congresses much of the work reported covered recent research and this will since have been published elsewhere in the scientific literature In addition to presentations by individual researchers, a further major part of the scientific programme consisted of invited papers, presented as plenary lectures by some of the leading figures in international food science and technology They addressed many of the key food issues of the day including advances in food science knowledge and its application in food processing technology Important aspects of consumer interest and of the environment in terms of a sustainable food industry were also thoroughly covered The role of food science and technology in helping to bring about progress in the food industries of developing countries was highlighted This book is part of a series arising from the congress and including bibliographical details The series editors are Professor Marvin Tung of the Technical University of Nova Scotia, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada; and Dr Gordon Timbers of Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada The book presents some of the most significant ideas which will carry food science and technology through the nineties and into the new millennium It is therefore essential reading for anyone interested in the subject, including specialists, students, and general readers IUFoST is extremely grateful to the organizers from the Canadian Institute of Food Science and Technology for putting together a first class scientific programme and we welcome the publication of this book as a permanent record of the keynote papers presented at the congress Dr D E Hood (President, International Union of Food Science & Technology) Contributors R G Ackman Canadian Institute of Fisheries Technology, Technical University of Nova Scotia, Box 1000, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, B3J 2X4 A Adams Seafood Products Research Center, US Food and Drug Administration, 22201 23rd Drive Southeast, Bothell, Washington, 98041-3012, USA J R Botta Inspection Branch, Canada Department of Fisheries and Oceans, PO Box 5667, St John's, Newfoundland, Canada A1C 5X1 K Colburn Seafood Products Research Center, US Food and Drug Administration, 22201 23rd Drive Southeast, Bothell, Washington, 98041-3012, USA S.Fuke Laboratory of Food Science, Faculty of Education, Tokyo Gakugei University, 4-1-1, Nukui-kita, Koganei-shi, Tokyo, Japan N F Haard Institute of Marine Resources, Department of Food Science & Technology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA w Seafood Products Research Center, US Food and Drug Administration, 22201 23rd Drive Southeast, Bothell, Washington, 98041-3012, USA Hill H O Hultin University of Massachusetts Marine Station, PO Box 7128, Lanesville Station, Gloucester, MA 01930-5828, USA J M Hungerford US Food and Drug Administration, 22201 23rd Avenue Southeast, Bothell, Washington, 98041-3012, USA J.-M Kuo Department of Marine Food Science, Fisheries Science College, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, Taiwan, Republic of China C M Lee Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881, USA V1ll CONTRIBUTORS R C Lindsay Department of Food Science, University of WisconsinMadison, Madison, WI 53706, USA R Manger Seafoods Products Research Center, US Food and Drug Administration, 22201 23rd Drive Southeast, Bothell, Washington, 98041-3012, USA B Sun Pan Department of Marine Food Science, Fisheries Science College, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, Taiwan, Republic of China L M Sereda Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Inspection Branch, Central and Arctic Region, 501 University Crescent, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R3T 2N6 F Shahidi Departments of Biochemistry and Chemistry, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St lohn's, Newfoundland, Canada, AlB 3X9 Z E Sikorski Department of Food Preservation, Technical University of Gdansk, 80 -952 Gdansk-Wrzeszcz, Gdansk, Poland K E Spencer Canadian Institute of Fisheries Technology, Department of Food Science and Technology, Technical University of Nova Scotia, PO Box 1000, 1320 Barrington Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, B31 2X4 M A Tung Canadian Institute of Fisheries Technology, Department of Food Science and Technology, Technical University of Nova Scotia, PO Box 1000, 1360 Barrington Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, B31 2X4 M M Wekell Seafood Products Research Center, US Food and Drug Administration, 22201 23rd Drive Southeast, Bothell, Washington, 98041-3012, USA R K York Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Inspection Branch, Central and Arctic Region, 501 University Crescent, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R3T 2N6 Contents The chemistry, processing technology and quality of seafoods - an overview F SHAHIDI Part The chemistry of seafood components Seafood proteins and preparation of protein concentrates F SHAHIDI 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Sarcoplasmic proteins 2.3 Myofibrillar proteins 2.4 Stroma proteins 2.5 Non-protein nitrogenous (NPN) compounds 2.6 Surimi 2.7 Protein concentrates/hydrolysates References 3 5 6 Protein hydrolysis in seafoods N F HAARD 10 3.1 Introduction 3.1.1 Importance 3.1.2 Source of proteinases in seafood 3.2 Digestive proteinases 3.2.1 Gastric proteases 3.2.2 Intestinal proteinases 3.2.3 Hepatopancreas proteinases 3.3 Proteinases contained in the muscle fibre 3.3.1 Lysosomal proteinases 3.3.2 Alkaline proteinases 3.3.3 Neutral proteinases 3.4 Proteinases in the extracellular matrix of muscle 3.4.1 Collagcnascs 3.5 Conclusions Acknowledgements References 10 10 II 14 14 15 16 16 16 20 22 24 24 25 26 26 Seafood lipids R G ACKMAN 34 4.1 Introduction: the paradox of seafood in health