Combined cycle gas steam turbine power plants

COMBINED-CYCLE GAS & STEAM TURBINE POWER PLANTS Second Edition Contents List of Figures and Tables vi Introduction The Electricity Market Thermodynamic Principles of the Combined-Cycle Plant 35 Combined-Cycle Concepts .47 Applications of Combined-Cycles 125 Components Control and Automation 189 Operating and Part Load Behavior 203 Environmental Considerations 219 155 10 Developmental Trends 231 11 Some Typical Combined-Cycle Plants 241 12 Conclusion 265 13 Appendices 269 270 Conversions Calculation of the Operating Performance of Combined-Cycle Installations Symbols and Indicies Used Bibliography Index 271 280 281 288 List of Figures and Tables 1-1 Simplified Flow Diagram of a Combined-Cycle 2-1 Market Development 2-2 Comparison of Different Turnkey Power Plants in Terms of Specific Price and Output 15 2-3 The Cost Percentage of the Different Plant Areas for a Typical 400 MW Turnkey Combined-Cycle Plant 16 2-4 Net Efficiencies for GT, CC, ST (Coal Fired), Nuclear and Diesel Power plants 18 2-5 The Cost of Fuels 2-6 Variable Operating and Maintenance Costs for Various Power plants of Different Sizes Fuel costs not included 22 2-7 Fixed Operating and Maintenance Costs for Various Power plants of Different Sizes 23 2-8 Construction Time for various Power Plants (From 'Notice To Proceed' to 'Commercial Operation') Order Volumes 10 21 26 2-9 Dependence of the Cost of Electricity on the Equivalent Utilization Time (100 MW) 27 2-10 Dependence of the Cost of Electricity on the Equivalent Utilization Time (400 MW) 28 2-11 Dependence of the Cost of Electricity on the Equivalent Utilization Time 0,000 MW) 29 2-12 Dependence of Cost of Electricity on the Annuity Factor (4,000 hr/annum) 30 2-13 Dependence of Cost of Electricity on the Annuity Factor (7,500 hr/annum) 31 2-14 Dependence 3-1 Temperature/Entropy 3-2a The Efficiency of a Simple Cycle Gas Turbine with Singl~ Stage Combustion as a Function of Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT) & the Turbine Exhaust Temperature 42 of Cost of Electricity on the Cost of Fuel 32 Diagrams for Various Cycles 38 Figures and Tables 3-2b 3-3a 3-3b 4-1 vii The Efficiency of a Combined-Cycle with a Single Stage Combustion Gas Turbine as a Function of the Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT) and the Turbine Exhaust Temperature 43 The Efficiency of a Simple Cycle Gas Turbine with Sequential Combustion as a Function of the Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT) and the Turbine Exhaust Temperature 44 The Efficiency of a Combined-Cycle with a Sequential Combustion Gas Turbine as a Function of the Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT) and the Turbine Exhaust Temperature 45 Energy/Temperature Diagram for an Idealized Heat Exchanger 49 4-2 Flow Diagram of a Single Pressure Cycle 51 4-3 Energy/Temperature Diagram for a Single Pressure HRSG 52 4-4 Heat Balance for a Single Pressure Cycle 53 4-5 Energy Flow Diagram for the Single Pressure Combined-Cycle Plant 54 4-6 Effect of Live Steam Pressure on Steam Turbine Output, Steam Turbine Exhaust Moisture Content and HRSG Efficiency for a Single Pressure Cycle .55 4-7 Energy/Temperature Diagram of a Single Pressure HRSG with Live Steam Pressures of 40 and 105 bar 56 4-8 Effect of Live Steam Pressure on Condenser Waste Heat at Constant Vacuum 57 Effect of Live Steam Temperature on Steam Turbine Output, HRSG Efficiency and Steam Turbine Exhaust Moisture Content for a Single Pressure Cycle at 105 bar Live Steam Pressure 58 4-9 4-10 Effect of Pinch Point on Relative Steam Turbine Output and Relative HRSG Heating Surface 59 4-11 Influence of HRSG Back Pressure on Combined-Cycle Output and