Pedagogical Color Chart Pedagogical Color Chart Mechanics and Thermodynamics S Linear ( p) S and angular (L) momentum vectors Displacement and position vectors Displacement and position component vectors S Linear and angular momentum component vectors S Linear (v ) and angular (v) velocity vectors Velocity component vectors S Torque vectors (t) Torque component vectors S Force vectors (F) Force component vectors Schematic linear or rotational motion directions S Acceleration vectors ( a ) Acceleration component vectors Energy transfer arrows Weng Dimensional rotational arrow Enlargement arrow Qc Qh Springs Pulleys Process arrow Electricity and Magnetism Electric fields Electric field vectors Electric field component vectors Capacitors Magnetic fields Magnetic field vectors Magnetic field component vectors Voltmeters V Ammeters A Inductors (coils) Positive charges ϩ Negative charges Ϫ Resistors AC Sources Lightbulbs Ground symbol Batteries and other DC power supplies ϩ Ϫ Current Switches Light and Optics Mirror Light ray Focal light ray Central light ray Curved mirror Objects Converging lens Diverging lens Images Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Some Physical Constants Quantity Symbol Valuea Atomic mass unit u 1.660 538 782 (83) 10227 kg 931.494 028 (23) MeV/c Avogadro’s number NA 6.022 141 79 (30) 1023 particles/mol Bohr magneton mB eU 2me 9.274 009 15 (23) 10224 J/T Bohr radius a0 U2 m e e 2k e 5.291 772 085 9 (36) 10211 m Boltzmann’s constant kB Compton wavelength lC h me c Coulomb constant ke 4pP0 R NA 1.380 650 (24) 10223 J/K 2.426 310 217 5 (33) 10212 m 8.987 551 788 . 109 N ? m2/C (exact) Deuteron mass md Electron mass me 3.343 583 20 (17) 10227 kg 2.013 553 212 724 (78) u 9.109 382 15 (45) 10231 kg 5.485 799 094 3 (23) 1024 u 0.510 998 910 (13) MeV/c Electron volt eV 1.602 176 487 (40) 10219 J Elementary charge e 1.602 176 487 (40) 10219 C Gas constant R 8.314 472 (15) J/mol ? K Gravitational constant G 6.674 28 (67) 10211 N ? m2/kg2 Neutron mass mn 1.674 927 211 (84) 10227 kg 1.008 664 915 97 (43) u 939.565 346 (23) MeV/c eU 2m p Nuclear magneton mn Permeability of free space m0 4p 1027 T ? m/A (exact) Permittivity of free space P0 Planck’s constant h U5 m 0c h 2p 5.050 783 24 (13) 10227 J/T 8.854 187 817 . 10212 C2/N ? m2 (exact) 6.626 068 96 (33) 10234 J ? s 1.054 571 628 (53) 10234 J ? s Proton mass mp 1.672 621 637 (83) 10227 kg 1.007 276 466 77 (10) u 938.272 013 (23) MeV/c Rydberg constant R H 1.097 373 156 852 (73) 107 m21 Speed of light in vacuum c 2.997 924 58 108 m/s (exact) Note: These constants are the values recommended in 2006 by CODATA, based on a least-squares adjustment of data from different measurements For a more complete list, see P J Mohr, B N Taylor, and D B Newell, “CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants: 2006.” Rev Mod Phys 80:2, 633–730, 2008 aThe numbers in parentheses for the values represent the uncertainties of the last two digits Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Solar System Data Body Mass (kg) Mean Radius (m) Period (s) Mean Distance from the Sun (m) Mercury 3.30 1023 2.44 106 7.60 106 5.79 1010 Venus 4.87 1024 6.05 106 1.94 107 1.08 1011 Earth 5.97 1024 6.37 106 3.156 107 1.496 1011 Mars 6.42 1023 3.39 106 5.94 107 2.28 1011 Jupiter 1.90 1027 6.99 107 3.74 108 7.78 1011 Saturn 5.68 1026 5.82 107 9.29 108 1.43 1012 Uranus 8.68 1025 2.54 107 2.65 109 2.87 1012 Neptune 1.02 1026 2.46 107 5.18 109 4.50 1012 Plutoa 1.25 1022 1.20 106 7.82 109 5.91 1012 Moon 7.35 1022 1.74 106 — — Sun 1.989 1030 6.96 108 — — a In August 2006, the International Astronomical Union adopted a definition of a planet that separates Pluto from the other eight planets Pluto is now defined as a “dwarf planet” (like the asteroid Ceres) Physical Data Often Used Average Earth–Moon distance 3.84 108 m Average Earth–Sun distance 1.496 1011 m Average radius of the Earth 6.37 106 m Density of air (208C and atm) 1.20 kg/m3 Density of air (0°C and atm) 1.29 kg/m3 Density of water (208C and atm) 1.00 103 kg/m3 Free-fall acceleration 9.80 m/s2 Mass of the Earth 5.97 1024 kg Mass of the Moon 7.35 1022 kg Mass of the Sun 1.99 1030 kg Standard atmospheric pressure 1.013 105 Pa Note: These values are the ones used in the text Some Prefixes for Powers of Ten Power Prefix Abbreviation Power Prefix Abbreviation 10224 yocto y 101 deka da 10221 zepto z 102 hecto h a 103 kilo k M 10218 atto f 106 mega 10212 pico p 109 giga G 1029 nano n 1012 tera T 1026 micro m 1015 peta P 10215 femto m 1018 exa 1022 centi c 1021 zetta Z 1021 deci d 1024 yotta Y 1023 milli E Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Physics Ninth Edition for Scientists and Engineers with Modern Physics Raymond A Serway Emeritus, James Madison University John W Jewett, Jr Emeritus, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona With contributions from Vahé Peroomian, University of California at Los Angeles About the Cover The cover shows a view inside the new railway departures concourse opened in March 2012 at the Kings Cross Station in London The wall of the older structure (completed in 1852) is visible at the left The sweeping shell-like roof is claimed by the architect to be the largest single-span station structure in Europe Many principles of physics are required to design and construct such an open semicircular roof with a radius of 74 meters and containing over 2 000 triangular panels Other principles of physics are necessary to develop the lighting design, optimize the acoustics, and integrate the new structure with existing infrastructure, historic buildings, and railway platforms © Ashley Cooper/Corbis Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Physics for Scientists and Engineers with Modern Physics, Ninth Edition Raymond A Serway and John W Jewett, Jr Publisher, Physical Sciences: Mary Finch Publisher, Physics and Astronomy: Charlie Hartford Development Editor: Ed Dodd © 2014, 2010, 2008 by Raymond A Serway ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher Assistant Editor: Brandi Kirksey Editorial Assistant: Brendan Killion Media Editor: Rebecca Berardy Schwartz Brand Manager: Nicole Hamm Marketing Communications Manager: Linda Yip Senior Marketing Development