and nutrition 4.2 Seafoods 34 35 X CONTENTS 4.2.1 Marine fish 4.2.2 Freshwater fish 4.2.3 Shellfish 4.3 Cholesterol in fish and shellfish 4.4 Natural variations in quality References 35 40 41 43 45 45 Oxidation of lipids in seafoods 49 H O HULTIN 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Cellular catalysts of lipid oxidation 5.2.1 Oxygen 5.2.2 Transition metals 5.2.3 Haem iron 5.2.4 Singlet oxygen 5.2.5 Enzymes -lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase 5.3 Inhibitors of lipid oxidation 5.3.1 Initiation inhibitors 5.3.2 Propagation inhibitors 5.4 Changes post-mortem and during processing 5.4.1 Quantitative changes in pro- and antioxidants in fish muscle post-mortem 5.4.2 Processing induced changes 5.5 Approaches to inhibiting lipid oxidation in seafoods 5.5.1 Limit oxygen 5.5.2 Maintain natural antioxidant systems 5.5.3 Minimize increase in pro-oxidants 5.5.4 Afford early protection from oxidation 5.5.5 Maintain low temperature 5.5.6 Protect against NaCI effects 5.5.7 Remove unstable lipids 5.5.8 Remove dark muscle 5.6 Summary and future directions Acknowledgements References 49 49 Flavour of fish R C LINDSAY 75 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Very fresh fish flavours 6.3 Sea-, brine- or iodine-like flavours 6.4 Other characterizing flavours 6.5 Deterioration offish flavours References 75 75 50 50 55 56 56 57 58 59 60 60 63 65 66 66 66 67 67 67 68 68 69 71 71 77 79 79 82 Flavour of shellfish and kamaboko flavorants B SUN PAN and J.-M KUO 85 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Volatile compounds of shellfish 7.2.1 Alcohols 85 85 85 CONTENTS 7.2.2 Aldehydes 7.2.3 Ketones 7.2.4 Furans and other oxygen-containing cyclic compounds 7.2.5 Pyrazines and other nitrogen-containing compounds 7.2.6 Sulphur-containing compounds 7.2.7 Hydrocarbons 7.2.8 Phenols 7.2.9 Esters 7.3 Formation pathway of shellfish volatiles 7.3.1 Alcoholsandcarbonyls 7.3.2 Alkylpyrazines formation via chemical reactions of carbonyl compounds 7.3.3 Sulphur-containing compounds 7.4 Role of lipoxygenase and 5,8, II-tetradecatrien-2-one in shellfish flavour 7.4 I Occurrence of lipoxygenase in shrimp 7.4.2 Effects of lipoxygenase on shrimp flavour formation 7.5 Volatile components of kamaboko f1avorants Acknowlegement References XI 87 88 89 89 94 98 98 99 100 100 103 103 105 105 106 108 110 110 Taste-active components of seafoods with special reference to umami substances S FUKE 115 8.1 What are umami and umami substances? 8.1.1 Introduction 8.2 Synergistic taste effect 8.2.1 MSG with '-ribonucleotide (IMP or GMP) 8.2.2 a-Amino dicarboxylates and L-homocysteinate with IMP 8.2.3 Synergistic taste effect among three compounds (tertiary synergism) 8.2.4 Sulphur-containing compounds as flavour enhancers 8.2.5 Methyl xanthines and IMP 8.3 Seafood taste and umami substances 8.3.1 Extractive components 8.3.2 Omission test 8.4 Taste-active components in seafoods 8.4.1 Abalone 8.4.2 Sea-urchin 8.4.3 Snow crab 8.4.4 Scallop 8.4.5 Short-necked clam 8.4.6 Dried skipjack 8.4.7 Salted salmon eggs 8.5 Taste specificity of seafoods 8.6 Taste-active components in ripened or fermented seafoods 8.6.1 Squid muscle 8.6.2 Sea-urchin 8.6.3 Fish sauces 8.6.4 Mullet roe 8.7 Changes in extractive components by heating 8.8 The roles of components other than extractive components Acknowledgement References 115 115 116 116 117 117 119 121 121 122 125 125 125 126 126 127 127 127 128 128 132 132 133 133 134 134 135 136 136 328 SEAFOODS Table 16.4 Food applications of chitinous materials Area of application Example Food Component Protein floculation Aquaculture feed Cattle and poultry feed Fruit coating Seed coating Nutrient control release HorticulturelForestry Wine and juice clarification Potable water Enzyme support Production of single-cell proteins Inhibition of oxidation Thickener Stabilizer Texture modifier Slow-release additive support Agriculture Processing Additive Table 16.5 Average inhibition of lipid oxidation in meat by chitosan derivatives Compound Inhibition, % N,O-Carboxymethylchitosan N,O-Carboxymethylchitosan lactate N,O-Carboxymethylchitosan acetate N,O-Carboxymethylchitosan pyrrolidine carboxylate 46.7 69.9 43.4 66.3 16.3.3 Carotenoid pigments and their use in aquaculture feed Carotenoid pigments of shellfish discards may be extracted into non-polar solvents such as edible oils at 5G-80°C using different ratios of oil to shell waste (Shahidi and Synowiecki, 1991a) It was found that maximum extraction of carotenoids was achieved at 60°C at an oil to discard ratio of 2:1 (v/w) Acid treatment or treatment with proteases prior to extraction has been reported to enhance the recovery of carotenoids (Chen and Meyers, 1982, 1983; Omara-Alwala et al., 1985; Meyers and Chen, 1985; Simpson and Haard, 1985; Manu-Tawiah and Haard, 1987) The content of carotenoids in shrimp and crab discards varies from 119.6 to 147.7 ftg/g These carotenoids are oxidation products of j3-carotene (Figure 16.4) The colour of carotenoids is due to a chromophore consisting of a chain of conjugated double bonds The content of individual carotenoids in shrimp and crab discards is given in Table 16.6 In all cases, astaxanthin and its mono- and diesters were the major carotenoids present Fish, like other animals, are incapable of a de novo synthesis Pigmentation of salmonids, therefore, results from deposition of 329 SEAFOOD PROCESSING BY-PRODUcrS C D A B ~- carotene A=B=C=D=(-H) Canthaxanthin A = D = ( -H) B = C = (=0) Astaxanthin A = D = ( -OH) B = C = ( =0) Zeaxanthin A =D =(-OH) Lutein Isomer of Zeaxanthin with double bond on C -C S B = C = ( -OH) Figure 16.4 Chemical structure of carotenoids of shellfish discards Table 16.6 Composition of carotenoids in crustacean offals Carotenoid, % of total Shrimp Astaxanthin Astaxanthin monoester Astaxanthin diester Astacene Lutein