Efficiency, GT Output and Efficiency and HRSG Surface 61 viii Figures and Tables 4-12 4-13 Effect of Feedwater Temperature on Steam Turbine Output and HRSG Efficiency for Cycles with One Stage of Preheating 62 Energy/Temperature Diagram for a Single Pressure HRSG 63 4-14 Energy/Temperature Diagram for a Conventional Steam Generator · ················· ········ 64 4-15 Flow Diagram of a Single Pressure Cycle with LP Preheating Loop for High-Sulphur Fields 66 4-16 Effect of Live Steam Pressure and Feedwater Temperature on Available Heat Compared to Required Heat in Preheating Loop 67 4-17 Heat Balance for a Single Pressure Cycle with LP Preheating Loop 68 4-18 Energy/Temperature Diagram for a Single Pressure HRSG with LP Evaporator Preheating Loop 69 4-19 Flow Diagram of a Dual Pressure Cycle for High Sulfur Fuels ·········· · ················ 70 4-20 Effect of Feedwater Temperature and Number of Preheating Stages on Steam Turbine Output of a Dual Pressure Cycle ······ ··········· 71 4-21 Flow Diagram of a Dual Pressure Cycle for Low Sulfur Fuels ·················· ············ 72 4-22 Heat Balance for a Dual Pressure Cycle with Low Sulfur FueL ·································· 73 4-23 Energy Flow Diagram for the Dual Pressure Combined-Cycle Plant 74 Energy/Temperature Diagram for a Dual Pressure HRSG 75 Effect of HP and LP Pressure on Steam Turbine Output and Exhaust Moisture Content for a Dual Pressure Cycle 78 4-24 4-25 4-26 Effect of LP Pressure on HRSG Efficiency for a Dual Pressure Cycle · ··············· 79 Figures and Tables ix 4-27 Effect of LP and HP Steam Temperatures on Steam Turbine Output for a Dual Pressure Cycle 80 4-28 Effect of HP and LP Evaporator Pinch Point on Steam Turbine Output and Relative HRSG Surface for a Dual Pressure Cycle 81 4-29 Flow Diagram of a Triple Pressure Cycle 82 4-30 Heat Balance for a Triple Pressure Cycle 83 4-31 Energy/Temperature Diagram for a Triple Pressure HRSG 84 Energy Flow Diagram for the Triple Pressure Combined-Cycle plant 85 4-32 4-33 Steam Turbine Output and Exhaust Moisture Content versus HP and IP Pressure for Triple Pressure Cycle at Constant LP Pressure (5 bar) 86 4-34 Effect of LP Pressure on Steam Turbine Output and Relative HRSG Surface for Triple Pressure Cycle at Constant HP 005 bar) and IP (25 bar) 87 4-35 Live Steam Temperature Optimization for a Triple Pressure Cycle 88 Temperature/Entropy Diagram Showing the Effect of "Mild Reheat" on the Steam Turbine Expansion Line 89 Effect of HP and IP Evaporator Pinch Points on Steam Turbine Output and Relative HRSG Surface for a Triple Pressure Cycle with Constant LP Pinch Point 90 4-36 4-37 4-38 Flow Diagram of a Triple Pressure Reheat Cycle 91 4-39 Heat Balance for a Triple Pressure Reheat Cycle 92 4-40 Temperature/Entropy Diagram Showing the Effect of Full Reheat on the Steam Turbine Expansion Line 93 4-41 Energy Flow Diagram for the Triple Pressure Reheat Combined-Cycle plant 93 Energy/Temperature Diagram for a Triple Pressure Reheat HRSG 94 4-42 x Figures and Tables 4-43 Steam Turbine Output and HRSG Surface versus HP and Reheat Pressure for a Triple Pressure Reheat Cycle at Constant HP (S68 C) and Reheat (S68 C) Temperature 94 Q Q 4-44 4-45 4-46 Steam Turbine Output versus HP Steam and Reheat Temperature for a Triple Pressure Reheat Cycle at Constant HP (120 bar), IP (30 bar) and LP (S bar) Pressure 96 Flow Diagram of a High Pressure Reheat Cycle with an HP Once Through HRSG and a Drum Type LP Section 97 Heat Balance for a Dual Pressure Reheat Cycle with a Once Through HRSG 98 Q 4-47 Q Energy/Temperature Diagram for 647 C(A), 7S0 C(B) and 1000 C(C) Exhaust Gas Temperature Entering the HRSG ········· ·················· · ·100 Q 4-48 4-49 4-50 4-51 