Handbook of air pollution from internal

Handbook of Air Pollution from Internal Combustion Engines Pollutant Formation and Control Edited by Eran Sher ACADEMIC PRESS Boston San Diego New York London Sydney Tokyo Toronto All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher ACADEMIC PRESS 525 B Street, Suite 1900, San Diego, CA 92101, USA 1300 Boylston Street, Chestnut Hill, MA 02167, USA http://www.apnet.com United Kingdom Edition published by ACADEMIC PRESS LIMITED 24-28 Oval Road, London NWI 7DX http://www hbuk!co uk! ap/ ISBN: 0-12-639855-0 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Handbook of air pollution from internal combustion engines: pollutant formation and control/edited by Eran Sher p em Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-12-639855-0 (alk paper) I Motor vehicles-Motors-Exhaust gas-Environmental aspects Internal combustion engines-Environmental aspects AirPollution Sher, Eran TD886.5.H36 1998 629.25'28-dc21 97-48256 CIP Printed in the United States of America 98 99 00 01 02 IP I Dedication I owe my roots to Professor Chaim Elata of the Ben-Gurion University, Beer-Sheva, Israel, who taught me how to think I owe my stem to the late Professor Rowland S Benson of UMIST Manchester, England, who taught me how to observe I owe my foliage to Professor James C Keck of MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, who taught me how to analyze Contents List of Contributors xiii Acknowledgments xix PART I OVERVIEW Motor Vehicle Emissions Control: Past Achievements, Future Prospects John B Heywood Sun Jae Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Director, Sloan Automotive Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Massachusetts, United States 1.1 Synopsis 1.2 Introduction 1.3 Motor Vehicles and Air Pollution 1.4 The Science of Pollutant Formation and Control 1.5 Effectiveness of Current Emission Control Technology 1.6 Direct-Injection Engines, Two-Strokes, and Diesels 1.7 Future Prospects References J 4 15 17 20 23 PART II GLOBAL ASPECTS Environment Aspects of Air Pollution Eran Sher Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Pearlstone Center for Aeronautical Engineering Studies, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel 2.1 Introduction 25 27 28 vii Contents viii 2.2 2.3 Global Effects Regional Effects References Health Aspects of Air Pollution Rafael S Carel Division of Community Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Soroka Medical Center, Beer-Sheva, Israel 3.1 Anatomy and Physiology of the Respiratory System 3.2 Defense Mechanisms of the Lung 3.3 Ventilatory Function Tests 3.4 Principles of Inhalation Injuries 3.5 Airborne Pollutants Causing Cancer and other Diseases References 28 35 41 42 43 52 56 58 63 64 Economic and Planning Aspects of Transportation Emission 65 Pnina O Plaut Faculty of Architecture and Town Planning, Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel Steven E Plaut Graduate School of Business Administration, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The Notion of Optimal Pollution Abatement and Control 4.3 Alternative Sets of Abatement Policies for MobileSource Emissions 4.4 Administrative Methods of Pollution Emissions Control 4.5 Indirect Pricing Mechanisms 4.6 Conclusions References 66 68 72 77 82 86 87 PART III SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES Introductory Chapter Overview and the Role of Engines with Optical Access Richard Stone Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Engines with Optical Access 5.3 High-Speed Photography 5.4 Flame Front Detection 5.5 Mixture Preparation and Combustion Diagnostics 91 93 94 97 98 102 105 ix Contents 5.6 5.7 Some Applications of Engines with Optical Access Conclusions References Combustion-Related Emissions in SI Engines Simone Hochgreb Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Massachusetts, United States 6.1 Introduction 6.2 NOxFormation 6.3 Carbon Monoxide 6.4 HC Emissions 6.5 Summary