Manager: Tom Ziolkowski For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706 For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions Further permissions questions can be emailed to permissionrequest@cengage.com Content Project Manager: Alison Eigel Zade Library of Congress Control Number: 2012947242 Senior Art Director: Cate Barr ISBN-13: 978-1-133-95405-7 Manufacturing Planner: Sandee Milewski ISBN-10: 1-133-95405-7 Rights Acquisition Specialist: Shalice Shah-Caldwell Production Service: Lachina Publishing Services Text and Cover Designer: Roy Neuhaus Cover Image: The new Kings Cross railway station, London, UK Cover Image Credit: © Ashley Cooper/Corbis Compositor: Lachina Publishing Services Brooks/Cole 20 Channel Center Street Boston, MA 02210 USA Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with office locations around the globe, including Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil, and Japan Locate your local office at www.cengage.com/global Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd For your course and learning solutions, visit www.cengage.com Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.CengageBrain.com Instructors: Please visit login.cengage.com and log in to access instructorspecific resources We dedicate this book to our wives, Elizabeth and Lisa, and all our children and grandchildren for their loving understanding when we spent time on writing instead of being with them Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 16 15 14 13 12 Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part This is an electronic version of the print textbook Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience The publisher reserves the right to remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it For valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate formats, please visit www.cengage.com/highered to search by ISBN#, author, title, or keyword for materials in your areas of interest Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Brief Contents p a r t p a r t Mechanics 1 Physics and Measurement 2 Motion in One Dimension 21 3 Vectors 59 4 Motion in Two Dimensions 78 5 The Laws of Motion 111 6 Circular Motion and Other Applications of Newton’s Laws 150 7 Energy of a System 177 8 Conservation of Energy 211 9 Linear Momentum and Collisions 10 Rotation of a Rigid Object About 247 a Fixed Axis 293 11 Angular Momentum 335 12 Static Equilibrium and Elasticity 363 13 Universal Gravitation 388 14 Fluid Mechanics 417 p a r t Oscillations and Mechanical Waves 449 15 Oscillatory Motion 450 16 Wave Motion 483 17 Sound Waves 507 18 Superposition and Standing Waves p a r t Thermodynamics 567 19 Temperature 568 20 The First Law of Thermodynamics 590 21 The Kinetic Theory of Gases 626 22 Heat Engines, Entropy, and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 653 Electricity and Magnetism 689 23 Electric Fields 690 24 Gauss’s Law 725 25 Electric Potential 746 26 Capacitance and Dielectrics 777 27 Current and Resistance 808 28 Direct-Current Circuits 833 29 Magnetic Fields 868 30 Sources of the Magnetic Field 904 31 Faraday’s Law 935 32 Inductance 970 33 Alternating-Current Circuits 998 34 Electromagnetic Waves 1030 p a r t Light and Optics 1057 35 The Nature of Light and the Principles of Ray Optics 1058 36 Image Formation 1090 37 Wave Optics 1134 38 Diffraction Patterns and Polarization p a r t 533 1160 Modern Physics 1191 39 Relativity 1192 40 Introduction to Quantum Physics 1233 41 Quantum Mechanics 1267 42 Atomic Physics 1296 43 Molecules and Solids 1340 44 Nuclear Structure 1380 45 Applications of Nuclear Physics 1418 46 Particle Physics and Cosmology 1447 iii Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Contents About the Authors viii Circular Motion and Other Applications of Newton’s Laws 150 Preface ix To the Student xxx p a r t Mechanics 1 Physics and Measurement 2 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Standards of Length, Mass, and Time Matter and Model Building Dimensional Analysis Conversion of Units Estimates and Order-of-Magnitude Calculations 10 Significant Figures 11 Motion in One Dimension 21 2.1 Position, Velocity, and Speed 22 2.2 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed 25 2.3 Analysis Model: Particle Under Constant Velocity 28 2.4 Acceleration 31 2.5 Motion Diagrams 35 2.6 Analysis Model: Particle Under Constant Acceleration 36 2.7 Freely Falling Objects 40 2.8 Kinematic Equations Derived from Calculus 43 Vectors 59 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Coordinate Systems 59 Vector and Scalar Quantities 61 Some Properties of Vectors 62 Components of a Vector and Unit Vectors 65 Motion in Two Dimensions 78 4.1 The Position, Velocity, and Acceleration Vectors 78 4.2 Two-Dimensional Motion with Constant Acceleration 81 4.3 Projectile Motion 84 4.4 Analysis Model: Particle in Uniform Circular Motion 91 4.5 Tangential and Radial Acceleration 94 4.6 Relative Velocity and Relative Acceleration 96 The Laws of Motion 111 5.1 The Concept of Force 111 5.2 Newton’s First Law and Inertial Frames 113 5.3 Mass 114 5.4 Newton’s Second Law 115 5.5 The Gravitational Force and Weight 117 5.6 Newton’s Third Law 118 5.7 Analysis Models Using Newton’s Second Law 120 5.8 Forces of Friction 130 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Extending the Particle in Uniform Circular Motion Model 150 Nonuniform Circular Motion 156 Motion in Accelerated Frames 158 Motion in the Presence of Resistive Forces 161 Energy of a System 177 7.1 Systems and Environments 178 7.2 Work Done by a Constant Force 178 7.3 The Scalar Product of Two Vectors 181 7.4 Work Done by a Varying Force 183 7.5 Kinetic Energy and the Work–Kinetic Energy Theorem 188 7.6 Potential Energy of a System 191 7.7 Conservative and Nonconservative Forces 196 7.8 Relationship Between Conservative Forces and Potential Energy 198 7.9 Energy Diagrams and Equilibrium of a System 199 Conservation of Energy 211 8.1 Analysis Model: Nonisolated System (Energy) 212 8.2 Analysis Model: Isolated System (Energy) 215 8.3 Situations Involving Kinetic Friction 222 8.4 Changes in Mechanical Energy for Nonconservative Forces 227 8.5 Power 232 Linear Momentum and