4-52 Effect of Temperature after Supplementary Firing on Power Output and Efficiency Relative to that of a Single Pressure Cycle 101 Heat Balance for a Single Pressure Cycle with Supplementary Firing ················· 102 Selection of a Combined-Cycle Concept ·1OS Entropy/Temperature Diagram for a Gas Turbine Process at Two Different Ambient Air Temperatures 108 Relative Efficiency of Gas Turbine, Steam Process and Combined-Cycle as a Function of the Air Temperature at Constant Vacuum 109 4-53 Relative Power Output of Gas Turbine, Steam Turbine and Combined-Cycle as a Function of Air Temperature at Constant Vacuum · · 110 4-54 Relative Power Output of Gas Turbine, Steam Turbine and Combined-Cycle and Relative Air Pressure versus Elevation Above Sea Level ···.111 4-55 Relative Power Output and Efficiency of Gas T\lrbine and Combined-Cycle versus Relative Humidity at Constant Vacuum ·············· ··········· 112 Figures and Tables xi 4-56 Effect of Water and Steam Injection on Relative Combined-Cycle Power Output and Efficiency versus the Water or Steam/Fuel Ratio 114 4-57 Effect of Condenser Pressure on Steam Turbine Output 117 4-58 Temperature of Cooling Medium versus Condenser Pressure for Direct Cooling, Wet Cooling Tower and Air Cooled Condenser 118 4-59 Flow Diagram to Show Fuel Preheating 119 4-60 Steam Turbine Output and HRSG Efficiency versus Gas Turbine Exhaust Temperature for a Single Pressure Cycle 121 4-61 Ratio of Steam Turbine Output of a Dual Pressure to that of a Single Pressure Cycle as a Function of Gas Turbine Exhaust Temperature 122 4-62 Indicative Relative Price versus Performance of Different Combined-Cycles based on a 178 MW Class Gas Turbine with an Exhaust Gas Temperature of 647°C (1197°F) 123 Indicative Relative Price versus Performance of Different Combined-Cycles based on a 178 MW Class Gas Turbine with an Exhaust Gas Temperature of 525°C (977°F) 124 4-63 5-1 Simplified Flow Diagram of a Cogeneration Cycle with a Back Pressure Turbine 128 5-2 Flow Diagram of a Cogeneration Cycle with an Extraction/Condensing Steam Turbine 129 5-3 Flow Diagram of a Cogeneration Cycle with no Steam Turbine 130 5-4 Heat Balance for a Single Pressure Cogeneration Cycle with Supplementary Firing 131 5-5 Effect of Process Steam Pressure on Relative CombinedCycle Power Output and Power Coefficient for a Single Pressure Cycle with 750°C Supplementary Firing 132 Figures and Tables xiii 6-7 Once-Through HRSG with a Drum Type LP Section 169 6-8 Supplementary Fired Heat Recovery Steam Generator 174 6-9 Cross Section of a 140 MW Reheat Steam Turbine with a Separate HP Turbine and a Combined IP/LP Turbine with Axial Exhaust 180 6-10 Cross Section of a Two Casing Steam Turbine with Geared HP Turbine 181 6-11 Cut-away Drawing of an Air Cooled Generator for use in Combined-Cycle Power plant 182 6-12 Single Line Diagram 6-13 Hierarchic Levels of Automation 185 6-14 Standard Layout for a Modern Combined-Cycle Power Plant Control Room 186 7-1 Principle Diagram for a Combined-Cycle Load Control System 183 192 7-2 Typical Combined Cycle Droop Characteristic 193 7-3 Closed Control Loops in a Combined-Cycle Plant 195 7-4 Start-up Curve for a 250 MW Class CombinedCycle after h Standstill 201 7-5 Start-up Curve for a 250 MW Class CombinedCycle after 60 h Standstill 201 7-6 Start-up Curve for a 250 MW Class CombinedCycle after 120 h Standstill 202 7-7 Combined-Cycle Shut Down Curve 202 8-1 Effect of Vacuum on Combined-Cycle Efficiency 208 8-2 Effect of Frequency on Relative Combined-Cycle Output and Efficiency for Continuous Full Load Operation 209 Part Load Efficiency of Gas Turbine and Combined-Cycle 211 8-3 286 Appendices Miiller R.: "Kohleveredlung zu Gas und