References Pollution from Rotary Internal Combustion Engines 112 115 115 118 119 124 135 137 163 164 171 Mark Dulger Deparment of Mechanical Engineering, Ben-Gurion University, Beer-Sheva, Israel 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Sources of Hydrocarbon Emissions References 171 175 188 Control Technologies in Spark-Ignition Engines 189 Brian E Milton Nuffield Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Head of School, School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia 8.1 Global and Local Emissions: A Brief Overview of the Problem 8.2 Global Emissions from SI Engines 8.3 Engine Control Factors for Local Emissions 8.4 Transient Operation of Engines and the Effect on Emissions 8.5 Some Details of Control Systems 8.6 Developments for the Future References 190 205 209 210 222 246 255 PART IV COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES Introduction FEV Motorentechnik GmbH and Co KG, Aachen, Franz F Pischinger Germany 9.1 The Diesel Engine for Cars-Is There a Future? 259 261 262 x Contents 9.2 9.3 9.4 State of Technology Technology for the Future Summary and Conclusions 10 Combustion-Related Emissions in CI Engines 265 269 278 280 Gary Hawley, Chris J Brace, and Frank J Wallace Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom Roy W Horrocks Diesel Engine Powertrain, Ford Motor Co Ltd Laindon, United Kingdom 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Review of Current and Projected Emissions ConcemsGeneral Considerations 10.3 High-Speed DI Diesel Developments 10.4 Overview of Emissions from CI Engines 10.5 Current and Projected Global Emissions Legislative Requirements 10.6 Advanced Emission Reduction Strategies for the Year 2000 and Beyond 10.7 Steady-State and Transient Emissions 10.8 Application of Computational Tools Toward Predicting and Reducing Emissions 10.9 Advance Engineering Project References 281 283 285 288 301 306 337 341 350 353 II Control Technologies in Compression-Ignition Engines Stephen J Charlton Director, Advanced Diesel Engine Technology, Cummins Engine Company, Inc., Indiana, United States 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Electronic Fuel Systems for Diesel Engines 11.3 Basic Principles of Electronic Control for Diesel Engines 11.4 Electronic Hardware for Diesel Engine Control 11.5 Exhaust Aftertreatment References 358 359 365 374 390 406 417 PART V lWO-STROKE ENGINES 421 12 Introductory Chapter: From a Simple Engine to an Electrically Controlled Gasdynamic System Cornel C Stan FTZ Research and Technology Association Zwickau, Westsaxon Institute ofZwickau, Zwickau, Germany 12.1 Introduction 423 424 Contents 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 xi Pollution Formation Methods of Mixture Preparation Techniques to Reduce Pollution The Future of the Two-Stroke Engine References 426 429 433 436 442 13 Air Pollution from Small Two-Stroke Engines and Technologies to Control It 441 YujiIkeda and Tsuyoshi Nakjima Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kobe University, Rokkodai, Nada, Kobe, Japan Eran Sher Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Pearlstone Center for Aeronautical Engineering Studies, Ben-Gurion University, Beer-Sheva, Israel 13.1 Pollutant Formation 13.2 Pollutant Control 13.3 Flow and Emission Diagnostics (Experimental Results) References 442 448 456 473 14 Air Pollution from Large Two-Stroke Diesel Engines and Technologies to Control It MAN B&W Diesel A/S, R&D Department, Svend Henningsen Copenhagen, Denmark 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Regulated Emissions 14.3 Exhaust Emissions 14.4 Exhaust Emission ControlTechnologies-NOx Reduction Techniques 14.5 Exhaust Emission Control Technologies-Reduction of Other Pollutants References 477 478 479 482 494 516 530 PART VI FUELS 535 IS Introductory Chapter: Fuel Effects 537 Shell Research and Technology Centre, Shell David R Blackmore Research Ltd., Thornton, Chester, United Kingdom 15.1 