Collisions 247 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 Linear Momentum 247 Analysis Model: Isolated System (Momentum) 250 Analysis Model: Nonisolated System (Momentum) 252 Collisions in One Dimension 256 Collisions in Two Dimensions 264 The Center of Mass 267 Systems of Many Particles 272 Deformable Systems 275 Rocket Propulsion 277 10 Rotation of a Rigid Object About a Fixed Axis 293 10.1 Angular Position, Velocity, and Acceleration 293 10.2 Analysis Model: Rigid Object Under Constant Angular Acceleration 296 10.3 Angular and Translational Quantities 298 10.4 Torque 300 10.5 Analysis Model: Rigid Object Under a Net Torque 302 10.6 Calculation of Moments of Inertia 307 10.7 Rotational Kinetic Energy 311 10.8 Energy Considerations in Rotational Motion 312 10.9 Rolling Motion of a Rigid Object 316 11 Angular Momentum 335 11.1 The Vector Product and Torque 335 11.2 Analysis Model: Nonisolated System (Angular Momentum) 338 iv Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Contents 11.3 Angular Momentum of a Rotating Rigid Object 342 11.4 Analysis Model: Isolated System (Angular Momentum) 345 11.5 The Motion of Gyroscopes and Tops 350 12 Static Equilibrium and Elasticity 363 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 Analysis Model: Rigid Object in Equilibrium 363 More on the Center of Gravity 365 Examples of Rigid Objects in Static Equilibrium 366 Elastic Properties of Solids 373 13 Universal Gravitation 388 13.1 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation 389 13.2 Free-Fall Acceleration and the Gravitational Force 391 13.3 Analysis Model: Particle in a Field (Gravitational) 392 13.4 Kepler’s Laws and the Motion of Planets 394 13.5 Gravitational Potential Energy 400 13.6 Energy Considerations in Planetary and Satellite Motion 402 14 Fluid Mechanics 417 14.1 Pressure 417 14.2 Variation of Pressure with Depth 419 14.3 Pressure Measurements 423 14.4 Buoyant Forces and Archimedes’s Principle 423 14.5 Fluid Dynamics 427 14.6 Bernoulli’s Equation 430 14.7 Other Applications of Fluid Dynamics 433 p a r t Oscillations and Mechanical Waves 449 15 Oscillatory Motion 450 15.1 Motion of an Object Attached to a Spring 450 15.2 Analysis Model: Particle in Simple Harmonic Motion 452 15.3 Energy of the Simple Harmonic Oscillator 458 15.4 Comparing Simple Harmonic Motion with Uniform Circular Motion 462 15.5 The Pendulum 464 15.6 Damped Oscillations 468 15.7 Forced Oscillations 469 16 Wave Motion 483 16.1 Propagation of a Disturbance 484 16.2 Analysis Model: Traveling Wave 487 16.3 The Speed of Waves on Strings 491 16.4 Reflection and Transmission 494 16.5 Rate of Energy Transfer by Sinusoidal Waves on Strings 495 16.6 The Linear Wave Equation 497 17 Sound Waves 507 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 Pressure Variations in Sound Waves 508 Speed of Sound Waves 510 Intensity of Periodic Sound Waves 512 The Doppler Effect 517 18 Superposition and Standing Waves 533 18.1 Analysis Model: Waves in Interference 534 18.2 Standing Waves 538 18.3 Analysis Model: Waves Under Boundary Conditions 541 18.4 Resonance 546 18.5 Standing Waves in Air Columns 546 18.6 Standing Waves in Rods and Membranes 550 18.7 Beats: Interference in Time 550 18.8 Nonsinusoidal Wave Patterns 553 p a r t Thermodynamics 567 19 Temperature 568 19.1 Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics 568 19.2 Thermometers and the Celsius Temperature Scale 570 19.3 The Constant-Volume Gas Thermometer and the Absolute Temperature Scale 571 19.4 Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids 573 19.5 Macroscopic Description of an Ideal Gas 578 20 The First Law of Thermodynamics 590 20.1 Heat and Internal Energy 590 20.2 Specific Heat and Calorimetry 593 20.3 Latent Heat 597 20.4 Work and Heat in Thermodynamic Processes 601 20.5 The First Law of Thermodynamics 603 20.6 Some Applications of the First Law of Thermodynamics 604 20.7 Energy Transfer Mechanisms in Thermal Processes 608 21 The Kinetic Theory of Gases 626 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 Molecular Model of an Ideal Gas 627 Molar Specific Heat of an Ideal Gas 631 The Equipartition of Energy 635 Adiabatic Processes for an Ideal Gas 637 Distribution of Molecular Speeds 639 22 Heat Engines, Entropy, and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 653 22.1 Heat Engines and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 654 22.2 Heat Pumps and Refrigerators 656 22.3 Reversible and Irreversible Processes 659 22.4 The Carnot Engine 660 22.5 Gasoline and Diesel Engines 665 22.6 Entropy 667 22.7 Changes in Entropy for Thermodynamic Systems 671 22.8 Entropy and the Second Law 676 p a r t Electricity and Magnetism 689 23 Electric Fields 690 23.1 Properties of Electric Charges 690 23.2 Charging Objects by Induction 692 23.3 Coulomb’s Law 694 23.4 Analysis Model: Particle in a Field (Electric) 699 23.5 Electric Field of a Continuous Charge Distribution 704 23.6 Electric Field Lines 708 23.7 Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform Electric Field 710 24 Gauss’s Law 725 24.1 Electric Flux 725 24.2 Gauss’s Law 728 24.3 Application of Gauss’s Law to Various Charge Distributions 731 24.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium 735 25 Electric Potential 746 25.1 Electric Potential and Potential Difference 746 25.2 Potential Difference in a Uniform Electric Field 748 Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part v 25.2 Potential Difference in a Uniform Electric Field When a positive charge moves from point A to point B, the electric potential energy of the charge–field system decreases Figure 25.2 (a) When the elecS tric field E is directed downward, point B is at a lower electric potential than point A (b) A gravitational analog to the situation in (a) When an object with mass moves from point A to point B, the gravitational potential energy of the object–field system decreases A 749 A d d q ϩ m B B S S E g a b tance d, where the displacement S s points from A toward B and is parallel to the field lines Equation 25.3 gives s 23 E ds cos 08 23 E ds VB VA DV 23 E ? d S B B S A A B A Because E is constant, it can be removed from the integral sign, which gives DV 2E ds B A DV 2Ed (25.6) The negative