School finance

SCHOOL FINANCE A Policy Perspective SECOND EDITION ALLAN R ODDEN University of Wisconsin-Madison LAWRENCE O PICUS University of Southern California Boston Burr Ridge, IL Dubuque,IA Madison, WI New York San Francisco St Louis Bangkok Bogota Caracas Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi Seoul Singapore Sydney Taipei Toronto McGraw-Hill Higher Education A Division of The McGraw-HiU Companies SCHOOL FINANCE A POLICY PERSPECTIVE, SECOND EDITION Copyright © 2000, 1992 by The McGraw-HilI Companies, Inc All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher This book is printed on acid-free paper 456789 BKMBKM 09876543 ISBN 07-228737-3 Editorial director: Jane E Vaicunas Sponsoring editor: Beth Kaufman Developmental editor: Cara Ramey Marketing manager: Daniel M Loch Project manager: Jill R Peter Production supervisor: Sandy Ludovissy Coordinator of freelance design: Rick Noel Compositor: ElectraGraphics, Inc Typeface: 10/12 Caledonia Cover designer: Sean M Sullivan Interior designer: Sheilah Barrett Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Odden, Allan School finance: a policy perspective / Allan R Odden, Lawrence O Picus.-2nd ed p em Includes bibliographical references (p ) and index ISBN 07-228737-3 Education-United States-Finance Education-United States-Finance-Computer simulation I Picus, Larry, 1954 II Title LB2825.0315 2000 99-15558 379.1'21'0973-dc21 CIP www.mhhe.com Contents Preface ix INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW TO SCHOOL FINANCE 1 The Scope of United States Education Financing 2 Early Developments in School Finance Evolution in the School Finance Problem Traditional A Different The School The School 11 Fiscal Disparities 11 Type of School Finance Problem Finance Problem as Fiscal Adequacy Finance Problem as Productivity 18 23 25 EQUITY AND ADEQUACY FRAMEWORKS IN SCHOOL FINANCE 26 School Finance Litigation 27 Equal Protection Litigation 28 School Finance Equal Protection Litigation School Finance Litigation Based on State Education Clauses 35 A School Finance Legal Scorecard 45 31 A Framework for Assessing School Finance Systems 46 The School Finance Framework in Brief Ex Ante Versus Ex Post 48 Unit of Analysis 49 Objects 51 The Group 56 Equity Concepts 57 Conclusion 47 74 Hi iv Contents THE PUBLIC FINANCE CONTEXT 79 Taxation OveIView 80 Trends in Federal, State, and Local Taxation Changes in Tax Structures 82 80 Assessing and Understanding Taxation 86 Public Finance Criteria for Evaluating Taxes Analysis of Individual Taxes 86 97 The Income Tax 97 The Sales Tax 105 The Property Tax 119 Lotteries 137 Intergovernmental Fiscal Relations 139 Advantages of a Federal Approach to Financing Governmental Services 140 Mandates and Their Use in Intergovernmental Relations 142 Intergovernmental Grants and Their Objectives Alternative Measures of Fiscal Capacity 150 Final Comments on Taxation and Intergovernmental Grants 152 144 SCHOOL FINANCE STRUCTURES: FORMULA OPTIONS AND NEEDS ADJUSTMENTS 154 School Finance Equity, Adequacy, and Policy Goals 155 School Finance Formulas 156 General-Aid School Finance Programs 159 Flat Grant Programs 161 Foundation Programs 167 Guaranteed Tax Base Programs 179 Combination Foundation and Guaranteed Tax Base Programs 189 Full-State Funding and State-Determined Spending Programs 195 Adjustments for Student Needs, Education Level, Scale Economies, and Price 197 Adjustments for Different Pupil Needs Development of Special-Needs Programs 197 198 Contents v Issues in Determining Costs of Special-Needs Programs 203 Simulation of Adjustments for Special-Needs Students 224 Adjustments for Different Grade Levels 226 Adjustments for Size 230 Adjustments for Price Differences 232 Conclusion 234 A New School Finance Formula 235 An Econometric Approach to Adjustments for Different Needs 235 Chapter Problems 237 IMPROVING STATE SCHOOL FINANCE SYSTEMS 241 A Framework for Analysis 241 School Finance in Vermont 243 The Vermont School Finance Problem 244 Improving the Vermont School Finance System School Finance in Wisconsin 249 The Wisconsin School Finance Problem 250 Improving the Wisconsin School Finance System School Finance in Illinois 255 The Illinois School Finance Problem 256 Improving the Illinois School Finance Structure Conclusion 262 246 252 258 ALLOCATION AND USE OF FUNDS AT THE DISTRICT, SCHOOL, AND CLASSROOM LEVELS 264 Resource-Use Patterns at the National and State Levels 266 Expenditures by Function 266 Staffing Patterns 269 Resource-Use Patterns at the District Level Expenditure Patterns across Districts within a State 272 District Usesof New Money 277 271 vi Contents Resource-Use Patterns at the Site Level Expenditures by School and Classroom Summary and Conclusion 279 279 286 WAYS TO IMPROVE EDUCATIONAL PRODUCTIVITY 288 Measuring Educational Productivity 289 What Is a Production Function? 