Historical Landmarks 15.2 Recent Developments 15.3 The Future 15.4 In Conclusion 538 541 544 545 xii 16 Fuel Effects on Emissions Yoram Zvirin, Marcel Gutman and Leonid Tartakovsky Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technion, Haifa Israel 16.1 Background 16.2 Gasolines (Sl Engines) 16.3 Diesel Fuels (CI Engines) 16.4 Alternative Fuels References Appendix: National Gasoline Specifications Appendix: National Specifications for Automotive Diesel Fuel Appendix: US EPA Models for Calculation of Fuel Effects on Exhaust Emissions Index Contents 547 548 550 575 603 619 624 639 645 653 List of Contributors PART I OVERVIEW Motor Vehicle Emissions Control: Past Achievements, Future Prospects Prof John B Heywood Dept of Mechanical Engineering Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, MA 02139 tel: 617-253-2243 fax: 617-253-5981 e-mail: jheywood@mit.edu PART II GLOBAL ASPECTS Environmental Aspects of Air Pollution Prof Eran Sher Dept of Mechanical Engineering Ben-Gurion University Beer-Sheva 84 105 Israel tel: 972-7-646-1394 fax: 972-7-647-2990 e-mail: sher@menix.bgu.ac.il Health Aspects of Air Pollution Prof Rafael Carel Soroka Medical Center xiii Appendix 649 Table 7.6.6 (Continued) EI for 1,3 - butadiene, dl = 0.0001552(sulphur) - 0.004005(aromatics) = 0.0436960(0Iefins) E2 for 1,3-butadiene, d2 - 0.008058(E300) Polycyclic organic matter emissions = 0.003355 x 0.007253(E200) - 0.014866(E300) + 0.0282350(0Iefins) 0.060771 (oxygenate) - 0.00731 I (E200) 0.004005(aromatics) VOC exhaust emissions Nonexhaust benzene emissions = diurnal + hot soak + running loss + refueling benzene emissions, where: Hot soak benzene emissions = 10 x (benzene) x (hot soak VOC emissions)(I) x (1.4448 - 0.0342(MTBE) - 0.080274(RVP)} 10 x (benzene) x (diurnal VOC emissions)(]) x {1.3758 - 0.0290(MTBE) - 0.080274(RVP)} Diurnal benzene emissions Running loss benzene emissions = 10 x (benzene) x (running loss VOC emissions)(I) x {1.4448 - 0.0342(MTBE) - 0.080274(RVP)} Benzene refueling emissions - 10 x (benzene) x (refuelling VOC emissions)(I) x {1.3972 - 0.0296(MTBE) - 0.081507(RVP)} (I)As calculated for appropriate phase and region in Table 7.6.3 Table 7.7 Baseline Data for Calculating Complex Equations Table 7.7.1 Baseline Exhaust Emissions Exhaust pollutant (mg/mile) VOC NOx Benzene Acetaldehyde Formaldehyde 1,3-Butadiene Polyorganic Matter Phase I (1995-1999) Phase II (2000 and after) Summer Winter Summer Winter 446 660 26.10 2.19 4.85 4.31 1.50 660 750 37.57 3.57 7.73 7.27 2.21 907 1340 53.54 4A4 9.70 9.38 3.04 1341 1540 77.62 7.25 15.34 15.84 4.50 Table 7.7.2 Weighting Factors for Normal and Higher Emitters Phase I (1995-1999) VOC Normal Emitters (wJl Higher Emitters (wz) Phase II (2000 and after) + Toxics NOx 0.52 0.48 0.82 0.18 VOC + Toxics 0.444 0.556 NOx 0.738 0.262 650 Chapter 16: Fuel Effects on Emissions Table 7.7.3 Baseline Fuel Properties and Acceptable Range for Models Baseline fuel properties Fuel Property Oxygen (% W) Sulphur (ppm) RVP(psi) E200 (% v) E300 (% v) Aromatics (v/v %) Olefins (v/v %) Benzene (v/v %) Summer Winter 0.0 339 8.7 41.0 83.0 32.0 9.2 1.53 0.0 338 11.5 50.0 83.0 26.4 11.9 1.64 Acceptable range (complex) Limits of simple model 0-3.5 6.6-9.0 10-45 0-2.5 Reformulated Conventional 0.00-3.70 0.0-500.0 6.4-] 0.0 30.0-70.0 70.0-100.0 0.0-50.0 0.00-25.0 0.0-2.0 0.00-3.70 0.0-100.0 6.4-11.0 30.0-70.0 70.0-100.0 00.0-55.0 0.00-30.0 0.0-4.9 Table 7.7.4 Baseline Nonexhaust Emissions Phase I (1995-1999) Nonexhaust pollutant Phase II (2000 and after) (mg/mile) Region I Region Region I Region VOC Benzene 860.48 9.66 769.10 8.63 559.31 6.24 492.07 5.50 Table 7.7.5 Total Baseline Total VOC, NO" and Toxics Emissions Phase I (1995-1999) Phase II (2000 and after) Pollutant (mg/mile) Region I Region II Region I Region II Summer NO, VOC Toxics 660.0 1306.5 48.61 660.0 1215.1 47.58 1340.0 1466.3 86.34 1340.0 1399.1 85.61 Winter NO, VOC Toxics 750.0 660.0 58.36 750.0 660.0 58.36 1540.0 1341.0 120.55 1540.0 