sign indicates that the electric potential at point B is lower than at point A; that is, VB , VA Electric field lines always point in the direction of decreasing electric potential as shown in Figure 25.2a Now suppose a charge q moves from A to B We can calculate the change in the potential energy of the charge–field system from Equations 25.3 and 25.6: DU q DV 2qEd (25.7) This result shows that if q is positive, then DU is negative Therefore, in a system consisting of a positive charge and an electric field, the electric potential energy of the system decreases when the charge moves in the direction of the field If a positiveScharge is released from rest in this electric field, it experiences an electric S force q E in the direction of E (downward in Fig 25.2a) Therefore, it accelerates downward, gaining kinetic energy As the charged particle gains kinetic energy, the electric potential energy of the charge–field system decreases by an equal amount This equivalence should not be surprising; it is simply conservation of mechanical energy in an isolated system as introduced in Chapter Figure 25.2b shows an analogous situation with a gravitational field When a particle with mass m is released in a gravitational field, it accelerates downward, gaining kinetic energy At the same time, the gravitational potential energy of the object–field system decreases The comparison between a system of a positive charge residing in an electrical field and an object with mass residing in a gravitational field in Figure 25.2 is useful for conceptualizing electrical behavior The electrical situation, however, has one feature that the gravitational situation does not: the charge can be negative If q is negative, then DU in Equation 25.7 is positive and the situation is reversed WW Potential difference between two points in a uniform electric field Pitfall Prevention 25.4 The Sign of DV The negative sign in Equation 25.6 is due to the fact that we started at point A and moved to a new point in the same direction as the electric field lines If we started from B and moved to A, the potential difference would be 1Ed In a uniform electric field, the magnitude of the potential difference is Ed and the sign can be determined by the direction of travel Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part 750 Chapter 25 Electric Potential Figure 25.3 A uniform Point B is at a lower electric potential than point A electric field directed along the positive x axis Three points in the electric field are labeled S E B S s A u d C Points B and C are at the same electric potential A system consisting of a negative charge and an electric field gains electric potential energy when the charge moves in the direction of the field If a negative charge is released from rest in an electric field, it accelerates in a direction opposite the direction of the field For the negative charge to move in the direction of the field, an external agent must apply a force and positive work on the charge Now consider the more general case of a charged particle that moves between A and B in a uniform electric field such that the vector S s is not parallel to the field lines as shown in Figure 25.3 In this case, Equation 25.3 gives s E ?3 dS s E ?S s DV 23 E ? d S B Change in potential between two points in a uniform electric field S 7V 6V B S (25.8) A S s DU q DV 2q E ? S (25.9) Finally, we conclude from Equation 25.8 that all points in a plane perpendicular to a uniform electric field are at the same electric potential We can see that in Figure 25.3, where the potential difference VB VA is equal to the potential difference VC VA (Prove this fact to yourself by working out two dot products for S S S E ? s : one for S s ASB, where the angle u between E and S s is arbitrary as shown in Figure 25.3, and one for S s ASC , where u 0.) Therefore, VB VC The name equipotential surface is given to any surface consisting of a continuous distribution of points having the same electric potential The equipotential surfaces associated with a uniform electric field consist of a E family of parallel planes that are all perpendicular to the field Equipotential surfaces associated with fields having other symmetries are described in later sections B 8V S where again E was removed from the integral because it is constant The change in potential energy of the charge–field system is 9V A S A C D Figure 25.4 (Quick Quiz 25.2) Four equipotential surfaces Q uick Quiz 25.2 The labeled points in Figure 25.4 are on a series of equipotential surfaces associated with an electric field Rank (from greatest to least) the work done by the electric field on a positively charged particle that moves from A to B, from B to C, from C to D, and from D to E Example 25.1 The Electric Field Between Two Parallel Plates of Opposite Charge A battery has a specified potential difference DV between its terminals and establishes that potential difference between conductors attached to the terminals A 12-V battery is connected between two parallel plates as shown in Figure 25.5 The separation between the plates is d 0.30 cm, and we assume the electric field between the plates to be uniform (This assumption is reasonable if the plate separation is small relative to the plate dimensions and we not consider locations near the plate edges.) Find the magnitude of the electric field between the plates Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part 751 25.2 Potential Difference in a Uniform Electric Field ▸ 25.1 c o n t i n u e d A B Figure 25.5 (Example 25.1) A 12-V battery connected to two parallel plates The electric field between the plates has a magnitude given by the potential difference DV divided by the plate separation d ϩ ⌬V = 12 V Ϫ d S o l u ti o n Conceptualize In Example 24.5, we illustrated the uniform electric field between parallel plates The new feature to this problem is that the electric field is related to the new concept of electric potential Categorize The electric field is evaluated from a relationship between field and potential given in this section, so we categorize this example as a substitution problem Use Equation 25.6 to evaluate the magnitude of the electric field between the plates: E