Zeaxanthin Unidentified 3.95 ± 0.15 19.72 ± 0.19 74.29 ± 0.38 0.62 ± 0.05 Crab 21.16 II 56.57 3.26 8.24 4.64 0.22 ± 1.15 ± 0.23 ± 1.60 ± 0.47 ± 0.30 ± 0.76 ± 0.05 carotenoids from dietary sources Several research groups have studied the colour and pigmentation of salmon and rainbow trout (Peterson et al., 1966; Schmidt and Baker, 1969; Lambertsen and Braekkan, 1971; Saito and Regier, 1971; Spinelli et al., 1974; Choubert and Luquet, 1983; Johnson et al., 1980; Torrissen et al., 1981, 1989; Foss et al., 1984; Storebakken et al., 1987) The effect of dietary carotenoids on the pigmentation of Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) was reported by Shahidi et al (1991a) Diets were formulated (Table 16.7) using carotenoids extracted from shrimp shell, its extracts or commercially available astaxanthin and canthaxanthin known as Carophyll pink (8%) and Carophyll red (10%) (Hoffmann-La Roche, Etobicoke, Ontario), respectively A commercially prepared Corey dry 330 SEAFOODS Table 16.7 Ingredients and chemical composition of formulated diets for Arctic char Content, % Ingredients/Composition Ingredients: Herring meal Whole capel in Herring oil Cooked wheat Vitamin premix Mineral premix Carotenoids Shrimp offal Chemical composition: Moisture Crude protein (dwb) Lipid (dwb) Ash (dwb) Carotenoids, ppm (dwb) Feed with carotenoids Feed with shrimp shellwaste 48 34 10 1.5 1.5 75 ppm 28 34 10 1.5 1.5 27.37 56.34 15.76 11.88 64.87 ± ± ± ± ± 0.10 0.67 0.03 0.08 0.15 20 47.40 52.90 15.47 15.81 7.20 ± 0.16 ± 0.30 ± 0.28 ± 0.32 ± 0.15 meal containing a mixture of astaxanthin and canthaxanthin was also used for comparison The content of carotenoids in fillet and skin of Arctic char depended on the length of feeding period as well as the source of dietary carotenoids (Tables 16.8 and 16.9) However, in all cases, carotenoids were deposited in higher concentrations in skin tissues as compared with fillets After a 9-week feeding on pigment-containing diets, the level of carotenoids in fillets of fish exceeded !-lg/g which is the amount recognized as being sufficient for adequate visual impression of characteristic colour of salmonid flesh However, incorporation of 20% shrimp discards in the feed did not affect the total content of flesh carotenoids to any great extent Hunter L, a, b colour values of Arctic char fillets after a IS-week feeding of fish on pigmented diets are given in Table 16.10 Results indicate that Hunter a value is the most sensitive indicator for colour changes in fish fillets A significant correlation was found between these values and the total content of carotenoids present in the samples It is also of interest to note that the chemical nature of carotenoids in the flesh and skin of Arctic char may be used to trace the nature of feed carotenoids All fish samples which had consumed astaxanthin, either from shrimp shell waste or its extracts, etc contained astaxanthin while the canthaxanthin-fed fish had only canthaxanthin in their tissues The Corey dry feed meal also deposited both canthaxanthin and astaxanthin in fish tissues In a recent communication Long and Haard (1988) examined the incorporation of dietary carotenoproteins in rainbow trout tissues These authors concluded that the uptake of carotenoproteins was better than that 331 SEAFOOD PROCESSING BY-PRODUCTS Table 16.8 Total carotenoids in Arctic char fillets (l1g/g)" Source of feed carotenoid Feeding period, weeks Shrimp shellwaste Astaxanthin 12 15 2.55 ± 0.41 4.10 ± 0.06 4.69 ± 0.31 4.70±0.11 1.59 1.07 1.02 1.14 ± ± ± ± 0.09 0.59 0.17 0.16 Canthaxanthin 3.79 ± 4.86 ± 4.52 ± 5.78± 0.33 0.24 0.36 1.18 Astaxanthin + Canthaxanthin 3.54 4.43 5.25 6.17 ± ± ± ± 0.14 0.17 0.53 0.66 "The OJiginal content of carotenoids in the flesh of Arctic char was 1.35 ± 0.()6 due to the presence of corn carotenoids in the diets prior to carotenoid Table 16.9 Total carotenoids in arctic char skin (fig/g) Source of feed carotenoids Feeding period, weeks Shrimp shellwaste 12 15 14.63 18.42 17.95 18.23 ± ± ± ± 0.13 0.32 0.18 1.56 Astaxanthin 14.86 36.01 24.85 41.21 ± ± ± ± 0.18 1.57 2.51 2.27 Canthaxanthin 15.36 15.56 20.96 32.92 ± ± ± ± 1.01 1.49 2.76 3.42 Astaxanthin + Canthaxanthin 13.53 18.46 19.82 21.27 ± 1.97 ±I.IO ± 0.30 ± 1.94 Table 16.10 Effect of feed carotenoids on Hunter L, a, b values of Arctic char fillets after a IS-week feeding on pigmented diets Source of feed carotenoids Hunter values L a b Shrimp shellwaste Astaxanthin Canthaxanthin Astaxanthin + Canthaxanthin 52.70 ± 2.05 2.46 ± 1.04 19.84 ± 1.67 42.17 ± 2.06 17.44 ± 0.66 25.3\ ± 2.10 43.66 ± 1.74 18.23 ± 1.72 25.20 ± 2.03 43.22 ± 1.69 14.87 ± 1.17 23.48 ± 1.15 of the carotenoids themselves However, more detailed studies in this area are deemed worthy of pursuit 16.4 Other value-added components of seafood processing discards 16.4.1 Fish enzymes Fish processing discards provide a variety of enzymes which are present in the stomach and intestine The enzymes present in cold-water fish are considerably different from their counterparts from mammalian sources Pepsin from cod stomach has been reported to have a higher pH optimum 332 SEAFOODS and a lower thermal stability than other pepsins and it was also resistant to autolysis at low pH (Raa, 1990) Proteolytic enzymes present in the gastrointestinal tract of fish play an important role in the autolysis of fish tissues during silage preparation (Raa and Gildberg, 1976) However, application of fish enzymes as processing aids for preparation of caviar from a variety of fish species, removal of squid skin, cleaning of scallop and descaling of fish is most important (Raa, 1990) Shamsuzzaman and Haard (1983) used gastric proteases from harp seal for coagulation of milk and preparation of cheddar cheese Shellfish such as shrimp are a good source of chitinase, alkaline phosphatase and hyaluronidase Recovery