1341.0 120.55 Table 7.7.6 Allowahle Ranges of E200, E300, and Aromatics for Exhaust VOC Equations Phase I (1995-1999) Fuel parameter Phase II (2000 and after) Lower limit Upper limit Lower limit Upper limit E200, % v E300, % v 33.00 72.00 33.00 72.00 Aromatics, % v 18,00 65.83 80.32 + {0.390 x (aromatics») 46.00 65.52 79.75 + {0.385 x (aromatics) ) 46.00 18.00 651 Appendix Table 7.7.7 Allowable Ranges of Sulphur, 01efins, Aromatics, and E300 for NO, Equations Phase I (1995-1999) Fuel parameter Sulphur, ppm E300, % v Olefins, % v Aromatics, % v Phase" (2000 and after) Lower limit Upper limit Lower limit Upper limit 10.0 70.0 3.77 18.0 450.0 95.0 19.0 36.2 10.0 70.0 3.77 ]8.0 450.0 95.0 ]9.0 36.8 Index A Acid rain, 39-40 Air pollutants (see Specific pollutant and Exhaust emission): summary of sources and human health effects, 29 Air quality, 40-41 Alcohols, 603-7 Aldehydes, 193, 551-52 Alkalines, 551-52 Alkenes, 551-52 Ammonia addition to reduce NOx emission, 21, 496, 505-7,512-15 Aromatics: in diesel fuel, 550, 593-99 in gasoline, 21, 551-52, 555 summary of aromatics content in diesel fuel worldwide, 641-42 summary of aromatics content in gasoline worldwide, 631-33 Ash, 407 B Benzene: in diesel fuel, 550, 593-99 in gasoline, 21, 551-52, 555 summary of benzene content in gasoline worldwide, 631-33 Biofuels, 544, 611-13 C Carbon dioxide, CO2: effect on global warming, 33-35, 194,202-5 effect on rain acidity, 39 emission from different fuel types,208,483 health effects, 59 sources, 29, 67 Carbon monoxide, CO (see also Exhaust emission control): effect on pollutant standards index,41 EPA models for calculation of fuel effects on exhaust emissions, 645-49 exhaust emission from CI engines, 193 effect of cetane number and EHN,588 effect of EGR, 316 effect of fuel properties, 595, 597-99 evolution of emission level, 8, 119-20 653 654 Carbon monoxide, CO (cant.) mechanism of production, 123,135,195-97 standards, 122, 302-5 (see also Exhaust emission standards and tests) exhaust emission from C1 two-stroke engines: correlation to HC emission, 522 effect of engine load, 488 effect of fuel and lube-oil, 493 oxidation catalysts, 529 selective catalytic reduction, 515 standards, 481 (see also Exhaust emission standards and tests) water in fuel emulsion, 509 exhaust emission from rotary engines, 173 exhaust emission from 51 engines, 193 effect of cylinder-to-cylinder variations, 218 effect of fuel quality, 564, 567-69 evolution of emission level, 8, 119-20 mechanism of production, 9-14,123,135-36, 195-97 standards, 6, 122 (see also Exhaust emission standards and tests) exhaust emission from 51 two-stroke engines: effect of catalyst, 456 effect of design factors, 223-26 effect of operating conditions, 443, 451 mechanism of production, 442, 444-45 Index standards (see also Exhaust emission standards and tests) health effects, 29, 58-59 measurement of, 15 sources, 29, 67, 122, 192,284 Catalysts (see Exhaust emission control) Cetane number and index, 576-78, 586-88,600,602, 637-39 Chlorofluorocarbons: effect on global warming, 35 effect on ozone layer, 30, 32 sources and human health effects, 29 CNG, 544, 613 Cold start of 51 engines, 22, 150-56 Cyclic an cylinder-to-cylinder variations, 218 (see also Two-stroke 51 engines) Cycloparaffins, 551-52 D Diesel fuel (see also Exhaust emission standards and tests): additives, 584-93, 642-44 cetane number, 576-78, 586-88, 600,602,637-39 effect of cetane number and EHN on emissions, 585-88 effect of fuel properties on emissions, 550, 593-99 EPA models for calculation of fuel effects on exhaust emissions, 645-51 organometallic compounds, 589 origin, 576 properties, 576-83 requirements, 583-84 655 Index specifications (table of national diesel automotive fuels),637-45 Driving cycle tests, 121,301 Dynamometer cycle tests, 301, 364, 365 E EGR (see Exhaust emission control) Electric battery vehicles, 545, 618-19 Exhaust emission (see Specific pollutant, Exhaust emission control, and