Fliissigtreibstoffen," Siemens- Energietechnik (1980), No.7, pp 227 - 235 Oest, H.: "Comparison between the Combined-cycle and the HAT Cycle," thesis, Department of Heat and Power Engineering, Lund Institute of Technology, (August 1993) Pfenninger, Dr.H.: "Das kombinierte Dampf-/Gasturbinen-Kraftwerk zur Erzeugung elektrischer Energie," Brown Boveri Mitt 60 1974 (9), pp 389 - 397 Pickhardt, K.F.: "Abhitzekessel hinter Gasturbinen," "Energie," Vol 30, No.9, Sept., 1978 Roberts, R., Balling, L.,Wolt, E.,Frankle, M.: "The King's Lynn Power Station: The introduction of the advanced single shaft concept in the IPP market." Power-Gen Europe, Madrid, (June 1997) Rohrer, A.: "Comparison of Combined Heat and Power Generation." ASME Cogen Turbo Expo, Vienna,(August 1995) Schneider, A., Unseld, Dr H.: "Ein kombiniertes GasturbinenDampfkraftwerk fUr industrielle Versorgung," Energie, Vol 27, No.3, March 1975 Schiiller, K.H.: Heizkraftwerke, Handbuchreihe "Energie", Vol 7, Chapter Schiiller, K.H.: Industriekraftwerke, Handbuchreihe "Energie" Vol 7, Chapter Schwarzenbach, H., Koch, E.: "Dampfturbinen," Handbuchreihe "Energie", Vol 3, Chapter Seippl, C, Bereuter, R.: "Zur Technik kombinierter Dampf und Gasturbinenanlagen," Brown Boveri Mitt 47 1960 (12) pp, 788799 Appendices 287 "The 347MW King's Lynn Single-Shaft Combined-cycle (GUD) Power Station with Air-Cooled Condenser," Siemens Power Generation publication No A9600l-UlO-X-7600 Thermodynamiques Combines GazNapeur Aspects Theoriques Applications Pratiques et Aspects d'Exploitation," AIM Liege, Centrales Electriques modernes - 1978 Timmermanns, A.PJ.: "Combined-cycles and Their Possibilities," von Karman Institute Lecture Series 1978-6 Tomlinson, L.O., Snyder, R.W.: "Optimization of STAG Combinedcycle Plants," presentation at the American Power Conference, Chicago III., Apr 29 - May 1, 1974 Traupel, W.: "Thermische Turbomaschinen," Springer Verlag Wadman, B.: "New High Efficiency Combined-Cycle-System," Diesel/Gas Turbine World-wide, JuL/Aug., 1980 Warner, J., Nielsen H.: "A selection method for optimum combinedcycle design," ABB Review, 8/93 Watzel, G.Y.P., Essen: "Beeinflussung des Leistungsverhaltnisses zwischen Gas und ampfturbine bei kombinierten Prozessen," BrennstoffWarme Kraft, Vol 22 (1970), No 12 Wunsch, A, Mayrhofer, M.: "Power Plants for the Medium Output Range, Criteria Governing the Choice of the Optimum Plant," Brown Boveri Review 65, 1978 (10), pp 656 - 663 288 Appendices Index A Aeroderivative gas turbine, 157-159 Aging (turbine), 162-163 Air pressure, 49, 108-111, 206-207 Air quality, 220-229 Air temperature, 36, 49, 106-110,206,221-222 Air-cooled blades, 234 Air-cooled generators, 181-182 Air-cooling, 181-182, 186, 234 Alternative fuels, 9, 148-150 Alternative working media, 153-154 Ambient conditions, 49-50, 106-112 air pressure, 108-111 air temperature, 106-110 relati ve humidity, 110-112 Ammonia, 2, 153, 225-227 Amortization, 13 Annuity factor, 30 Appendix, 269-287 Applications, 126-154 cogeneration, 126-141 repowering, 141-148 special variations, 148-154 Atmospheric pressure, 49, 108111, 206-207 Attemperation, 195 Automation, 184-186, 190-202 hierarchy, 184-186 Auxiliary consumption, 39 Availability/reliability, 23-25 B Backpressure turbine, 127-128, 137, 140, 226 Baseload operation, 25, 30, 266 Basic concepts (combined-cycle process), 48-124 cycle performance, 102-103 dual-pressure cycle, 70-81 reheat cycles, 88-98 single-pressure cycle, 50-70 single-pressure cycle with preheating, 66-70 supplementary firing, 98-102 triple-pressure cycle, 81-88 Basic concepts (thermodynamics), 36-38 Basic requirements (electricity market), 6-7 Bibliography, 281-287 Blading, 233-235 Bottoming cycle, Boundary conditions, 