of alkaline phosphatase from the thaw drips of frozen shrimp has been reported by Olsen et (1990) These enzymes may be used in diagnostic kits 16.4.2 Antifreeze proteins Antifreeze proteins (AFP) and antifreeze glycoproteins (AFGP) may be obtained from the blood of some fish from cold waters of polar and north temperate regions There are three broadly classified AFP in different species of fish, referred to as type I, II and III However, AFGP from different fish species have a similar chemical structure with a molecular weight of to 26 kDa (Davis et al., 1989) Flounder (Pseudo pleuronectes americanus) provides a good source of AFP of type I which are alanine-rich and have a molecular weight ranging from 3.3 to 4.5 kDa The type II AFP has five disulphide bridges and a molecular weight of 14 kDa The type III AFP isolated from Newfoundland ocean pout (Macrozoacres americanus) has a molecular weight of to 6.7 kDa and contains no cysteine residues Antifreeze proteins have interesting properties and are known to protect mammalian cells at cryogenic temperatures (Rubinsky et al., 1991) Furthermore, use of improved promoters and increased gene dosage may provide better means for producing a fully freeze-resistant fish by transgenic methods 16.4.3 Seafood lipids Seafood lipids are obtained either from fish liver, blubber from sea mammals or as by-products in fish meal production These lipids generally contain a large proportion of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids (Ackman and McLeod, 1988; Bimbo, 1989; Flick et al., 1991) Traditionally, seafood lipids have been used in preparation of oil for pharmaceutical and/or industrial applications Some hydrogenated lipids of marine origin have traditionally been used as a low-cost component in margarine production Use of marine lipids as a diet component for aquacultured fish has also been practised Reports on beneficial health effects of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids in SEAFOOD PROCESSING BY-PRODUCTS 333 reducing incidences of coronary heart diseases has resulted in an increased consumption of seafoods in recent years Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) have received particular attention However, blubber and intramuscular lipids of marine mammals such as seals contain a relatively large amount of docosapentaenoic acid (DPA) which may also possess beneficial effects (Shahidi and Synowiecki, 1991b) In addition, there is a high content of monoenes in blubber oils and this may also provide additional health-related benefits (Elvevoll et ai., 1990) Consequently, seafood by-products may serve as a viable source of valueadded lipids with possible advantages Preparation of omega-3 concentrates is currently practised; however, these products are highly prone to oxidation and may contain a high level of cholesterol Removal of cholesterol and stabilization of such concentrates is necessary Protection by preparation of capsules or by microencapsulation has been practised in order to provide shelf-stable products Acknowledgement Partial financial support from the Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) and National Science and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of Canada through a subvention grant is acknowledged References Ackman, R.G and McLeod, C (1988) Total lipids and nutritionally important fatty acids of some Nova Scotia fish and shellfish food products Can Inst Food Sci Technol 1., 21, 39G-8 Bimbo, A.P (1989) Fish Oils: Past and Present food uses Am Oil Chern Soc 66(12): 1717-26 Brezeski, M.M (1987) Chitin and chitosan: putting waste to good use INFO FISH Tnternational, (5),31-3 Chen, H.M and Meyers, S.P (1982) Extraction of astaxanthin pigments from crawfish waste using a soy oil process J Food Sci., 47, 892-6 Chen, H.M and Meyers, S.P (1983) Ensilage treatment of crawfish waste for improvement of astaxanthin pigment extraction J Food Sci., 48, 1516-20 Choubert, G and Luquet, P (1983) Utilization of shrimp meal for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) Influence of fat content in the diet Aquaculture, 32, 19-26 Davies, P.L., Fletcher, G.L and Hew, C.L (1989) Fish antifreeze protein genes and their use in transgenic studies, in Oxford Surveys on Eukaryotic Genes, Volume 6, (ed N Maclean), Oxford University Press Oxford, pp 85-109 Elvevoll, E.O., Moen, P., Olsen, R.L and Brox, J (1990) Some possible effects of dietary monounsaturated fatty acids on cardiovascular disease Atherosclerosis, 81, 71-4 Flick, G.J., Jr., Bimbo, A.P., Enriquez, L.G and Ory, R.L (1991) Potential and physical properties of underutilized species/manhaden, in Advances in Seafood Biochemistry: Composition and Quality, (eds G.J Flick, Jr and R.E Martin), Technomic Pub Co Inc., Lancaster & Basel, pp 1-23 Foss, P., Storebakken, T., Schiedt, K., Liaen-Jensen, S., Austering, E and Streiff, K (1984) Pigmentation of rainbow trout with the individual optical isomers of astaxanthin in comparison with canthaxanthin Aquaculture, 41, 213-26 Johnson, E.A., Villa, T.G and Lewis, M.J (1980) Phaffia rhodozyma as an astaxanthin source in salmonid diets Aquaculture, 20, 123 Knorr, D (1991) Recovery and utilization of chitin and chitosan in food processing waste management Food Technol., 45(1), 114-22 334 SEAFOODS Lambertson, G and Braekkan, O.R (1971) Method of analysis of astaxanthin and its occurrence in some marine products J Sci Food Agric., 22, 99-102 Lee, Y.B., Elliot, J.G., Rickansrud, D.A and Mugberg, E.C (1978) Predicting protein efficiency ratio by the chemical determination of connective tissue content in meat J Food Sci., 43, 359-1362 Long, A.M and Haard, N.F (1988) The effect of carotenoid-protein association on pigmentation and growth rates of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) Bull Aquaculture Assoc Canada, (4), 98-100 Manu-Tawiah, W