Exhaust emission standards and tests) Exhaust emission control (see also Specific pollutant): economical aspects, 65-87 in CI engines: EGR: control, 316-17, 382-85 effect on: CO production, 316 HC production, 293, 316 NOx production, 277, 314,316,326 particulates production, 277,316 transient operation, 317-18 turbo-charged engine, 318-32 valve,401-3 engine operation control, 290, 332 exhaust after-treatment: catalytic treatment of exhaust gases, 276-78, 335-37 CI catalyst, 409-12 design of catalysts for heavy-duty vehicles, 412-13 design of catalysts for light-duty vehicles, 413-14 lean NOx catalysts, 414-15, 413-14 particulate filter, 277 soot filters, 415-17 features of engine design: compression ratio, 290 fuel injection parameters, 290,306-13 in-cylinder flow, 290, 353 number of ports, 270-73 fueling systems: additives, 594-93 effect of cetane number and EHN on emissions, 585-88 effect of fuel properties on emissions, 550, 593-99 effect of organometallic compounds, 589 transient operation conditions, 337-41 in CI two-stroke engines: EGR,501-5 effect on: NOx production, 501-5 engine operation control, 498 exhaust after-treatment: desulfurization, 527-29 filtration, 523, 527-29 oxidation catalysts, 529 selective catalytic reduction, 512-15 features of engine design: ammonia injection, 505-7 compression ratio, 498 fuel injection parameters, 496,500 in-cylinder flow, 498 water in fuel emulsion, 507-11 water injection, 505-7 656 Exhaust emission control (cont.) summary of reduction technologies, 496 in rotary engines: engine operation control, 173-75 in SI engines: charge stratification, 248-50 crankcase ventilation, 230 EGR, 231, 233 effect on: CO production, 314, 316 HC production, 157 NOx production, 132 engine operation control: engine speed, 224 engine temperature, 225 lean burn, 228 spark timing, 228 water addition, 232 exhaust after-treatment: catalyst poisoning, 243 catalyst temperature, 278 catalytic treatment of exhaust gases, 13-14, 236 42 exhaust sensors, 243 light-off temperatures, 241 oxidizing catalytic systems, 239 reducing catalytic systems, 239 thermal reactors, 234 three-way catalysts, 240 41 features of engine design: combustion chamber shape, 225 compression ratio, 223 crevice regions, 226 cylinder size, 224 fueling systems: additives, 557-61 direct in-cylinder injection, 227 Index effect of fuel quality, 561-69 effect of fuel quality on emissions, 561-69 multipoint injection, 227, 246 single point injection, 226, 245 water addition, 232 in SI two-stroke engines: engine operating control: effect of engine load, 450, 452 effect of engine speed, 450, 452 summary of the effect of various parameters, 452 exhaust after-treatment: catalysts, 439, 452-56 effect of catalyst, 456 features of engine design, 449 fueling system: in-cylinder fuel injection systems, 451 ETBE, 557-69, 633-35 Ethanol, 557-69, 633-35 Evaporation losses (see Unburned hydrocarbons, HC: mechanism of production) Exhaust emission standards and tests: for CI engines: CAFE, 77-79 California emission standards for CI light duty cars, 305 California emission standards for CI passenger cars, 305 CARB, 481, 615 driving cycle tests, 301 dynamometer cycle tests, 301, 364,365 657 Index ECE, 301, 364 EPA models for calculation of fuel effects on exhaust emissions, 645-49 EUDC, 301, 364 EURO-3, 368 European emission standards for CI light duty cars, 8, 119-29,303,594 European emission standards for CI passenger cars, 302 LEV, 6, 305 summary of additives content in diesel fuel worldwide, 642-44 summary of aromatics content in diesel fuel worldwide, 641-42 summary of cetane number and cetane index worldwide, 637-39 summary of sulfur content in diesel fuel worldwide, 637-39 Tier I and II (European and U.S.), 279 TLEV, 6, 305 U.S emission standards for CI passenger vehicles, 304 U.S emission standards for CI heavy duty vehicles, 364 U.S emission standards for CI light duty vehicles, 304, 365 U.S pollutant standards index (PSI),41 ULEV 6, 