289 Linking Spending to Student Outcomes: Economic Research 291 Why Is Educational Productivity So Elusive? New Ways to Assess Educational Productivity Reducing Class Size: A Brief Synthesis of the Literature 299 Alternatives to Class-Size Reduction 306 Market Approaches 309 Improving Educational Performance Through Decentralized Management 296 297 312 USING EDUCATION DOLLARS MORE WISELY TO IMPROVE RESULTS 323 Examples from School Restructuring Staffing in America's Schools 327 Resource Reallocation Possibilities 324 330 Selected High-Peiformance School Designs 332 What about Low-Spending Districts? 342 The Reason Resource Reallocation Is Possible 342 The Process of Resource Reallocation Resource Reallocation in New Jersey 345 349 CREATING AN EDUCATION SYSTEM WITH INCENTIVES 352 Incentives for Students 353 Standards for Being Promoted from One Education Level to the Next 355 Standards for Graduation from High School 357 vii Contents Requirements for Admission into Higher Education 359 Additional Incentives for Students 360 Opportunities to Participate in Extracurricular School-Organized Activities 361 Incentives for Teachers 362 Goal Clarification Via Mission, Standards, and Testing 362 Opportunities to Work Collaboratively to Improve the School 363 Opportunities to Improve Professional Practice 364 Incentives to Improve Knowledge and Skills 365 Incentives to Improve Student Performance 366 Incentives for Schools 367 Incentives for Restructuring toward Higher-Performance Visions 367 Incentives for Reallocating Education Resources to More Productive Uses 370 Incentives for Producing Increases in Student Achievement 371 Summary 10 371 SCHOOL-BASED FINANCING: FORMULA FUNDING OF SCHOOL SITES 373 The Overall Structure of a School Site-Based Financing System 374 The Minimum School Percentage District Roles and Functions Core District Functions Optional District Functions The School Budget 376 378 379 384 392 Functions Devolved to School Sites The School Budget 393 Example of a School Formula 398 Conclusion 399 392 viii Contents 11 CHANGING TEACHER SALARY STRUCTURES 403 Link to Standards- and School-Based Education Reform 404 Change Teacher Compensation to Include Pay for Knowledge and Skills 406 A New Form of the Single-Salary Schedule 406 A Knowledge and Skill Pay Structure 407 Examples of Knowledge- and Skills-Based Pay Structures 411 Implementation Issues 413 Provide School-Based Performance Incentives 414 Examples of School-Based Performance Awards 418 Research on School-Based Performance Awards 420 An Example of a Comprehensive New Teacher Compensation System 423 Conclusion 425 Appendix Glossary References 426 430 436 Author Index 466 Subject Index 473 Preface Public school financing in the United States is a big business; it involved over $300 billion, 47 million children, and nearly million teachers, administrators, and staff in 1999 School finance has and continues to be a top-priority policy issue at the state and local levels, and one of the top issues the public identifies as needing attention at the national level as well Further, both adequacy of funding in general and the productivity of the use of education dollars in particular are the issues that are leading school finance policy deliberations today In this second edition of School Finance: A Policy Perspective, we continue the emphasis of the first edition on the use of education dollars and the need to use current and all new dollars on more effective programs and services, in short to improve the productivity of the education system Our goals in the second edition are to update the material in the first edition, and to provide a discussion of recent research in school finance, including how: the push for education adequacy, the need to meet high and rigorous educational standards, resource allocation and