177 Bypass stack, 127, 145, 187-188, 197,200 Appendices 289 C Calcium carbonate, 139 Capital costs, 11-12 Carbon dioxide emissions, 221, 227-228,266 Carbon monoxide, 266 Carnot efficiency, 36-37, 107 Casing for HRSG, 170 Catalyst, 225-227 Categories (gas turbine), 157-160 Ceramics, 233 Closed-air circuit cooling, 181-182 Closed-loop control system, 184, 190-198 Closed-steam cooling, 234 Coal and gas cycle, 145-148 Coal-fired plant, 10, 16,21,28, 145-148,227-228 Cogeneration, 7, 126-141, 246-250,256-260,266 design parameters, 134-135 district heating power plants, 135-138 evaluation of cycle, 129-134 industrial power stations 127-129 ' seawater desalination units , 138-141 Cold-casing design, 170 Combined-cycle concepts, 2-3, 14-15,30,48-124 basic concepts, 49-103 selection of concept, 103-124 Combustion air conditions , 222-223 Combustion chamber, 43, 233-235, 240 Combustion pressure, 222 Combustion products, 220-229 Combustion with excess air, 23~ Communication capability, 184 Competitive risks, Competitive standing, 14-26 availability/reliability, 23-25 construction time, 25-26 efficiency, 16-21 fuel costs, 16-21 maintenance costs, 22-23 operation costs, 22-23 turnkey prices, 15-16 Components, 156-188 bypass stack, 187-188 control system, 184-186 cooling system, 186-187 electrical equipment, 182-183 gas turbine, 156-164 generators, 180-182 HRSG, 164-175 steam turbine, 176-181 Compressor, 156-157, 162-163 235 ' fouling, 162-163 size, 235 Concept selection, 103-124defining requirements, 104 site-related factors, 104-119 solution determination , 119-124 Condenser vacuum, 49 Condensing mode, 247 Construction cost, 11 Construction time, 25-26 290 Appendices Control and automation, 184, 190-202 frequency response, 190-194 load control, 190-194 secondary closed-control loops, 194-198 start-up/shut-down, 198-202 Control equipment/system, 184-186, 190-202 Conversions (plant), 141-144 Cooling equipment/system, 49-50, 106, 115-118, 181-182, 186-187,206-208,228-229, 232,234-235,242,247,250, 253,257-258,266 Cooling media, 115-118 Cooling requirements, 266 Cooling tower, 106, 115, 186, 266 Cooling water, 206-208 Correction curves, 216-217 Cost (electricity), 11-14,26-31 capital costs, 11 fuel costs, 11-12 maintenance costs, 12-14 operation costs, 12-14 plant comparison, 26-31 Cycle evaluation, 121-124 Cycle performance, 102-103 D Deaeration, 74-77 Decentralized power generation, 229 Defining requirements, 104 Degradation (turbine), 162-164, 216-217 Delivery time, 3, 266 Deregulation, 24, 228 Desalination plant, 138-141 Design characteristics (steam turbine), 177 Design parameters, 53-65, 77-88, 134-135 cogeneration, 134-135 dual- pressure cycle, 77-81 single-pressure cycle, 53-65 triple-pressure cycle, 81-88 Design parameters (dual-pressure cycle), 77-81 live-steam pressure, 77-78 live-steam temperature, 78-80 pinch point, 80-81 Design parameters (single-pressure cycle), 53-65 HRSG, 58-60 feedwater preheating, 60-65 live-steam pressure, 53-56 live-steam temperature, 56-58 Developmental trends, 232-240 compressor size, 235 firing temperatures, 232-233 live-steam parameters, 235-237 nitrous oxide emissions, 237-240 sequential combustion, 233-234 steam cooling, 234-235 Diemen plant (Netherlands), 246-250 Diesel generator power plant, 8,14-15,27-28 Differentiation, 40-41 Diffusion combustion, 223-224 Appendices 291 Direct air cooling, 186 Direct water cooling, 187 Distillate oil fuel, 250 Distributed architecture, 184 District heating power plants, 135-138 Drive level, 184 Droop, 193 Drum level, 194 Dry low-NOx method, 225 Dual-pressure cycle, 70-81, 196, 198,242,257,261 high-sulfur fuels, 70-72 low-sulfur fuels, 72-75 deaeration,74-77 design parameters, 77-81 E