122,277,305,383 ZEV, 618 for gasoline engines: CAFE,77-79 California phase II gasoline specifications, 21 CARB,429 driving cycle tests, 121 dynamometer cycle tests, 121 EPA models for calculation of fuel effects on exhaust emissions, 645-49 evolution of, 8, 119-20 EZEV,95 summary of aromatics, benzene, and olefins content in gasoline worldwide, 631-33 summary of ecology-related gasoline specifications, 571-72 summary of lead content in gasoline worldwide, 631-33 summary of octane number worldwide, 624-26 summary of oxygenates and additives in gasoline worldwide, 633-35 summary of phosphorous content in gasoline worldwide, 631-33 summary of sulfur content in gasoline worldwide, 629-31 Tier I and II (European and U.S.), 6, 563, 570 TLEV, U.S pollutant standards index (PSI), 41 ULEV, ZEV, 618 F Fuel additives (see Gasoline and Diesel fuels) Fuel injection: in-cylinder diagnosis, 97-115, 456-73 Index 658 Fuel injection: (cant.) in CI engines: effect on smoke, 273 electronic fuel injection systems, 306-13, 365-67, 369-401 rotary fuel injection systems, 367 in SI engines: in-cylinder injection, 114,227 in-cylinder injection in two-stroke engines, 433-37 multipoint injection, 227, 246 properties of various fuels, 605 single point injection, 226, 245 specifications (table of national diesel automotive fuels), 637-45 specifications (table of national gasoline automotive fuels), 624-37 transient operation, 210-22 in SI two-stroke engines, 467-73 Fuels (see also Gasoline and Diesel fuels): additives to diesel fuel, 584-93 additives to gasoline, 557-61 alternatives: alcohols, 603-7 biofuels, 544, 611-13 CNG, 544, 613 electric batteries, 545, 618-19 ethane, 208 ethers, 613-16 for diesel fuels, 603-19 for gasoline, 251-54 fuel cells, 545 hydrogen fuels, 544, 616-18, 208 LPG, 483, 544, 611, 613 methane, 29, 208 methanol, 208 natural gas, 483, 607 propane, 208 vegetable oils, 613-16 origin, 551 summary of properties affecting engine exhaust emissions, 550 summary of requirements for automotive, 549 water in fuel emulsion, 507-11 G Gasoline: additives, 557-69, 633-35 composition, 21, 551-52, 555 effect of fuel quality on emissions, 561-69 EPA models for calculations of fuel effects on emissions, 645-51 octane number, 552-553, 624-26 origin, 551 properties, 552-55 requirements, 556 specifications (table of national gasoline fuels), 624-37 summary of ecology-related changes in fuel specifications, 571-72 Greenhouse effect: global warming, 33-34, 194, 202-5 greenhouse gases, 34, 67, 205 H Health effect: CO, 29, 58-59 CO2, 59 HC, 29, 60-62 N02,61 NOx,60 ozone, 37, 60 particulates, 29, 63 Index 659 S02, 29, 62-63 summary of air pollutants, 29 Hybrid engines, 545 Hydrocarbons (see Unburned hydrocarbons, HC) Hydrogen fuel, 544, 616-18 compression ratio, 290 number of valves, 270-73 particulate filter, 277 effect of operation conditions: charge-air temperature, 278, 290 Lead, 538, 552, 562, 563, 565, 570 catalyst poisoning, 243-44 summary of lead content in gasoline worldwide, 631-33 LPG, 483, 544, 611, 613 EGR, 277, 313-17, 324-26 fuel injection parameters, 290 in-cylinder flow, 290 turbocharging, 324, 326 evolution of emission level, 8, 119-20,267 ~ Maintenance (engine maintenance) effect on pollution, 190 Metallic compounds in diesel fuels, 589 Methane, 29, 35, 208 Methanol, 208, 559 Misfiring (see Two-stroke: Sl engines) Motor vehicle emissions synopsis, MTBE, 557-69, 633-35 N Naphthane, 557-69, 633-35 Nitrogen oxides, NOx (see also Exhaust emission control): effect on health, 29, 60-62 effect on ozone layer, 30, 33 effect on photochemical smog, 36 effect on pollutant standards index, 41 effect on rain acidity, 39 EPA models for calculations of fuel effects on emissions, 645-51 exhaust emission from CI engines, 193 effect of design factors: mechanism of production, 288-92 standards (see also Exhaust emission standards and tests), 6, 122,302-5 urea addition to reduce NO, emission, 278, 513 exhaust emission from CI two-stroke