use for higher performance, site-based management of schools, and teacher compensation might impact the funding for our nation's schools in the early years of the next century The book also includes a revised and enhanced school finance simulation that enables students, professors and researchers to use the World Wide Web (http://www.mhhe.com/schoolfinance) to simulate the effects of different school finance structures on both a 20-district sample of districts and universe state data sets E-mail education@mhhe.com to obtain the password to the simulation The second edition has four major sections: • an introduction, which provides an overview for the issues subsequently addressed, • four chapters on equity and adequacy for districts, schools, and students, including state case studies of school finance problems and their resolution, • three chapters on issues related to improving the productivity and effectiveness of the education system, and • three chapters on the finance aspects of policy and management innovations designed to improve the country's public schools ix x J>re~ace INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW Chapter serves as an introduction to the topic of school finance It begins with information on the current status of funding for public K-12 education in the United States, showing how much is spent, the source of those funds, and how levels and sources of funding have changed over time It shows that as a nation, we spend a great deal of money on K-12 education and that the amount we spend has grown considerably over time Chapter also discusses the manner in which school finance inequities have changed over the last 30 years The chapter discusses the "traditional" school finance inequities in several states In these states, districts with lower property wealth per pupil tend to have lower expenditures per pupil-even with higher school tax rates-than districts with higher per-pupil property wealth These high-wealth districts tend to have higher perpupil expenditures even with lower school tax rates The chapter then shows that several states today have what the book terms the "new" school finance problem: higher wealth districts with higher expenditures per pupil but also higher tax rates, and lower property wealth per-pupil districts with lower expenditures per pupil but also lower school tax rates The chapter suggests that remedying these different types of fiscal inequities might require very different school finance reform strategies Finally the chapter discusses briefly how the issue of "adequacy" has entered the school finance policy agenda EQUITY IN SCHOOL FINANCE: PROBLEMS, ISSUES, FRAMEWORKS, AND NEW APPROACHES Chapter addresses frameworks for assessing school finance problems and challenges It first modifies the Berne and Stiefel (1984) equity framework that was used in the first edition of the text, adding a discussion of such issues as ex ante versus ex post equity perspectives, the unit of analysis, and various elements of equity including the group, the object, and different measures of horizontal and vertical equity The chapter includes a new horizontal equity statistic, the Verstegen Index, which measures the variation in the top half of the distribution, compared to the McLoone Index, which assesses the equity of the bottom half The chapter also adds the concept of adequacy to the overall framework and presents an adequacy statistic, the Odden-Picus Adequacy Index The second half of Chapter reviews the evolution of school finance court cases, from the initial Serrano v Priest decision, through the adequacy cases in the mid- to late 1990s, to the hoped-for final, 1998 decision of the New Jersey Supreme Court in that state's 25-year-Iong legal battle over the equity and adequacy of its school finance system Chapter reviews the public finance context for school finance, analyzing the base, yield, elasticity, equity, and adequacy of income, sales, and property 460 References Rosenholtz, Susan (1989) Teachers' Workplace: The Social Organization of Schools New York: Longman Rosenshine, Barak, and Robert Stevens (1986) "Teaching Functions." 