and Haard, N.F (1987) Recovery of carotenoprotein from the exoskeleton of snow crab Chinoecetes opilio Can Inst Food Sci Technol J., 20, 31-33 Meyers, S.P & Chen, H.M (1985) Process for the utilization of shellfish waste US Patent 4,505,936 Olsen, R.L., Johansen, A and Mymes, B (1990) Recovery of enzymes from shrimp waste Process Biochemistry, 25, 67-8 Omara-Alwala, T.R., Chen, H.M., Ho, Y., Simpson, K.L and Meyers, S.P (1985) Carotenoid pigment and fatty acid analyses of crawfish oil extracts J Agric Food Chem., 33,260-3 Peterson, D.H., Jager, H.K., Savage, G.M., Washburn, G.N and Westers, H (1966) Natural coloration of trout using xanthophylls Trans Am Fish Soc., 95, 408-14 Raa, J (1990) Biotechnology in aquaculture and the fish processing industry: A success study in Norway, in Advances in Fisheries Technology and Biotechnology for Increased Profitability, (eds M.N Voigt and J R Botta), Technomic Publishing Co., Inc., Lancaster and Basel pp 509-24 Raa, J and Gildberg, A (1976) Autolysis and proteolytic activity and cod viscera J Food Technol., 11,619-28 Rubinsky, B., Arav, A and Fletcher, G.L (1991) Hypothermic protection - a fundamental property of antifreeze proteins Biochem Biophys Res Comm., 180, 566-71 Saito, A and Regier, L.W (1971) Pigmentation of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinali) by feeding dried crustacean waste J Fish Res Board Can., 28, 509-12 Schmidt, P.J and Baker, E.G (1969) Indirect pigmentation of salmon and trout flesh with canthaxanthin J Fish Res Board Can., 26, 357 60 Shahidi, F and Synowiecki, J (1991a) Isolation and characterization of nutrients and valueadded products from snow crab (Chinoecetes opilio) and shrimp (Pandalus borealis) processing discards J Agric Food Chem., 39, 1527-32 Shahidi, F and Synowieeki, J (1991b) Cholesterol content and lipid fatty acid composition of processed seal meat Can lnst Food Sci Technol J., 24, 269-72 Shahidi, F., Synowiecki, J and Penney, RW (1991a) Uptake of pigments in the flesh of Arctic char derived from pigments in the diet, in Proceedings of the Arctic Char Aquaculture Workshop, (ed R.W Penney), March 12,1991, SI John's, NF, pp 2~ Shahidi, F., Naczk, M., Pegg, Rand Synowiecki, J (199Ib) Chemical composition and nutritional value of processing discards of cod (Gadus morhua) Food Chem., 42, 145-51 Shamsuzzaman, K and Haard, N.F (1983) Evaluation of harp seal gastric protease as a rennet substitute for cheddar cheese J Food Sci., 48, 179-82 Simpson, B.K and Haard, N.F (1985) The use of proteolytic enzymes to extract carotenoproteins from shrimp wastes J Appl Biochem., 7, 212-22 Spinelli, J., Lehman, L and Wieg, D (1974) Composition, processing, and utilization of red crab (Pleuroncodes planipes) as an aquacultural feed ingredient J Fish Res Board Can., 31,1025-9 SI Angelo, A.I and Vercellotti, J R (1989) rnhibition of warmed-over flavor and preserving of uncured meat containing materials US patent 4,871,556 Storebakken, T., Foss, P., Schiedt, K., Austering, E Liaen-Jensen, S and Manz, U (1987) Carotenoids in diet for salmonids IV Pigmentation of Atlantic salmon with astaxanthin, astaxanthin dipalmitate and canthaxanthin Aquaculture, 65, 279-92 Torrissen, O.J., Tidemann, E., Hansen, F and Raa, J (1981) Ensiling in acid - a method to stabilize astaxanthin in shrimp processing by-products to improve uptake of this pigment by rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) Aquaculture, 26,77-83 Torrissen, O.J., Hardy, R.W and Shearer, K.D (1989) Pigmentation of salmonids carotenoid deposition and metabolism CRC Crit Rev Aquatic Sci., 1,209-25 Index abalone 125, 184 acceptability measurements 246, 305 acetic acid 128 acetylation 282 actin 4, 297 actomyosin 275 adenine 127 adenosine 127 adenusine diphosphate (ADP) 52, 127 adenosine monophosphate (AMP) 52, 127, 156 adenosine triphosphate (ATP) 52,61,65, 80, 156, 172 Aeromonas hydrophila 177,203 affective testing 237 agmatine 159 alanine 9, 324, 332 Alaska pollack 153, 169,264,273,277, 289, 291 alcohols 85, 101, 102, 108 in shellfish volatiles 86 aldehydes 87, 101, 108 in shellfish volatiles 88 A lexandrium eatenella 221 Alexandrium exeavatum 222 Alexandrium tamarenis 222 alginate 282 alkaline phosphatase 332 alkaline proteinases 20 alkyl-pyrazines 85, 103 amines in shellfish volatiles 94 amino acids 9, 118, 119, 120, 126, 127, 128,129,130,159,323,324 aminoadipate 118 ammonia 85, 104 amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP) 220, 222 Anisakis species 208 anserine 128 anti-freeze glycoproteins 332 anti-freeze proteins 320, 332 antihistamines 227 appearance 140, 141,233,302 arabinose 128 Arctic char 251,329,330,331 arginine 9, 159, 324 aromas of fish 75, 233 arrowtooth flounder 289 ascorbate 49 ash content 321, 322 ashi 291 aspartic acid 9, 118, 324 assessment of fish by expert assessors astacene 329 astaxanthin 60, 329, 330, 331 astaxanthin diester 329 astaxanthin monoester 329 Atlantic cod 265 Atlantic herring 37 Atlantic mackerel 291,294,316 Atlantic menhaden 291, 294 Atlantic salmon 37 ATPase 268,270,271,275 attribute scale 246 autolytic changes 170 automatic pentrometer 149 Bacillus cereus 202 Bacillus species 222 bacteria 196, 201 basic tastes 115 beetle infestation 185 beta carotene 60 biogenic amines 159 biological variations 169 bi lterness 115, 119 blood stains 144 blubber 332 blue whiting 264 bluefish 43, 228, 241 boiled and dried seafood 184 bonito 169 brine-like flavours 77 broiled and dried seafood 184 bromophenols 77 brown discolorations 171 burbot 41 butterfish 160 butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) tert-butylhydroquinone 295 cadaverine 159 calcium ions 62 calpains 22 caloric value of cod fillets 321 caloric value of cod offal 321 caloric value of discards 321 296 296 237 336 Campylobacter species 177, 203 Canadian grading standards 239 canning 187 canthaxanthin 