engines: effect of design factors: compression ratio, 498 oxidation catalysts, 529 scavenging parameters, 498 effect of operation conditions: ammonia injection, 505, 512-15 charge-air temperature, 498 EGR, 501 engine load, 484-85 fuel injection parameters, 486,497-98,500,503 fuel and lube-oil, 493 in-cylinder flow, 498 water in fuel emulsion, 507-11 water injection, 505 standards (see also Exhaust emission standards and tests), 6, 481 summary of reduction technologies, 496 Index 660 Nitrogen oxides, NOx (cont.) urea addition to reduce NOx emission, 513 exhaust emission from rotary engines, 173-75, 188 exhaust emission from SI engines, 193 cylinder-to-cylinder variations, 218 effect of design factors: EGR, 132 geometric design factors, 134, 223-26 spark timing, 132, 220 effect of fuel quality, 564, 567-69 effect of operation conditions: engine load, 134 engine speed, 133 equivalence ratio, 131 evolution of standards (see also Exhaust emission standards and tests), 8, 119-20 mechanism of production, 9-14,123-30,201-2 standards (see also Exhaust " " emISSIOnstandards and tests), 6, 122 " from SI ex h aus t enusslOn t wo-s tro k e engmes: "' t f tit 456 e flec ca a ys , "'" f operatmg " d"Itlons, " euect 443 451 " ' 0f pro d uc t"lOn, mec h amsm 442 444 measuremen t' 0,f 15, 291 - 92 sources, 29, 67, 122, 192,284 " emISSIOnm "." CI engmes, "268 N Olse 275 363 , o Octane number, 552-553 summary of octane number of gasolines worldwide, 624-26 , Odor musks, 592 Olefins, 21, 551-52, 555 summary of olefins content in gasoline worldwide, 631-33 Orgametallic compounds in diesel fuels, 589 Oxygenates in gasoline, 540, 552, 565,570,633-35 summary of oxygenates in gasolines worldwide, 633-35 Ozone: ground level: effect on pollutant standards index, 41 occurrence and health effect, 5,37,41,60 sources and human health effects, 29 stratospheric: chemistry of, 31 cycle, 30 hole, 31 layer, 28 P Pah " 493 552 Par~ffins, 551-52 PartIculates (see" also " Exhaust enusslOn control): correlation with NOx emission, 353 definition, 38 effect on pollutant standards index, 41 exhaust emission from " 193 CI engmes, effect of: cetane number and ERN, 587 detergent additives, 590 diesel fuel properties, 595, 597-99 EGR, 277 injection inclination, 333 661 Index number of valves, 270-73, 333 organometallic compounds, 589 particulate filter, 277 effect on pollutant standard index, 41 evolution of emission level, 267 filter, 276 mechanism of production, 295 standards (see also Exhaust emission standards and tests), 122,302-5 urea addition to reduce particulates emission, 278 exhaust emission from CI two-stroke engines: correlation to NOx emission, 524 effect of: engine load, 519, 524 fuel and lube-oil, 493, 526 fuel-sulfur content, 492 filtration, 527-29 standards (see also Exhaust emission standards and tests), 481 summary of reduction techniques,496 exhaust emission from SI two-stroke engines, 448 standards (see also Exhaust emission standards and tests), 122 measurement of, 297-98, 490 organometallic compounds for particulate traps regeneration, 589 sources and human health effects, 29,67,122,192 standards for passenger cars (see also Exhaust emission standards and tests, 122 Phosphorus: 551-52 summary of phosphorus content in gasoline worldwide, 631-33 Pollution standards index (PSI), 41 R Respiratory system, 43-57 Rotary engines: comparison of exhaust emission with reciprocating engines, 173 exhaust emission from, 171-88 HC emission, 173, 175-88 NOx emission 173-75, 188 S Smog: photochemical smog, 35-37 Smoke: in CI engines: effect of: engine load and speed, 299 fuel injection parameters, 274 turbocharging and EGR, 324, 328 mechanism of production, 300 in CI two-stroke engines: effect of fuel and lube-oil, 493 standards (see also Exhaust emission standards and tests),481 summary of reduction technologies, 496 measurement of, 300-1 sources, 67 Soot (see also Particulates), 407, 490 filters, 415-17 Sulfate in diesel fuel, 407 662 Sulfur: emission