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Economics of Education Review 11(1), 19-30 Yee, Sylvia (1984) Careers in the Classroom: When Teaching Is More Than a job New York: Teachers College Press Author Index Aaron, Henl)' J., 128, 131 Abelman, Charles, 320, 417 Achilles, Charles, 72, 172 Adams, E Kathleen, 59, 151,233 Adams, Jacob E., 40, 46, 278 Advisol)' Commission on Intergovernmental Relations (ACIR), 81, 100, 101, 104, 126, 133, 135, 142, 143 Alexander, Arthur J., 278 Alexander, Kern, 46, 73, 172,220 Allington, Richard L., 277, 326 Anderson, Lascelles, 298 Archibald, Sarah, 184, 342, 345,346,349 Augenblick, John, 19, 65, 73,172,233,273 Bailey, Stephen, 199 Ball, Deborah, 306, 307 Barnett, Steve, 230 Barrier, Emilie, 54 Barro, Stephen M., 68, 275, 278,300 Barzelay, Michael, 312 Beck, Lynn, 313, 314, 315, 317,320 Bell, Earl J., 132, Bell, Michael, 134, 358 Bell, Robert M., 358 466 Belsches-Simmons, Grace, 37 Ben-Avie, Michael, 331 Berke, Joel, 11 Bernal, J.J., 219 Berne, Robert, 13, 26, 27, 46,47,48,50,51,55, 59,60,61,62,64,65, 66,69,233,285 Bernstein, Charles D., 209 Berrueta-Clement, J.R., 230 Best, c., 284 Betts, J R., 294 Bhimani, Minaz, 282 Biber, Douglas, 200, 218,219 Bierlein, Louann A., 369,374 Bishop, John, 358 Blank, Rolf K., 309 Bobbitt, Sharon A., 271 Bodilly, Susan, 313 Bond, Lloyd, 407 Borg, Mal)' 0., 138 Bowan, John H., 134 Bradby, Denise, 358 Braddock, Mark, 203, 220, 223,224 Braven, Marsha L., 224 Brazer, Harvey E., 233 Break, George F., 144 Brent, Brian 0., 80, 96, 102, 105, 128, 133, 134, 135, 137, 138, 272,275,276,283 Briggs, Kerri, 314, 321 Britton, Edward, 54 Brophy, Jere, 54 Brown, Lawrence, 65 Brown, Patricia, 155 Browning, E., 111 Brownlee, O.H., 130 Brownlee-Conyers, Jean, 314,316,317, 318,320 Bruer, John, 24 Bl)'ers, Verne, 66 Bl)'k, Anthony, 321, 325,368 Buday, Mal)', 53, 54 Burney, Deanna, 318, 324,365 Burtless, Gal)', 55 Busch, Carolyn, 43, 48, 50, 52,57,65,66,68,74, 174, 184,255,265, 284,308,312,321, 323,324,340,365, 369,370,373,374, 375,376,377,378, 379,394 Caffarella, Edward, 411 Calhoun, Emily, 314, 317, 318,320,321,365 Card, David, 294 Cardenas, Jose, 219 Carney, M F., 223, 224 Carpenter-Huffman, P., 214,219 461 Author Index Carroll, Stephen J., 53,278 Chaikind, Steve, 224 Chambers, Jay G., 66, 68, 72, 172, 194, 203, 214,219,224,233, 284,319 Chaudhari, Ramesh B., 46 Checkoway, Marjorie, 46 Chen, Li-Ju, 46 Clune, William, 1, 10, 11, 24,31,32,43,44,70, 72, 171, 180, 184, 243,298,357, 374,414 Codding, Judy B., 334 Coeyman, Marjorie, 230 Cogan, Leland, 54 Cohen, David K., 320, 365,405,414 Cohen, Matthew C., 50,381 Cohn, Elchanan,91 Collins, Kathleen, 54, 407,408 Comer, James P., 331, 333 Conley, Sharon C., 364, 366,404 Consortium for Renewing Education, 323 Coons, John, 10, 11, 31, 32, 180 Cooper, Bruce, 273, 285, 286,295 Cooperative Research Project, 370 Corcoran, Thomas B., 318,365 Croninger, Robert, 357 Cuban, Larry, 359 Cubberly, Elwood Patterson, 26, 141 Cummins, James, 218 Daicoff, Darwin, 130 Danielson, Charlotte, 408, 409, 410 Danielson, Louis C., 224 Darling-Hammond, Linda, 24, 50, 57, 306,307,314,324, 326,327,328,342, 344,345,365 Dawson, Christina, 169, 230,231 DeLeeuw, Frank, 130 Demographics.com, 138, 139 Denslow, D., 233 Dolan, Lawrence, 42,325 Dougherty, Van, 15 Downes, Thomas, 235 Doyle, Denis, Driscoll, William, 73, 172 Du, Jiangtao, 311 Due, John F., 105, 106, 109, 111, 113, 115, 116 Duncombe, William, 70, 73, 173, 235, 236, 237,297,298 Dwyer, Carol Anne, 54, 407,408 Dye, Robert F., 109, 119 Easton, John Q., 321 Ebel, Robert D., 133 Edison Project, The, 74, 174,311,316,331 Education Commission of the States, 13, 14, 302,321,331,355, 368,369,372,381 Ekanem, Nkanta, 130 Elmore, Richard, 69, 155, 318,320, 324, 365,417 Emmons, Christine, 345 Enrich, Paul, 24 Epstein, A., 230 Evans, William, 22, 23, 50, 65,66,68 Farland, Gary, 50, 381 Fashola, Olatokunbo, 74, 174,213,333 Fazal, M., 275, 295, 296 Federation of Tax: Administrators, 105, 108, 112, 115, 117 Feldman, Sandra, 355, 356 Feldstein, Martin, 59, 151, 189 Ferguson, Ronald F., 293, 294,304,305,306 Finn, Chester, 369 Finn, Jeremy, 72, 172 Finnan, Christine, 316, 331 Firestone, William A., 278 Fishbein, Daniel, 414 Floden, Robert, 318, 336, 365,405 Florida Department of Revenue, 116 Folger, John, 230, 305, 347 Foster, Gail E., 369 Fox, James, 280, 281 Fox, William F., 231 Frohreich, Lloyd E., 220 Fuhrman, Susan H., 24, 40,69,313,320,417 Fullerton, Don, 11 Fulton, Mary F., 374 Furry, W.S., 223, 224 Futrell, Mary, 53, 54 Galbraith, Jay R., 345, 367 Gamoran, Adam, 358, 369 