VB VA 12 V 5 4.0 103 V/m d 0.30 1022 m The configuration of plates in Figure 25.5 is called a parallel-plate capacitor and is examined in greater detail in Chapter 26 Example 25.2 Motion of a Proton in a Uniform Electric Field AM A proton is released from rest at point A in a uniform electric field that has a magnitude of 8.0 104 V/m (Fig 25.6) The proton undergoes a displacement S of magnitude d 0.50 m to point B in the direction of E Find the speed of the proton after completing the displacement ϩ ϩ A ϩ ϩ ϩ ϩ ϩ ϩ S vA ϭ S d S o l u ti o n Conceptualize V isualize the proton in Figure 25.6 moving downward through the potential difference The situation is analogous to an object falling through a gravitational field Also compare this example to Example 23.10 where a positive charge was moving in a uniform electric field In that example, we applied the particle under constant acceleration and nonisolated system models Now that we have investigated electric potential energy, what model can we use here? B Ϫ E S vB ϩ Ϫ Ϫ Ϫ Ϫ Ϫ Ϫ Figure 25.6 (Example 25.2) A proton accelerates from A to B in the direction of the electric field Categorize The system of the proton and the two plates in Figure 25.6 does not interact with the environment, so we model it as an isolated system for energy Analyze Write the appropriate reduction of Equation 8.2, the conservation of energy equation, for the isolated system of the charge and the electric field: DK DU Substitute the changes in energy for both terms: 12 mv 2 e DV Solve for the final speed of the proton and substitute for DV from Equation 25.6: v5 Substitute numerical values: v5 22e 2Ed 22e DV 2e Ed 5 m Å m Å Å m Å 1.6 10219 C 8.0 104 V 0.50 m 1.67 10227 kg 2.8 106 m/s Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part continued 752 Chapter 25 Electric Potential ▸ 25.2 c o n t i n u e d Finalize Because DV is negative for the field, DU is also negative for the proton–field system The negative value of DU means the potential energy of the system decreases as the proton moves in the direction of the electric field As the proton accelerates in the direction of the field, it gains kinetic energy while the electric potential energy of the system decreases at the same time Figure 25.6 is oriented so that the proton moves downward The proton’s motion is analogous to that of an object falling in a gravitational field Although the gravitational field is always downward at the surface of the Earth, an electric field can be in any direction, depending on the orientation of the plates creating the field Therefore, Figure 25.6 could be rotated 908 or 1808 and the proton could move horizontally or upward in the electric field! 25.3 Electric Potential and Potential Energy Due to Point Charges B ˆr dr u S ds S S A r rB As discussed in Section 23.4, an isolated positive point charge q produces an electric field directed radially outward from the charge To find the electric potential at a point located a distance r from the charge, let’s begin with the general expression for potential difference, Equation 25.3, s VB VA 23 E ? d S B S rA S A ϩ q The two dashed circles represent intersections of spherical equipotential surfaces with the page Figure 25.7 The potential difference between points A and B due to a point charge q depends only on the initial and final radial coordinates r A and r B where A and B are the two arbitrary points shown in Figure 25.7 At any point in S space, the electric field due to the point charge is E k e q/r 2 r^ (Eq 23.9), where r^Sis a unit vector directed radially outward from the charge Therefore, the quantity E ?dS s can be expressed as q S E ? dS s k e r^ ? d S s r Because the magnitude of r^ is 1, the dot product r^ ? d S s ds cos u, where u is the angle between r^ and d S s Furthermore, ds cos u is the projection of d S s onto r^ ; therefore, ds cos u dr That is, any displacement d S s along the path from point A to point B produces a change dr in the magnitude of S r , the position vector of the point relative to the charge creating the field Making these substitutions, we find that S E ? dS s ke q/r 2 dr ; hence, the expression for the potential difference becomes VB VA 2k e q rB rA Pitfall Prevention 25.5 Similar Equation Warning Do not confuse Equation 25.11 for the electric potential of a point charge with Equation 23.9 for the electric field of a point charge Potential is proportional to 1/r, whereas the magnitude of the field is proportional to 1/r The effect of a charge on the space surrounding it can be described in two ways The charge sets up a vector elecS tric field E , which is related to the force experienced by a charge placed in the field It also sets up a scalar potential V, which is related to the potential energy of the twocharge system when a charge is placed in the field V B V A ke q c q rB dr k ` e r rA r2 1 d rB rA (25.10) S Equation 25.10 shows us that the integral of E ? d S s is independent of the path between points A and B MultiplyingSby a charge q that moves between points A and B, we see that the integral of q E ? d S s is also independent of path This latter integral, which is the work done by the electric force on the charge q 0, shows that the electric force is conservative (see Section 7.7) We define a field that is related to a conservative force as a conservative field Therefore, Equation 25.10 tells us that the electric field of a fixed point charge q is conservative Furthermore, Equation 25.10 expresses the important result that the potential difference between any two points A and B in a field created by a point charge depends only on the radial coordinates r A and r B It is customary to choose the reference of electric potential for a point charge to be V at r A ` With this reference choice, the electric potential due to a point charge at any distance r from the charge is q V ke r (25.11) Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part 753 25.3 Electric Potential and Potential Energy Due to Point Charges A potential k e q /r 12 exists at point P due to charge q r12 P Figure 25.8 (a) Charge q The potential energy of the pair of charges is given by k e q q /r 12 establishes an electric potential V1 at point P (b) Charge q is