from CI engines, 193 emission from SI engines, 193, 564, 651 in diesel fuel, 407, 492, 540, 576, 582, 601, 602 in gasoline, 555, 562, 563, 566 standards (see also Exhaust emission standards and tests), 21 summary of sulfur content in diesel fuel worldwide, 637-39 summary of sulfur content in gasoline worldwide, 629-31 Sulfur dioxide: desulfurization,527-29 effect on acid rain, 39 effect of fuel and lube-oil, 493 effect on pollutant standards index, 41 health effects, 62-63 in diesel fuel, 407 in diesel two-stroke engines, 488-89 oxidation catalyst, 529 selective catalytic reduction, 515 sources and human health effects, 29, 67, 192 Sulfuric acid: effect on rain acidity, 39 in diesel fuel, 407 T TAME, 557-69,633-35 TBA, 557-69, 633-35 TEL, 557-69, 633-35 TML, 557-69, 633-35 Transient operation of SI engines, 210-22 Turbocharging, 318-85, 403-6 Two-stroke emission: in CI engines: Index CO, 487-88 HC, 486-87, 516-22 NOx, 483-86, 494-515 Particulates, 489-93 sax, 488 in SI engines: CO, 442-56 cyclic variation effect on HC and CO, 447, 464-67 effect of fuel injection, 467-73 HC, 442-56 misfiring effect on HC and CO, 447, 464-67 NOx,442-56 U Unburned hydrocarbons, HC (see also Exhaust emission control): effect of mixture preparation, 293 effect on photochemical smog, 36-37 EPA models for calculations of fuel effects on emissions, 645-51 exhaust emission from CI engines, 193 effect of: cetane number and EHN, 588 diesel fuel properties, 595, 597-99 EGR,316 fuel injection timing, 275 number of valves, 270-73 evolution of emission level, 8, 16, 119-20 mechanism of production, 293-94 standards (see also Exhaust emission standards and tests), 6, 122,302-5 urea addition to reduce NOx emission, 278 663 Index exhaust emission from CI two-stroke engines: effect of: engine load, 487, 515-22 fuel and lube-oil, 493 fuel injection timing, 275 selective catalytic reduction, 515 summary of reduction technologies, 496 water in fuel emulsion, 509 exhaust emission from rotary engines, 173 175-88 exhaust emission from SI engines, 193 effect of: design factors, 134,224-27 fuel quality, 564, 567-69 operating conditions, 156-59 cold start, 150-56 EGR, 132, 157 engine load, 134, 159 engine speed, 133, 158 equivalence ratio, 131, 157 spark timing, 132, 158 transient, 209-21 wall temperature, 159 effect of cylinder-to-cylinder variations, 218 evolution of standards (see also Exhaust emission standards and tests), 8, 119-20 mechanism of production, 9-14, 137-64, 197-200,209-21 crevices, 141-45 deposits, 148-50 lubricant oil layer, 145-48 mixture preparation, 150-56 quench layer, 139-41 standards (see also Exhaust emission standards and tests), 6, 122 exhaust emission from SI two-stroke engines: effect of catalyst, 456 effect of cyclic variation, 447 effect of misfiring, 447 effect of operating conditions, 443, 451 mechanism of production, 442, 445-48 in-cylinder vapor measurements, 10 measurement of, 15,294-95 sources, 122, 192 Urea addition to reduce NO, emission, 278, 513 V Valve deposits, 560 Volatile organic compounds, VOC (see also Unburned hydrocarbons): crankcase ventilation, 230 effect on photochemical smog, 36-37 evolution of emission level, sources and human health effects, 29, 67, 284 W Wankel engines (see Rotary engines) Water: in diesel fuel emulsion, 507-11, 583 in gasoline, 232, 552 injection to reduce to NO, emission, 496, 505-7 ... 7DX http://www hbuk!co uk! ap/ ISBN: 0-12-639855-0 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Handbook of air pollution from internal combustion engines: pollutant formation and control/edited... 12.5 xi Pollution Formation Methods of Mixture Preparation Techniques to Reduce Pollution The Future of the Two-Stroke Engine References 426 429 433 436 442 13 Air Pollution from. .. Health Aspects of Air Pollution Rafael S Carel Division of Community Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Soroka Medical Center, Beer-Sheva, Israel 3.1 Anatomy and Physiology of the Respiratory