Gandal, Matt, 316 Garcia, 0., 219 Garms, Walter I., 10, 46 Gendler, Tamar, 369 General Accounting Office, 65, 68 Geske, Terry G., 91 Glass, Brian, 273 Glass, Gene V.,303, 304 Glidden, Heidi, 355 Goertz, Margaret E., 46, 48,50,204,211,212, 278,285,318,336, 365,373,405 468 Author Index Goffman,Innng,233 Gold, Steven D., 6, 84, 101, 102, 109, 112, 113, 117, 118, 133, 169, 180, 217, 219, 222,229 Gonzalez, Rosa Maria, 214 Gonzalo, Ignacio, 54 Greene, Jay P., 310, 311 Greenwald, Rob, 291, 293, 304,306 Grieson, Ronald, 130 Griffin, Noel, 369 Griffith, Julie, 231 Guarino, Cassandra, 224 Gusky, T.R., 317 Guss-Zamora, M., 219 Guthrie, James w., 10, 72, 73, 172, 230, 279, 280,357,359,369, 373,380 Haig, Robert, 167 Hall, Eugene, 411 Haller, Emil, 231 Hamilton, Laura, 415 Hamilton, Stephen F., 231 Hannaway, Jane, 314, 320 Hansot, Elizabeth, Hanushek, Eric A., 11, 25,292,293,294,304 Harmon, Hobart L., 66,230 Harris, Russell, 151 Hart, Ann Weaver, 364 Hartle, Terry, Hartman, William T., 203, 209,273,274 Haynes, Norris, 331, 345 Hayward, Gerald C., 280 Hedges, Larry V, 291, 293,304,306 Heise, Michael, 24 Heneman, Herbert G., III., 363, 367, 416, 417,418,420 Heneman, Robert L., 410,414 Hentschke, Guilbert C., 296 Hertert, Linda, 46, 50, 65,283 Hess, Fred, 321 Hewson, Peter W., 365 Hickrod, G Alan, 46 Hill, Heather, 365 Hill, Paul T., 368, 369, 380 Hinrichs, William L., 73, 172,258 Hirsch, Donald, 316, 321,331 Hirth, Marilyn, 66 Hodge, Michael, 199 Holland, P., 325 Holsomback, Hunt, 273 Honeyman, David, 66 Hoppe, Margaret, 24, 40, 69,313,352,355 Hovey, Hal, 109, 111 Howell, William G., 310 Hubbard, Ben C., 46 Hyary, Andrea C., 219 Hyman, D., 130 Imazeki, Jennifer, 24, 70, 73, 173, 235, 252, 253,255,297,298 Jaeger, Richard M., 54, 407,408 Johns, Roe, 220 Johns, Thomas, 169, 230,231 Johnson, AmyW., 313,320 Johnson, Gary, 66 Johnson, Susan Moore, 320 Johnston, Jocelyn, 237 Johnston, Peter, 277, 326 Jordan, K Forbis, 220 Jorde, Doris, 54 Joyce, Bruce, 314, 317, 318,320,321,365 Joyner, Edward T., 331 Kakalik, James, 223, 224 Karweit, Nancy, 348 Katzenbach, Jon R., 312 Kaufman, Phillip, 358 Kean, N., 219 Kearney, Phillip, 46 Kelley, Carolyn, 40, 57, 320,363,364,365, 366,367,382,403, 407,409,413,414, 415,417,418,420 Kelley, James, 53, 54 Kellor, Eileen, 416, 423 Kenny, L., 233 Kerbow, David w., 321 King, M Bruce, 317,320 King, Jennifer, 74, 173 King, Richard A., 10 Kirst, Michael, 24, 40, 54, 69, 278, 279, 280, 313, 352, 355, 357, 359,360 Klein, Steven, 358, 415 KMPG Peat Marwick, 111 Kochin, Lewis A., 131 Kotowski, Nancy, 57, 369 Kranz, Jennifer, 313, 314 Krashen, Steve, 200, 218,219 Krueger, Alan B., 294,305 Kruse, Sharon D., 319 Kucharz, Karen, 255 Ladd, Helen, 59, 149, 151, 189,235,304,305 Laine, Richard D., 73, 172, 258, 291, 293, 304,306 Lankford, Hamilton, 277 Lawler, Edward E., III, 312,313,321,345, 367,404,405,414 Lawton, Stephen B., 6, 169, 180, 217, 219, 222,229 Lawton, Steven, 169, 230,231 469 Author Index Lazarus, Virginia, 314, 316,317,318,320 Le Tendre, Mary Jean, 212 Ledford, Jr., Gerald E., 312,410,414 Lee, Valerie E., 325, 357 Leppert, Jack, 224 Levacic, Rosalind, 72, 373, 374 Levin, Betsy, 28 Levin, Henry R., 145, 146, 147 Levin, R., 73, 172 Levine, Roger E., 309 Levy, Frank, 56, 361 Lieberman, Joyce, 53, 54 Little, Judith Warren, 365, 405 Loucks-Horsley, Susan, 365 Louis, Karen Seashore, 317,319,321,364 Love, Nancy, 365 Luskin, L., 284 Madden, Nancy, 42, 325 Madigan, Timothy, 55, 357 Malen, Betty, 313, 314 Maloney, Larry, 273 Manno, Bruno V., 369 Marks, Helen, 317, 319,364 Marshall, Rudolph S., 209 Martin, Jane, 370 Mason, Paul M., 138 Massell, Diane, 24, 40, 69, 313,318,352,355 Massy, William, 277 May, Jay, 273 McCarthy, Jane, 316, 331 McClure, William, 224 McDill, Edward, 204 McDonnell, Lorraine M., 203 McGaw, B., 303 McGuire, C Kent, 37, 200 McGuire, Teresa I., 109, 119 McKnight, Curtis, 54 McLaughlin, Margaret, 203,204,210 McLaughlin, Michele, 309,310 McLaughlin, Milbrey w., 232,365,405 McMahon, Walter w., 66, 68,172,194,233 McMillen, Marilyn Miles, 271,358 McUsic, Molly, 36 Melville, Paula, 414 Mieszkowski, Peter, 128 Mikesell, John L., 96, 105, 106,109, Ill, 113, 115, 116, 127 Milanowski, Anthony, 54, 403, 417, 418, 420,423 Miles, Karen Hawley, 50, 277,284,324,326, 327,328,342,344 Minnesota Department of Revenue, Tax Research Division, 109 Minorini, Paul, 28, 29, 38, 41,43,45,46,70 