brought from infinity to point P ϩ ϩ q1 q1 r12 Ϫ q2 q V1 ϭ ke r 12 a b We obtain the electric potential resulting from two or more point charges by applying the superposition principle That is, the total electric potential at some point P due to several point charges is the sum of the potentials due to the individual charges For a group of point charges, we can write the total electric potential at P as qi V ke a i ri (25.12) WW Electric potential due to several point charges Figure 25.8a shows a charge q 1, which sets up an electric field throughout space The charge also establishes an electric potential at all points, including point P, where the electric potential is V1 Now imagine that an external agent brings a charge q from infinity to point P The work that must be done to this is given by Equation 25.4, W q 2DV This work represents a transfer of energy across the boundary of the two-charge system, and the energy appears in the system as potential energy U when the particles are separated by a distance r 12 as in Figure 25.8b From Equation 8.2, we have W DU Therefore, the electric potential energy of a pair of point charges1 can be found as follows: q1 DU W q DV S U q ak e 0b r 12 q 1q U ke (25.13) r 12 If the charges are of the same sign, then U is positive Positive work must be done by an external agent on the system to bring the two charges near each other (because charges of the same sign repel) If the charges are of opposite sign, as in Figure 25.8b, then U is negative Negative work is done by an external agent against the attractive force between the charges of opposite sign as they are brought near each other; a force must be applied opposite the displacement to prevent q from accelerating toward q If the system consists of more than two charged particles, we can obtain the total potential energy of the system by calculating U for every pair of charges and summing the terms algebraically For example, the total potential energy of the system of three charges shown in Figure 25.9 is q1 q3 q2 q3 q1 q2 1 (25.14) U ke a b r 12 r 13 r 23 Physically, this result can be interpreted as follows Imagine q is fixed at the position shown in Figure 25.9 but q and q are at infinity The work an external agent must to bring q from infinity to its position near q is keq 1q 2/r 12 , which is the first term in Equation 25.14 The last two terms represent the work required to bring q from infinity to its position near q and q (The result is independent of the order in which the charges are transported.) 1The expression for the electric potential energy of a system made up of two point charges, Equation 25.13, is of the same form as the equation for the gravitational potential energy of a system made up of two point masses, 2Gm1m 2/r (see Chapter 13) The similarity is not surprising considering that both expressions are derived from an inversesquare force law The potential energy of this system of charges is given by Equation 25.14 q2 ϩ r 12 r 23 ϩ q1 r 13 ϩ q3 Figure 25.9 Three point charges are fixed at the positions shown Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part 754 Chapter 25 Electric Potential Q uick Quiz 25.3 In Figure 25.8b, take q to be a negative source charge and q to be a second charge whose sign can be changed (i) If q is initially positive and is changed to a charge of the same magnitude but negative, what happens to the potential at the position of q due to q 2? (a) It increases (b) It decreases (c) It remains the same (ii) When q is changed from positive to negative, what happens to the potential energy of the two-charge system? Choose from the same possibilities Example 25.3 The Electric Potential Due to Two Point Charges As shown in Figure 25.10a, a charge q 2.00 mC is located at the origin and a charge q 2 26.00 mC is located at (0, 3.00) m (A) F ind the total electric potential due to these charges at the point P, whose coordinates are (4.00, 0) m y y Ϫ Ϫ6.00 mC Ϫ Ϫ6.00 mC 3.00 m 3.00 m 2.00 mC ϩ S o l u ti o n Categorize The potential is evaluated using an equation developed in this chapter, so we categorize this example as a substitution problem Use Equation 25.12 for the system of two source charges: Substitute numerical values: 2.00 mC x ϩ 4.00 m Conceptualize Recognize first that the 2.00-mC and 26.00-mC charges are source charges and set up an electric field as well as a potential at all points in space, including point P P a 3.00 mC ϩ x 4.00 m b Figure 25.10 (Example 25.3) (a) The electric potential at P due to the two charges q and q is the algebraic sum of the potentials due to the individual charges (b) A third charge q 3.00 mC is brought from infinity to point P VP k e a q1 q2 b r1 r2 2.00 1026 C 26.00 1026 C VP 8.988 109 N # m2/C2 a b 4.00 m 5.00 m 26.29 103 V (B) F ind the change in potential energy of the system of two charges plus a third charge q 3.00 mC as the latter charge moves from infinity to point P (Fig 25.10b) S o l u ti o n Assign Ui for the system to the initial configuration in which the charge q is at infinity Use Equation 25.2 to evaluate the potential energy for the configuration in which the charge is at P : Uf q 3VP Substitute numerical values to evaluate DU : DU Uf 2 Ui q 3V P (3.00 1026 C)(26.29 103 V) 21.89 1022 J Therefore, because the potential energy of the system has decreased, an external agent has to positive work to remove the charge q from point P back to infinity W h at I f ? You are working through this example with a classmate and she says, “Wait a minute! In part (B), we ignored the potential energy associated with the pair of charges q and q 2!” How would you respond? Answer Given the statement of the problem, it is not necessary to include this potential energy because part (B) asks for the change in potential energy of the system as q is brought in from infinity Because the configuration of charges q and q does not change in the process, there is no DU associated with these charges Had part (B) asked to find the change in potential energy when all three charges start out infinitely far apart and are then brought to the positions in Figure 25.10b, however, you would have to calculate the change using Equation 25.14 Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part 