Economizer, 72, 84, 135, 173 Efficiency improvements, 31-33 Efficiency, 7,13,16-21,31-33, 36-45, 204, 220-221, 225, 227,228,232-233,235,240 Electric frequency, 206, 209-210 Electric power generation, 7-11, 190,229, 242-264 Electrical equipment/system, 182-183,209-210 Electricity cost, 11-14, 26-31, 233,266 Electricity market, 6-33 basic requirements, 6-7 competitive standing, 14-26 cost of electricity, 11-14, 26-31 efficiency improvements, 31-33 global market, 8-11 Emissions/emission control, 2,7,11,220-229,232,242, 249,256-260,262,266 Energetic losses, 36 Energy transfer, 100 Enthalpy, 57, 85, 89, 140,207 Entropy, 38, 85, 89, 93, 108 Environmental considerations, 220-229 carbon dioxide emissions, 227-228 nitrous oxide emissions, 221-227 noise emissions, 229 sulfur oxide emissions, 226-227 waste heat rejection, 228-229 Environmental impact, 2, 7, 11, 220-229,232,242,249,256260,262,266 Equivalent utilization time, 13, 26-29, 31 Evaluation of cycle, 129-134 Evaporation, 68 Excess air combustion, 238 Exergetic losses, 36 Exhaust gas, 2-3, 42-45, 60, 67-68,98, 120-124, 187,200, 205,208,220-229,232-233, 236-237,242,256-258,261262, 277 Exhaust gas temperature, 2,42-45,67-68,98,120-124, 232-233, 236-237 Explosion, 199-200 Extraction/condensing turbine, 127-129,137-138 292 Appendices F Far-field noise, 229 Feedwater, 2-3, 60-65, 67, 69, 71, 146, 196, 198,206 preheating, 60-65 tank level, 198 temperature, 60-65, 67, 69, 71, 146, 196,206 Financiability, 11 Finned tubing, 170-171 Firing temperatures, 232-233 Fixed costs, 13 Flame temperature, 221-223, 225, 232-233 Flashback, 238 Forced-circulation HRSG , 165-166 Forced-outage hours, 23-24 Fossil fuel, 10, 18-21 Fouling, 162-164 Frequency response, 190-194 Fuel cost, 11-13, 16-21,32, 204, 233 Fuel efficiency, 266 Fuel flexibility, 19, 267 Fuel resources, 116-119 Fuel type/quality, 70-75, 142, 206,210,226 Fuel-air ratio, 222-223, 237-240 Full-load behavior, 204-210 Functional group level, 184 G Gas fuel, 10, 117-118, 142,225226,242,248,250,266-267 Gas turbine/coal-fired steam turbine plant, 27 Gas turbines, 2-3, 8, 14-15,27, 30, 119-122, 144-164, 205, 229,242,248,250,252-254 , 256,260,266-267 categories, 157-160 degradation, 162-164 inspections, 162 sequential combustion , 159-162 with boiler, 144-145 Gas-fired plant, 31, 221, 228, 242,248,250,253,256 Geared turbine, 236-237 Generators, 164-175, 180-182, 277-278 cooling, 181 losses, 277-278 Global market, 8-11 Global warming, 227 Green field plant, 144 H Hazardous chemical, 2, 220-229 Heat balance, 52-53, 68, 73, 82-83,90,92,98,102, 130-131, 137 Heat dissipation, 228-229 Heat exchangers, 2, 48-51, 249, 271-273 performance, 271-273 Heat recovery steam generator SEE HRSG Heat sink, 229 Heat transfer, 170-171, 205, 273-275 Appendices 293 Heating, 126-141,246-250, 256-260 Heating mode, 247 Heating value (fuel), 17 Heavy duty industrial gas turbine, 157-160 Hemeraj plant (Thailand), 256-260 High pressure reheating, 95-98 High-sulfur fuels, 70-72 Higher heating value, 17 Hold point, 200 Hot wind box, 144 Hot-casing design, 170 Hotwelllevel, 198 HRSG, 48, 50-56, 58-69, 71-81, 84-85, 87, 89-91, 94-100, 164175,242,245-247,249-250, 252-253,256-257, 260-262 horizontal, 165 with supplementary firing, 173-175 without supplementary firing, 165-173 Humid air turbine, 152-153 Hydro power plant, 8-9 Hydrogen-cooled generators, 181 I Independent power producers, 104,242-246,252-256 Malaysia, 242-246 New Zealand, 252-256 Indirect-air cooling, 187 Industrial power stations, 127-129 Inlet guide vanes, 191,211-212, 233 Inlet mass flow, 266 Inlet temperature, 2-3, 17, 42-45, 157, 161, 232 Inspections, 162 Installation cost, Integrated gas combined-cycle, 149 International standards, 217 Investment