Mohrman, Susan Albers, 312,313,314,315, 316,317,318,319, 320,321,322,345, 349,364,367,404, 414 Mohrman, Allan M., Jr., 313,404,414 Monk, David H., 50, 80, 96, 102, 105, 128, 133, 134, 135, 137, 138,141,149,194, 231,272,275,276, 283,288,290,296 Moody, Scott, 79, 83, 95, 100, 101, 104, 108, 119, 125, 126 Moore, Mary T E., 203, 220,223,224 Morison, P., 203 Moser, Michelle, 50 Moser, Urs, 54 Mosher, Edith, 199 Moskowitz, Jay, 65 Moss, Pamela A., 54, 231, 407,408 Mosteller, Frederick, 305 Murnane, Richard, 56, 320, 361, 366, 406,414 Murphy, John, 206, 272 Murphy, Joseph, 313, 314, 315,317,320,321 Murray, Sheila, 22, 23, 50, 65,66,68 Musgrave, Peggy, 87,117, 131, 132, 136, 139, 140, 144 Musgrave, Richard, 87, 117,130,131,132, 136,139,140,144 Nagle, Brianna, 278 Nakib, Yasser, 272, 283, 295,296 National Center for Education Statistics, 3,5,8,68,79,202, 267,268,269,270, 272,276,277,299, 310, 313 National Commission on Excellence in Education,69,270 National Commission on Teaching and America's Future, 278, 345,364 National Commission on Time and Learning, 308 National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), 316 National Research Council, 202, 224, 316 Natriello, Gary, 204 Nelson, F Howard, 217 Netzer, Richard, 128, 130 472 Author Index Wildavsky, Aaron, 296 Wilde, James A., 144 Wiley, David, 54 Wise, Arthur, 10, 31, 44,46 Witte, John F., 310, 311 Wohlstetter, Priscilla, 54, 312,313,314,315, 316,317,318,319, 320,321,322,364, 369 Wolfe, Richard, 54 Wolman, Jean, 206, 224 Wood, R Craig, 66, 403 Woodruff, Darren, 345 Wyckoff, James H., 65, 277,345 Yee, Sylvia, 232, 364 Yinger, John, 70, 73, 173, 235,236,297,298 Youngs, Peter, 54, 403, 407,408 Zarate, M., 219 Zingheim, Patricia, 404 Subject Index Accountability, 319-320, 381-382 323, 332, 345,417,421 Achievement, incentives for increasing, 371 testing (see Testing) variables, 55-56 Adequacy, 24, 36, 38, 43, 49,65,69-74 Adjustments, for different pupil needs, 197-226 grade levels, 226-230, table 228-229 price, 232-234 size, 230-231 Aid See Grants Assessed valuation, 123-125 in Colorado, 12-13 ATLAS school design, 333-336,344 Audrey Cohen College School Design, 332-335 Authorized revenue base (ARB), 13 Bilingual education, 200-201 costs and formulas for, 214-220 sheltered English, 218 state approaches to, table 221-222 Block grant See Grants Budgeting See School-based budgeting; School district budgeting Compensation, alternative teacher, 405-414, 423 425 Compensatory education, 199-200 costs and formulas for, 210-214 California Assessment Program, 95, 124 Categorical grants See Grants Chapter 1, 199, 212 Charter schools, 309, 369 Choice, 309-312, 368-369 in Wisconsin, 310-311 Circuit breaker program, 84, 134-135 Class-size reduction, 299-306,325-326, 347-348 state policies for, table 301-302 Coefficient of variation, 61-62, 77, 242, 251-252 examples of, 21-22, 157 Combination foundation and guaranteed tax base program, 20, 189-196 in Illinois, 258-262 in Vermont, 243-249 in Wisconsin, 249-255 state approaches to funding, table 215-217 Comprehensive Educational Improvement Finance Act (CEIFA), 42 Co-NECT school design, 332-336,340 Consumption, as a tax base, 89 Content standards, Correlation coefficient, 78 examples, 21-22,157, 245,251-252 172-173, 297-298 Cost Function, Court Cases Abbott v Burke, 38, 41 43 Brigham v State of Vermont, 243 Brown v Board of Education, 30 Burruss v Wilkerson, 27-28,31-32 Edgewood v Kirby, 35-36 473 474 Subject Index Court Cases-Cont Henrick Hudson Central School District Board of Education v Rowley, 204 Lau v Nichols, 200 Lujan v Colorado, 38 McInnis v Shapiro, 27-28,31,33 Pauley v Bailey, 38 Pennsylvania Associalion of Retarded Children (PARC) v Pennsylvania, 201 Robinson v Cahill, 34-35,37,41 San Antonio Independent School District v Rodriguez, 27, 33-35 Serrano v Priest, 11, 32-33,46,278 Curriculum enacted, 54 intended, 54 Data envelopment analysis (DEA), 298 Decentralized Management, 312-315 District power equalizing (DPE) programs See Guaranteed tax base (GTB) programs Edison Project, The, 311 Education Consolidation and Improvement Act (ECIA), 199 Education for All Handicapped Children Act, 201 Efficiency, in service production, 141 Elasticity, 78 examples of, 21-22, 157,245 Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), 144, 210 Enablers, system, 421 English as a second language (ESL) See Bilingual education Equality equal protection, 28-29 strict judicial scrutiny, 29 suspect classification, 30 Equity effectiveness, 47 equal opportunity, 47 fiscal neutrality, 47, 58-60, 75-76, 159, 242 framework, 46-67, table 75-76 horizontal, 47, 60-66, 75-76 service distribution, 141 tax, 90-94 unit of analysis, 49-51 vertical, 66-71, 75-76 Ex Ante, 48, 242 Ex Poste, 48-49, 242 Expeditionary LearningOutward Bound (ELOB) school design, 332-335 Expenditures by content area, 265, 270-271 educational, 4-6 by function, 266-268, 272-277 New York and, 18-20, 272-277 Pennsylvania and, 273-275 per pupil, 5, 7-8,11-23 by program, 265 by school and classroom, 279-284 Extracurricular activities, 361-362 Fee-for-service tax, 91 Finance, school computer simulation, 2, 154-155, appendix equity, general aid programs, 159-161 in Illinois, 255-262 new formula, 235 policy goals, in Vermont, 243-249 in Wisconsin, 249-255 Fiscal capacity alternative measures, 150-152 equalization, 178, 182-183 Fiscal federalism decentralized decision making, 141 efficiency in service production, 141 equity in service distribution, 141 fiscal capacity equalization, 140 intergovernmental grants, 144-150 mandates, 142-144 Fiscal neutrality, 47, 58-60, 75-76, 159, 242 Flat grant See Grants Foundation programs, 10, 20,65,167-179 in Illinois, 256-262 in Vermont, 243-249 in Wisconsin, 249-255 Full-state funding programs, 65, 195-197 General aid programs, 159-161 Gini coefficient, 62-63, 78 examples of, 157 Goals, 362-363 school control of, 368 Subject Index Grants block, 145 categorical, 148-149 flat, 10, 160-166 intergovernmental, 144-150 matching, 147-148 unrestricted general, 145-147 Guaranteed tax base (GTB) programs, 16, 20, 49, 59-60, 179-189 in Illinois, 258-262 in Vermont, 243-249 in Wisconsin, 249-255 High performance school model, 173, 331, 345 Horizontal Equity, 60-66 Incentives, 352-372 knowledge- and skillbased pay, 365-366, 406-414 school-based performance awards, 320-321, 366-367, 414-423 for schools, 367-372 size and, 416, 418 for students, 353-362 for teachers, 362-367 Income tax, 97-105 as a tax base, 88-89 transfers, 93 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 201 Input approach to determine adequate spending level, 172 fiscal, 51-53 physical, 51-53 475 Intergovernmental 144-150 grants, Kentucky education reform, 39-40 Knowledge and skill-based pay, 365-366, 406-414 examples of, 423-425 Limited English Proficient (LEP) See Bilingual education Lotteries, 137-139 Magnet schools, 309 Mandates, 142-144 McLoone Index, 63-64, 77,242 examples, 21-22, 157-158,244-245, 251-252 Minimum Foundation Program See Foundation programs Modem Red Schoolhouse school design, 184, 332-338,340343 Percentage equalizing programs See Guaranteed tax base (GTB) programs Performance measures, 415 standards, 355-360 p.L 94-142, 201-202 Price Indices, 233-234 Privatization, 311 Privilege, as a tax base, 89 Production function, 289-291 Productivity, educational, 11,25,288,297-299 Professional development, 317-318,364-365 Property tax, 119-137 Proposition 13, 84, 124, 136-137 Pupil weighting, 207-209 National Alliance school design, 332-335 Nation at Risk, 69, 270, 357,359 New Jersey, reform in, 13-15, 73-74 Range, 14,61, 77,157 federal range ratio, 61, 77, 157 restricted range, 61, 157 Reform, school finance New Jersey, 13-15, 73-74 Texas, 15-17 Resource Cost Model (RCM), 72 Resource reallocation, 286-287, 296, 323-351,370 in New Jersey, 349-357 Revenue, sources of, 6-8 Roots and Wings See Success for All/Roots and Wings school design Odden-Picus Adequacy Index, 71, 78, 242-243 examples of, 157, 244-246,251252 Sales tax, 105-119 School and staffing survey (SASS), 270 School-based budgeting, 321-322,370, 373-399 Subject Index 476 School-based budgetingCant framework, 374-376, table 377 School-based financing See School-based budgeting School-based management, 313-322, 368 accountability and, 319-320 School-based performance awards, 320 -321, 366 -367,414-423 School district budgeting, 296-297 School finance, defined, 1, 154 School-level analysis, 283-286 School site councils, 317 Sheltered English, 218 Simulation, computer, example of adjustments for special-needs students, 225 example of base data, 157 example of combination foundation and GTB program, 196 example of flat grant program, 165 example of foundation