25.4 Obtaining the Value of the Electric Field from the Electric Potential 25.4 O btaining the Value of the Electric Field from the Electric Potential S The electric field E and the electric potential V are related as shown in Equation S 25.3, which tells us how to find DV if the electric field E is known What if the situation is reversed? How we calculate the value of the electric field if the electric potential is known in a certain region? From Equation 25.3, the potential difference dV between two points a distance ds apart can be expressed as S dV E ? d S s (25.15) S S If the electric field has only one component Ex , then E ? d s E x dx Therefore, Equation 25.15 becomes dV 2E x dx, or dV Ex (25.16) dx That is, the x component of the electric field is equal to the negative of the derivative of the electric potential with respect to x Similar statements can be made about the y and z components Equation 25.16 is the mathematical statement of the electric field being a measure of the rate of change with position of the electric potential as mentioned in Section 25.1 Experimentally, electric potential and position can be measured easily with a voltmeter (a device for measuring potential difference) and a meterstick Consequently, an electric field can be determined by measuring the electric potential at several positions in the field and making a graph of the results According to Equation 25.16, the slope of a graph of V versus x at a given point provides the magnitude of the electric field at that point Imagine starting at a point and then moving through a displacement d S s along an equipotential surface For this motion, dV because the potential Sis constant along an equipotential surface From Equation 25.15, we see that dV E ? d S s 0; S therefore, because the dot product is zero, E must be perpendicular to the displacement along the equipotential surface This result shows that the equipotential surfaces must always be perpendicular to the electric field lines passing through them As mentioned at the end of Section 25.2, the equipotential surfaces associated with a uniform electric field consist of a family of planes perpendicular to the field lines Figure 25.11a shows some representative equipotential surfaces for this situation A uniform electric field produced by an infinite sheet of charge A spherically symmetric electric field produced by a point charge An electric field produced by an electric dipole q ϩ S E a b c Figure 25.11 Equipotential surfaces (the dashed blue lines are intersections of these surfaces with the page) and electric field lines In all cases, the equipotential surfaces are perpendicular to the electric field lines at every point Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part 755 756 Chapter 25 Electric Potential If the charge distribution creating an electric field has spherical symmetry such that the volume charge density depends only on the radial distance r, the electric S field is radial In this case, E ? d S s E r dr, and we can express dV as dV 2E r dr Therefore, dV Er (25.17) dr For example, the electric potential of a point charge is V ke q/r Because V is a function of r only, the potential function has spherical symmetry Applying Equation 25.17, we find that the magnitude of the electric field due to the point charge is E r 5 k e q/r 2, a familiar result Notice that the potential changes only in the radial direction, not in any direction perpendicular to r Therefore, V (like Er ) is a function only of r, which is again consistent with the idea that equipotential surfaces are perpendicular to field lines In this case, the equipotential surfaces are a family of spheres concentric with the spherically symmetric charge distribution (Fig 25.11b) The equipotential surfaces for an electric dipole are sketched in Figure 25.11c In general, the electric potential is a function of all three spatial coordinates If V(r) is given in terms of the Cartesian coordinates, the electric field components Ex , E y , and E z can readily be found from V(x, y, z) as the partial derivatives2 Finding the electric field from the potential Ex 'V 'x Ey 'V 'y Ez 'V 'z (25.18) Q uick Quiz 25.4 In a certain region of space, the electric potential is zero everywhere along the x axis (i) From this information, you can conclude that the x component of the electric field in this region is (a) zero, (b) in the positive x direction, or (c) in the negative x direction (ii) Suppose the electric potential is 12 V everywhere along the x axis From the same choices, what can you conclude about the x component of the electric field now? dq2 r2 dq1 r1 dq3 P 25.5 E lectric Potential Due to Continuous Charge Distributions r3 Figure 25.12 The electric potential at point P due to a continuous charge distribution can be calculated by dividing the charge distribution into elements of charge dq and summing the electric potential contributions over all elements Three sample elements of charge are shown Electric potential due to a continuous charge distribution In Section 25.3, we found how to determine the electric potential due to a small number of charges What if we wish to find the potential due to a continuous distribution of charge? The electric potential in this situation can be calculated using two different methods The first method is as follows If the charge distribution is known, we consider the potential due to a small charge element dq, treating this element as a point charge (Fig 25.12) From Equation 25.11, the electric potential dV at some point P due to the charge element dq is dV ke dq r (25.19) where r is the distance from the charge element to point P To obtain the total potential at point P, we integrate Equation 25.19 to include contributions from all elements of the charge distribution Because each element is, in general, a different distance from point P and ke is constant, we can express V as V ke 2In dq r (25.20) S vector notation, E is often written in Cartesian coordinate systems as S E 2=V 2ai^ where = is called the gradient operator ' ' ' ^j ^k bV 'x 'y 'z Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part 25.5 Electric Potential Due to Continuous Charge Distributions In