costs, 15, 266 IP-Cogen plant (Thailand), 256-260 J Japan, 225 K King's Lynn plant (United Kingdom), 250-252 L Legislation, 111-114 Liquefied natural gas, 16, 29 Live-steam data (reheating), 92, 94-96 Live-steam parameters, 232,235-237 Live-steam pressure, 50, 53-57, 67,77-78, 134, 179-181, 196-197,213,235-237 Live-steam temperature, 50, 56-58, 78-80, 194-196, 213, 235-237 294 Appendices Load/frequency control, 190-194, 199 Loan structures, 11 Lower heating value, 17, 116, 210 Low-sulfur fuels, 72-75, 142 Low-temperature corrosion, 171 Lumut plant (Malaysia), 242-246 M Machine level, 185 Maintenance costs, 11-14, 22-23, 33, 235 Makeup water, 77 Malaysia, 242-246 Market development, 10 Marketing, 6-33 Mechanical losses, 277 Merchant plants, Methane, 227 Mexico, 260-264 Moisture content, 55, 57-58, 78,84,86,88 Monterrey plant (Mexico), 260-264 Multi-shaft/single-shaft plants, 178-180 N Natural circulation HRSG, 165, 167-168 Near-field noise, 229 Net present value, 236 Netherlands, 246-250 New and clean condition, 216 New Zealand, 252-256 Nitrous oxide emissions, 111-113,221-227,237-240 Nitrous oxides, 111-113,232, 220-227,237-240,249,256, 258,260,262,266 Noise emissions/pollution, 220,229 Nox SEE Nitrous oxides Nuclear power plant, 9, 14-17, 29,229 Off-design behavior, 204-205 Off-design corrections, 205-210 ambient air temperature, 206 ambient pressure, 207 ambient relative humidity, 207 cooling water temperature, 207-208 electrical system, 209-210 fuel type/quality, 210 process energy, 210 Off-line washing, 163 Oil fuel, 10,20,117-118,142, 227,250 Once-through HRSG, 168-169 On-line programmability, 184 On-line washing, 163 Open-air circuit cooling, 181 Open-cycle gas turbine, 2-3 Operating behavior, 204-217 off-design behavior, 204-205 off-design corrections, 205-210 part-load behavior, 211-214 Appendices testing procedures, 214-217 Operating experience (HRSG), 172-173 Operation costs, 12-14,22-23, 33,266 Operational flexibility, 266 Optimum design (HRSG), 171-172 Organic fluid, Oxygenated combustion, 237-238 P Part-load operation, 208, 211-214,233,266 behavior, 211-214 Peak load, 16 Peaking units, 30 Pegging steam, 72 Performance calculations, 271-280 heat exchangers, 271-273 heat transfer coefficient, 273-275 steam turbine, 276-278 systems of equations, 278-279 Performance comparison, 102-103 Performance guarantees, 214-217 Permitting procedure, 11 Pinch point, 52, 59, 80-81,90 Piston losses, 277 Plant comparison, 14-31 competitive standing, 14-26 cost of electricity, 26-31 Plant conversion, 141-144 295 Plant efficiency, 38-45, 204 without supplementary firing, 40-45 Plant load, 206 Power coefficient, 130-134, 141 Power factor (generator), 206, 210 Power generation, 7-11, 127-129,190,229,242-264 decentralized, 229 market, 8-11 Power output, 13-15, 17-18, 110-114,190-192,205,209, 212,214,217,225-226,232, 235, 242-264, 266 Preheating, 60-70,119,141,213 Present value, 12 Pressure loss, 60 Pressure ratios, 235 Pressurized fluidized-bed combustion, 149-150 Process control functions, 184 Process efficiency, 31-32, 36-45 Process energy, 190, 198, 206,210 Purging, 199-200 R Radioactivity/nuclear waste, 220 Recirculation, 64-65 Regulations, 6, 225-226 Reheat cycles, 88-98, 247 high pressure, 95-98 live-steam data, 92, 94-96 triple-pressure cycle, 90-94 Reheating, 88-98, 100-101, 146, 179-180, 247 296 Appendices Relative humidity, 49, 110-112, 206-207 Reliability, 23-25, 235 Renewable energy, Repowering, 141-148 conversion of conventional plants, 141-144 gas turbine with conventional boiler, 144-145 high-efficiency coal and gas cycle, 145-148 Resources at site, 114-119 cooling media, 115-118 fuel, 116-119 Rotating parts, 234-235 S Scheduled outage hours, 23-24 