program, 177 example of guaranteed tax base (GTB) program, 186 Site-based management See School-based management Special education, 201-203 costs and formulas for, 220-224 student identification, 203-204 Special needs adjustments for, 197-226 appropriate services, 204 costs, 205 econometric approach to funding, 235-237 educational placement, 204-205 general approaches to funding, 205-210 in New Jersey, 41 student eligibility, 203-204 Staffing patterns, 269-271, 327-330,342-345, 417,421 Standards, 355 -360 Standards-based reform, 24,313,352,404-406 Student achievement, 323, 332,345,417,421 Success for All/Roots and Wings school design, 173, 213, 332 -335, 338 -340, 349 -351, 356,364 System enablers, 421 Tax administration, 96 base, 87 compliance, 96 consumption, 89 economic effects of, 94-96 elasticity, 90 equity, 90-94 exemptions, 113, 134 fee-for-service,91 incidence, 92 income, 97-105 income transfers, 93 lotteries, 137-139 privilege, 89 progressivity, 92 property, 10, 119-137 proportional, 92 regressivity, 92 sales, 105-119 yield, 89-90 Taxpayer revolt, 84 Teachers knowledge and skills, 306-307 motivation and, 420-423 substitutes, 387 Tennessee STAR, 72, 305,347 Testing criterion reference, 55-56 norm reference, 55-56 Texas, reform, 15-17, 35 -36 Title I, 210-214 Title VI, 201 Unit of analysis, 49 51 Value assessed, 123-125 market, 121-123 true, 121-123 Verstegen Index, 64, 77 examples of, 157-159, 244-245 Vertical equity, 66-71 Voucher programs, 310-311 Wealth as a tax base, 87-88 Weighted pupils, 207-209 Yield, 89-90 Zero-aid district, 176-178 476 Subject Index School-based budgetingCant framework, 374-376, table 377 School-based financing See School-based budgeting School-based management, 313-322, 368 accountability and, 319-320 School-based performance awards, 320-321, 366-367,414 -423 School district budgeting, 296-297 School finance, defined, 1, 154 School-level analysis, 283-286 School site councils, 317 Sheltered English, 218 Simulation, computer, example of adjustments for special-needs students, 225 example of base data, 157 example of combination foundation and GTB program, 196 example of flat grant program, 165 example of foundation program, 177 example of guaranteed tax base (GTB) program, 186 Site-based management See School-based management Special education, 201-203 costs and formulas for, 220-224 student identification, 203-204 Special needs adjustments for, 197-226 appropriate services, 204 costs, 205 econometric approach to funding, 235-237 educational placement, 204-205 general approaches to funding, 205-210 in New Jersey, 41 student eligibility, 203-204 Staffing patterns, 269-271, 327-330,342-345, 417,421 Standards, 355-360 Standards-based reform, 24,313,352,404 -406 Student achievement, 323, 332,345,417,421 Success for All/Roots and Wings school design, 173, 213, 332-335, 338-340,349-351, 356,364 System enablers, 421 Tax administration, 96 base, 87 compliance, 96 consumption, 89 economic effects of, 94-96 elasticity, 90 equity, 90-94 exemptions, 113, 134 fee-for-service,91 incidence, 92 income, 97-105 income transfers, 93 lotteries, 137-139 privilege, 89 progressivity, 92 property, 10, 119-137 proportional, 92 regressivity, 92 sales, 105-119 yield, 89-90 Taxpayer revolt, 84 Teachers knowledge and skills, 306-307 motivation and, 420 -423 substitutes, 387 Tennessee STAR, 72, 305,347 Testing criterion reference, 55-56 norm reference, 55-56 Texas, reform, 15-17, 35-36 Title I, 210-214 Title VI, 201 Unit of analysis, 49-51 Value assessed, 123-125 market, 121-123 true, 121-123 Verstegen Index, 64, 77 examples of, 157-159, 244-245 Vertical equity, 66-71 Voucher programs, 310-311 Wealth as a tax base, 87-88 Weighted pupils, 207-209 Yield, 89-90 Zero-aid district, 176-178 ... School Finance Problem 244 Improving the Vermont School Finance System School Finance in Wisconsin 249 The Wisconsin School Finance Problem 250 Improving the Wisconsin School Finance System School. .. Early Developments in School Finance Evolution in the School Finance Problem Traditional A Different The School The School 11 Fiscal Disparities 11 Type of School Finance Problem Finance Problem as... Grants 152 144 SCHOOL FINANCE STRUCTURES: FORMULA OPTIONS AND NEEDS ADJUSTMENTS 154 School Finance Equity, Adequacy, and Policy Goals 155 School Finance Formulas 156 General-Aid School Finance Programs