60, 329, 330, 331 capelin 8, 289, 298 carbamate toxins 221 carbon dioxide 176 carbonyl compounds 101, 102 carboxylic acids 185 N,O-carboxymethylchitosan 328 N,O-carboxymethylchitosan acetate 328 N,O-carboxymethylchitosan lactate 328 N,O-carboxymethylchitosan pyrrolidine carboxylate 328 carboxypeptidase A (cathepsins A and I) 17 carnosine 58, 128 carotenoids 57,79,320,322,323,328, 330, 331 carotenoprotein extracts 320 carrageenan 282 Caspian roach 184 catalase 57 catalysis of lipid oxidation 63 catecholamines 172 category scale 245 catfish 41 cathepsin A 17 cathepsin B 17,18,170 cathepsin C 19 cathepsin D 19, 170 cathepsin H 17, 20 cathepsin J 17 cathepsin L 17, 20, 170 cathepsin S 17 cerviche 212 cheeks 320 chelators of iron 57 chemical preservatives 175 chemical testing 234 chewy 180 chilling at subzero temperatures 175 chitin 322, 323, 324, 326, 327 chitinase 332 chitinous material 320, 324, 328 chitosan 320, 324, 326, 327 cholesterol 43 chum salmon 12 chymotrypsins IS ciguatera 220, 225 ciguatoxin (CfX) 226 ciguatta toxins 197 clam 5, 85 Clostridium botulinum 176, 187 CMP 124 cod 12,38,63, 158, 170, 174, 176,241, 289 cod liver oil 322 INDEX Codex Alimentarius 236 cohesiveness 148, 278, 301 cold-temperature enzymes 320 COLORMET 141,302 colour card system 142 colour of fish skin 168 colour of smoked fish 186 colour of surimi 302,305,306,310,313 comminution time and temperature 276 compression force 306, 313 consumer assessor 247 consumer panel 242 consumer perception of quality 248 consumer preference 168 consumer testing 237, 247 control of parasites in seafoods 212 copper in lipid oxidation 55 Crab Life Detector 144 crabs 5,124,324 crawfish 85 crayfish 324 creatine 128 crevalle 40 croaker 264, 268, 289 crosslinking ability 279 crosslinking agents 276, 279, 284 crustacean sp 12, 123 curdlan 282 cusk 241 cuttlefish 122 cydooxygenase 56 cysteine 9, 324 cytosine 127 Danish seining 171 dark-muscled tish 51 decarbamoyl toxins 221 decomposed 239 defects 239, 249 definition of sensory attributes used in assessments 240 definitions of defects 239 Deinococcus radiodu rans 177 Deinococcus radiophilus 177 descriptive analysis 235,237,240 descriptive sensory analysis 140 diamine oxidase 227 diamine oxidase inhibitors 227 diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) 220, 224 difference testing 235, 236, 251 digestive proteinases 14 dimethylamine 81 dimethyl sulphide 94 dinophysistoxin-l 224, 225 dinophysistoxin-3 224, 225 dipeptidyl peptidase I (cathepsin C) 17 dipeptidyl peptidase II (cathepsin D) 18 INDEX Diphyllobothrium 208 Diphyllobothrium latum 210 discriminative testing 235,237,241,243, 245, 251 disulphide (5-5) bonding 291 DNA fingerprinting 205 DNA hybridization methods 205 DNA polymerase 206 DNA probes 196, 205 docosahexaenoic acid (ORA) 34, 53, 54, 63, 64, 333 dogfish 289, 298 domoic acid 220, 222 dried skipjack 127 dried squid 11 drop lining 171 drying of seafoods 183, 325 Dungeness crab 42 duo-trio test 140 dyes 326 EDTA 55,65,270,296 effect of dehydration 182 effect of freezing rate 179 effect of lipid changes 182 effect of protein changes 180 effect of storage temperature 179 eicosapentaenoic (EPA) 34,63,64,333 eight-carbon volatile alcohols 76 eight-carbon volatile ketones 76 elasmobranch (cartilaginous) species 297 elasticity 148 endogenous enzymes 75, 168 endogenous proteinases 12 enteric viruses 198 enteroviruses 199 enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method 225 csters 109 in shellfish volatiles 100 cxamination procedures 239 exccssive drip 175 exogenous microorganisms 85 expert assessment 235 expcrt assessors 234, 237, 246 cxtensively trained assessors 237 cxtent of hydration during mixing 281 extractable actomyosin 268, 270 factors affecting frozen storabi lity of surimi 270 factors affecting shelf-life of seafood 173 factors affecting surimi quality 267, 275 factors affecting surimi yield 267 fat content 305, 311, 314 fatty acids 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42 fatty acid groups 36 fatty fish 288,289,291,295,296,297,315 337 fermenting 187 ferric iron 52 ferritin 51 ferrous iron 52 ferroxidases 57 fibrous 180 fibrousness 243 firmness 148, 243 fish enzymes 331 fish liver 332 fish meal 321 fish odour-causing substances 265 fish sauce 11, 133 fish silage 11, 321 fish skin 320 f1avorants 322 flavour enhancers 115 flavour potentiators 115 flavour profile analysis 240 flavours of fish 75 flounder 241, 332 fold score 306, 313 formaldehyde 149, 181 formic acid 128 free amino acids 85 frce choice profiling 241, 243 free histidine 227 freeze-denaturation of proteins 181 freeze syneresis (water separation) 282 frecze-thaw stabilizing starch 281 freshncss meter 158 freshness quality 140 freshness tcsting paper 158 freshwater fish 40 frozen and dried seafood 184 frozen storability of surimi 272 functional properties 181 275, 279, 293, 297,307,312.315,322 functional state of muscle protein 279 furans 89, 91 Gambierdiscus toxicus 226 gambiertoxin 4b (GT4b) 226 gaping 144 gastric proteases 12 gel cohesiveness 278, 283 gel firmness 283 gel-forming ability 267, 269, 270, 271, 273,276,305, 316 gel-forming properties 277,306,313 gel hardness 273 gel setting 277 gcl strength 278,283,297,301,306,310, 313 gel-strengthening ingredients 279 gelatinized starches 279 gclling ability 181 gene probe 201, 205 338 glistening flesh 249 glucose 127 glutamic acid 9, 118, 127,324 glutathione 61, 104 glutathione peroxide 58 glycerol 118,119, 120, 126, 127,128,129, 130 glycine 9, 322, 324 glycogen 172 glycolysis Gonyaulax polyedra 222 grading fish for quality level 233, 237, 239,245 grey sweetlip 41 groundfish 141 grouper 242 guanine 127 guanosine 5'-monophosphate (GMP) 115 gums 282 gut enzymes 320 gutting 173,289 Gymodinium catenatum 220 haddock 38, 174,241 haem iron 55 haem pigment 49 haem proteins 55 hake 174, 289 halibut 