Seawater desalination units, 138-141 Secondary closed-control loops, 194-198 drum level, 194 feedwater tank level, 298 feedwater temperature, 196 hotwelllevel, 198 live-steam pressure, 196-197 live-steam temperature, 194-196 process energy, 198 supplementary firing, 198 Selection of concept, 103-124 defining requirements, 104 site-related factors, 104-119 solution determination, 119-124 Selective catalytic reduction, 225-226 Sequential combustion, 44, 159-162,233-234,236,267 Shut-down control, 198-202 Single-pressure cycle, 50-70, 235,237 design parameters, 53-65 with preheating, 66-70 Site-related factors, 104-119 ambient conditions, 106-112 legislation, 111-114 resources, 114-119 Sliding pressure mode, 191-192, 197,205,212 Solid fuel, 10 Solution determination, 119-124 cycle evaluation, 121-124 gas turbine, 119-122 SOx' SEE Sulfur oxides Special variations, 148-154 alternative fuels, 148-150 alternative working media, 153-154 humid air turbine, 152-153 steam injection into gas turbine, 150-152 Speed-up, 199 Staged process, 135-136, 138 Standstill time, 199 Start penalties, 233 Start-up/shutdown, 198-202, 266 start-up curve, 200-202 start-up time, 266 Stationary parts, 234 STBC-HP, 194, 196-197 STBC-LP, 194, 196-197 Appendices Steady-state behavior, 205 Steam cooling, 234-235 Steam cycle performance, 271280 Steam injection into gas turbine, 150-152 Steam turbine power plant, 8, 14-15,28 Steam turbine performance, 276-278 Steam turbines, 2-3, 8, 14-15, 28, 127-129, 141-148, 176-181, 229,242,246-247,250,252254,256,261,276-278 characteristics, 177 live-steam pressure, 179-181 multi-shaft/sing1e-shaft plants, 178-180 Stoichiometric combustion, 222 Sulfur oxide emissions, 221, 226-227 Sulfur oxides, 221, 226-227 Sulfurous acids, 221 Supplementary firing, 98-102, 126,128-129,131,133, 173175, 192, 198,266 Synchronization, 199 Systems of equations, 278-279 297 Thermal power plant, Thermodynamic advantages, 2, 38-45, 126, 266-267 Thermodynamic principles, 36-45 basic considerations, 36-38 plant efficiency, 38-45 without supplementary firing, 40-45 Topping cycle, Total capital requirement, 12, 33 Trends of development, 232-240 Triple-pressure cycle, 81-88, 9094,237,246-247,250-251,254 design parameters, 83-88 Turbine fouling, 163-164 Turbine inlet temperature, 42-45,120,191,213 Turbo-STIG cycle, 151-152 Turnkey prices, 15-16 Typical plants, 242-264 Malaysia, 242-246 Mexico, 260-264 Netherlands, 246-250 New Zealand, 252-256 Thailand, 256-260 United Kingdom, 250-252 U T Taranaki plant (New Zealand), 252-256 Temperature control, 36-37, 194-195 Testing procedures, 214-217 Thailand, 256-260 Thermal energy, 126-134 Unit level, 185 Unit ratings, 235 United Kingdom, 228, 250-252 United States, 225 Uranium, 21 298 Appendices V W Vacuum back-pressure, 207-208 Variable applications, 148-154 Variable costs, 14 Variable inlet guide vane, 191, 214 Vertical HRSG, 165 Voltage (generator), 206 Waste heat, 2, 55, 57, 220, 228-229 rejection, 228-229 Waste water, 220 Water/stearn cycle, 2-3 Water/stearn injection, 224-225 Water-cooling, 186 Water-fuel ratio, 224 Wet method, 224 ... flexibility is higher for a steam turbine power plant than a combined- cycle power plant But combined- cycle plants are superior to steam power plants for power generation when gas or diesel is used,... diesel generator plants steam turbine plants gas turbine plants nuclear plants combined- cycle plants The main range of ratings under consideration is between 30 and 1000 MW Combined- cycles with a... Relative Power Output of Gas Turbine, Steam Turbine and Combined- Cycle as a Function of Air Temperature at Constant Vacuum · · 110 4-54 Relative Power Output of Gas Turbine, Steam Turbine and Combined- Cycle