187,241 handline 171 harvesting conditions 171 hedonic measurements 246 hcdonic scale 241 hedonic testing 237,245 hepatitis A 196 hepatitus A virus (HAY) 198 hepatopancreas 11 hepatopancreas proteinases 16 herring 157,160,176,249,289,298,304, 305,309,310,311,312,315,316 hexanal 76 high fat seafood 35 high temperature short time sterilization 188 histamine 159, 227 histidine 9, 159, 169, 324 histidine decarboxylase 169 hoki 264, 268, 289 homarine 127 homocysteinate 118 Hunter colour values 142, 330 Hunterlab Labscan II 142 hyaluronidase 332 hydrocarbons 109 in shellfish volatiles 99 hydrocolloids 282 hydrogen bonds 291 hydrogen peroxide 50 INDEX hydrogen sulphide 85, 105 hydrolysates 11, 320,323 hydrolytic enzymes 170 hydroperoxides 76 hydrophobic bonds 291 hydroxyl free radical 50 hydroxyl scavengers 57 hydroxyproline 9,322,324 hydroxypropylation 282 hypoxanthine 61,80,156, 158 indole 174 infestation of insects 185 inhibitors of lipid oxidation 57,327 initiation inhibitors 58 inosine 156 inosine monophosphate (IMP) 81, 120, 121 Instron Universal Testing Machine 153 insulated containers 178 intensity measurements 246 intestinal proteinases 15 intrinsic quality attributes 237 iodine-like flavours 77 ionizing radiation 177 iota-carrageen gum 282 isoleucine 9, 324 jellied fish 12 jurel (Tarchurus murphyi) 298 kamaboko 108, 276, 288, 297 K-value 81,157,174 K' -value 158 K;-value 157 ketones 88, 101 in shellfish volatiles 90 king mackerel 40 Kramer Shear Compression Cell 149 lactic acid 127, 172 leaching of minced fish under vacuum 297 lean lake trout 41 lean seafood 35, 289 leucine 9, 324 line scales 245 lipid content 321, 322 lipid oxidation 49 lipids 168, 332 lipoxygenase 56,75, 105 in shrimp 105 Listeria monocytogenes 177,203,204 liver 320 liver pastes 322 lobster 85, 123, 324 long lining 171 low fat seafood 35 INDEX lutein 329 lysine 9, 159,324 lysosomal proteinases 16 mackerel 5,43,63, 160, 169, 172, 182, 241,249,289,291,297,298,302,303 magnitude estimation 245 mahi 228 maintaining natural antioxidants 66 mannose 128 marinating 187 matjes herring 11 maxim shear stress 242 mechanical deboning 289 mechanically separated fish 265 medium fat seafood 35 menhaden 289 mesh netti ng 171 methionine 9, 324 methods of measuring surimi quality 292 methods of preservation 187 methyl xanthines 121 microbiological hazards 202 microbiological quality of seafood 186 MICROFRESH 158 mince particle size 268 minerals 168 minimizing pro-oxidants 66 Minolta Chroma Metcr II 142 mitochondria 63 modori-inducing proteascs 23 moisture content 305, 311, 314, 321 moisture dependent gel strengthening 280 molecular oxygen 49 monkfish 241 monosodium glutamate (MSG) 115, 120 Moraxella species 222 mouse bioassays 220 mullet 40, 174 mullet roe 134 multicatalytic proteinases 21 myofibrillar protcins 3, 269, 270, 275 myogen myosin 4, 297 N-sulphocarbamoyl toxins 221 NADH 52,64 Nanophyetus salmineola 208, 211 naturally occurring toxins 197 nematodes 209 ncurotoxins 221 neutral proteinases 22 Nitzschia pseudoseriata 223 non-muscle proteins 283 non-protein nitrogenous (NPN) compounds Norwalk agents 198 339 Norwalk virus 200 nucleotides 104 objective 236, 246 objective testing 235, 236 ocean pout 332 off-flavours 250, 252 off-odours 168,249,297 okadaic acid (OA) 224, 225 omega-3-fatty acids 34, 333 omission test 125 orange roughy 157, 171 organoleptic 235 ornithine 127 Ottawa Texture Measuring System oxyglutamate 118 oyster 85 153 Pacific pollock 288, 289, 291, 292, 297 Pacific rockfish 25, 242 Pacific saury 297 Pacific whiting 265 packaging of fresh fish 178 paired comparison preference test 245 paired comparison test 140,245 paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) 221 parasite hazards 188 parasites in seafood 144, 187, 188, 196, 197,208 pathogenic viruses 198 pectenotoxin-l (PTXI) 225 pectenotoxin-2 (PTX2) 225 pectenotoxin-3 (PTX3) 225 pectenotoxin-6 (PTX6) 225 pelagic fish 12 pesticides 326 pH of seafood 26,64, 169, 172 pH of surimi 273,305,311,314 phenolic antioxidants 295 phenols 185 phenols in shellfish volatiles 100 phenylalanine 9, 159, 324 phenylethylamine 159 phospholipases 57 phospholipids 37 physical properties of surimi 275 picornaviruses 199 pigments in the dark muscle 290 pike 159 pink salmon 289 plaice 38 plain dried seafood 184 pleroceroids 210 poliovirus 199 pollock 241, 268 pollutants 168 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) 186 340 INDEX polymerase chain reactions 196, 206 polyunsaturated fatty acids 75 polyunsaturated methyl ketones 79 post-harvest handling 168 potassium sorbate 175 potential bacterial pathogens in seafoods 202 prawns 85, 122, 175, 324 preservation of seafoods 183 principle component analysis 242 processing discards 320, 323, 327 product grading 234 product inspection 236 product standards 239 profile attribute analysis 240 profile analysis 236 proline 9, 322, 324 propagation inhibitors 59 propionic acid 128 n-propyl gallate 295 proteases 11, 23, 25, 26 protection against the effects of salt (NaCl) 67 protein concentrates 7,320 protein content 305,311,314,321,322 protein denaturation 291 protein efficiency ratio (PER) 321, 322 protein hydrolysates 6, 325 protein-protein interactions 277 protein-protein networks 291 proteinases 11 proteins 168, 322 proteolytic breakdown of muscle tissue 268 Pseudomonas 177 Pseudoterranova decipiens 208 psychoph ysics 235 puncture test 148, 308, 309 putrescine 159 pyloric ceca 11 pyrazines 85, 92 pyridines 85, 93 pyroles in shellfish volatiles 93 pyrroline 93 quality assessment 233 quality deterioration 11 quality improvement 11 quantitative descriptive analysis rainbow trout 329 ranking 140, 235, 245 ratio scaling 140 raw shellfish 198 rays 289 redfish 242 red hake 269, 273, 298 reducing agents 57 240 reference standard 247 regulatory grading programmes 247 relationship of sol viscosity to gel properties 276 removing dark muscle 68, 291 removing unstable lipids 68 reporting sensory evaluation data 244 resilience 149, 308 restriction endonuclease fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) 207 retail packages 178 reverse transcriptase 207 rheological properties 275 rhinoviruses 198 ribose 127 rigidity 307, 309, 312, 315 rigor mortis 171 risk factors 187 RNA 207 rockfish 289 roe processing II roundnose grenadier 154 routine screening 201 rubbery 180 saithe 38 salmon 38.141,157,169,329 Salmonella species 177, 203 Salmonella ryphimurium 177 salted and dried seafood 128, 185 saltiness 115, 153 salting of fish 64 187 sarcoplasmic enzymes sarcoplasmic proteins 3, 265, 269, 270 sarcoplasmic reticulum 4, 171 sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) lipid 54 sarcosine 127 sardine 40, 289, 291, 297 sashimi 212 saxitoxins 221 scad 249 scaling 140, 235, 245, 251 scallops 127, 332 scombroid fish 12 scombroid poisoning 220, 227 scombrotoxin 197 scup 160 sea bream 39 seafood-borne illness 197 seafood taste 121 sea-like flavours 77 seal meat 325 sea-urchin 126, 133 selection of sensory assessors 238 selection of sensory attributes 240 sensory acceptability 168 sensory analysis facilities 238 sensory assessments 233, 250 INDEX sensory attributes 240, 298 302 sensory evaluation 233 sensory evaluation procedures 238 sensory intensities 250 sensory procedures 245 sensory quality 168,186,187,233 sensory science 234 serine 9, 324 shape of seafood 143 shark sharks 289 shear strain 301, 309 shear strength 149 shear stress 301, 309 shellfish 41,85,122,126 shellfish-associated gastroenteritis 200 Shigella sonnei 206 Shigella species 177, 203 short-necked clam 127 shrimp 85, 141, 324, 332 shrimp shell waste 330 signal detection mcthods 236 silver hake 289, 298 simulated crabmeat 288 simulated lobster tails 288 simulated scallops 288 simulated shrimp 288 singlet oxygen 56 siscowet lake trout 41 skipjack 157, 171 smoked seafood 185 snapper 169 sodium ascorbate 284, 296 sodium metabisulphate 175 sodium tripolyphosphate 303 soft shelled crab 147 solubilization of myofibrillar protein 276 sorbitol 182, 303 sorption isotherms 185 sourness 115, 153 spermidinc 159 spermine 159 springiness 243 squid 5,43, 122, 170,289 standard of hygiene 173 standards for certifying fish products 236 standards for testing fish products 236 Staphylococcus aureus 177, 203 starch 279 stcamed clams 198 stiffness 242 stomachs 320 storage and processing factors 168 strain at failure 242,307,310,312,315 stress 307,310,312,315 stringy 180 'striped bass 241 stroma 265 341 stroma proteins sturgeon 169 subjective terms 246 subjective testing 235 subjectivity 236 succinic acid 118 succulence 243 sucker 289 sulphur-containing compounds in shellfish volatiles 95 superchilling 175 superoxide 50 superoxide dismutase 57 surimi 5,6, 182,263, 288, 322 consumption 264 manufacturing 264, 265, 266, 289 processing 263,289,295,296,300,303, 304 producers 263 production 263, 264, 267 quality 292, 293, 294 yield 264,267,292 sushi 212 suwari 278 sweetness 115, 153 swordfish 241 synergistic taste effect 116, 117 taint 234 tainted 239 tapeworms 210 taste 233 taste-active components in seafoods 125, 129, 132 taurine 104,324 teleost (bony) species 297 tensile strcngth 170 texture 144, 150, 168, 233 thermal syneresis (protein aggregation) 278 thermally-induced protein denaturation 276 thermally-induced protein polymerization 276 thiamine 104 thiobarituric acid (TBA) content 301, 305,311,314 threadfin bream 264, 268, 273 threonine 9, 324 tilapia 273 tilefish 241 tocopherols 57, 61 Torrymeter 160 torsional failure 301,309,310 torsion test 307, 315 total volatile bases (TVB) 153 tough 180 toughening 175 342 toughness 243 toxic heavy metals 326 toxic phytoplankton 220 toxin-producing bacteria 220 toxin-producing dinoflagellates 221 toxins 168 trained expert assessors 250 trained inspectors 238 training sensory assessors 238 transferrin 51 transglutaminase 284 transition metals 49 trawling time 171 trematodes 211 triangle test 140, 245, 251 triglycerides 37 trimethylamine (TMA) 80, 126 trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) 81, 126, 269 triplet oxygen 50 tropomyosin 171 troponin 171 trypsins 15 tryptophan 9, 324 tuna 141,169,228 typtamine 159 tyramine 159 tyrosine 9, 324 ubiquinol 57,61 umami 115, 153,322 umami substances 115,121,127 uniformity of appearance 144 unwholesome 239 uric acid 156 valine 9, 324 very fresh flavours 75 Vibrio cholerae 202 INDEX Vibrio parahaemolyticus 177,201 Vibrio species 201 Vibrio vulnificus 202 viruses in seafoods 198 viscosity of starch gel 280 vitamins 168 volatile components of kamaboko flavorants 108 volatile sulphur compounds 80, 94, 103, 104, 105, 119 volatile unsaturated aldehydes 81 water activity, a w 183 water binding 279 water extractable proteins 323 water holding capacity 297 water quality 268 water retention 181 weakfish 241 wheat gluten 281 white croaker 273 white hake 241, 298 white-muscled fish 51 whiting 160,242 wholesomeness 168 wolffish 241 worms in seafood 209 xanthan gum 282 xanthine 61, 156 xanthine dehydrogenase xanthine oxidase 61 61 yellowfin tuna 168, 171 yellowtail flounder 160 Yersinia enterocolitica 177, 203, 207 yessotoxin (YTX) 224 zeaxanthan 329 .. .Seafoods: Chemistry, Processing Technology and Quality Edited by FEREIDOON SHAHIDI Departments of Biochemistry and Chemistry Memorial University of Newfoundland and J RICHARD BOTTA... Canada R3T 2N6 Contents The chemistry, processing technology and quality of seafoods - an overview F SHAHIDI Part The chemistry of seafood components Seafood proteins and preparation of protein... Therefore, their quality preservation is essential F Shahidi et al (eds.), Seafoods: Chemistry, Processing Technology and Quality © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 1994 SEAFOODS There