effect, we have replaced the sum in Equation 25.12 with an integral In this expression for V, the electric potential is taken to be zero when point P is infinitely far from the charge distribution The second method for calculating the electric potential is used if the electric field is already known from other considerations suchSas Gauss’s law If the charge distribution has sufficient symmetry, we first evaluate E using Gauss’s law and then substitute the value obtained into Equation 25.3 to determine the potential difference DV between any two points We then choose the electric potential V to be zero at some convenient point Problem-Solving Strategy Calculating Electric Potential The following procedure is recommended for solving problems that involve the determination of an electric potential due to a charge distribution Conceptualize Think carefully about the individual charges or the charge distribution you have in the problem and imagine what type of potential would be created Appeal to any symmetry in the arrangement of charges to help you visualize the potential Categorize Are you analyzing a group of individual charges or a continuous charge distribution? The answer to this question will tell you how to proceed in the Analyze step Analyze When working problems involving electric potential, remember that it is a scalar quantity, so there are no components to consider Therefore, when using the superposition principle to evaluate the electric potential at a point, simply take the algebraic sum of the potentials due to each charge You must keep track of signs, however As with potential energy in mechanics, only changes in electric potential are significant; hence, the point where the potential is set at zero is arbitrary When dealing with point charges or a finite-sized charge distribution, we usually define V to be at a point infinitely far from the charges If the charge distribution itself extends to infinity, however, some other nearby point must be selected as the reference point (a) If you are analyzing a group of individual charges: Use the superposition principle, which states that when several point charges are present, the resultant potential at a point P in space is the algebraic sum of the individual potentials at P due to the individual charges (Eq 25.12) Example 25.4 below demonstrates this procedure (b) If you are analyzing a continuous charge distribution: Replace the sums for evaluating the total potential at some point P from individual charges by integrals (Eq 25.20) The total potential at P is obtained by integrating over the entire charge distribution For many problems, it is possible in performing the integration to express dq and r in terms of a single variable To simplify the integration, give careful consideration to the geometry involved in the problem Examples 25.5 through 25.7 demonstrate such a procedure To obtain the potential from the electric field: Another method used to obtain the potential is to start with the definition of the potential difference given by Equation S 25.3 If E is known or can be obtained easily (such as from Gauss’s law), the line inteS gral of E ? d S s can be evaluated Finalize Check to see if your expression for the potential is consistent with your mental representation and reflects any symmetry you noted previously Imagine varying parameters such as the distance of the observation point from the charges or the radius of any circular objects to see if the mathematical result changes in a reasonable way Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part 757 758 Chapter 25 Electric Potential Example 25.4 The Electric Potential Due to a Dipole An electric dipole consists of two charges of equal magnitude and opposite sign separated by a distance 2a as shown in Figure 25.13 The dipole is along the x axis and is centered at the origin (A) C alculate the electric potential at point P on the y axis y P y ϩ S o l u ti o n Conceptualize Compare this situation to that in part (B) of Example 23.6 It is the same situation, but here we are seeking the electric potential rather than the electric field q a Ϫq a R Ϫ x x Figure 25.13 (Example 25.4) An electric dipole located on the x axis Categorize We categorize the problem as one in which we have a small number of particles rather than a continuous distribution of charge The electric potential can be evaluated by summing the potentials due to the individual charges Analyze Use Equation 25.12 to find the electric potential at P due to the two charges: 2q q qi VP ke a k e a b5 ri i "a y "a y alculate the electric potential at point R on the positive x axis (B) C S o l u ti o n Use Equation 25.12 to find the electric potential at R due to the two charges: 2ke qa qi 2q q VR k e a k e a b5 2 r x a x1a x a2 i i (C) C alculate V and E x at a point on the x axis far from the dipole S o l u ti o n For point R far from the dipole such that x a, neglect a in the denominator of the answer to part (B) and write V in this limit: VR lim a2 Use Equation 25.16 and this result to calculate the x component of the electric field at a point on the x axis far from the dipole: Ex x a 2ke qa x 2a 2b < 2k e qa x2 x a 2ke qa dV d a2 b dx dx x 2ke qa 4k e qa d a b5 dx x x3 x a Finalize The potentials in parts (B) and (C) are negative because points on the positive x axis are closer to the negative charge than to the positive charge For the same reason, the x component of the electric field is negative Notice that we have a 1/r falloff of the electric field with distance far from the dipole, similar to the behavior of the electric field on the y axis in Example 23.6 Suppose you want to find the electric field at a point P on the y axis In part (A), the electric potential was found to be zero for all values of y Is the electric field zero at all points on the y axis? W h at I f ? Answer No That there is no change in the potential along the y axis tells us only that the y component of the electric field is zero Look back at Figure 23.13 in Example 23.6 We showed there that the electric field of a dipole on the y axis has only an x component We could not find the x component in the current example because we not have an expression for the potential near the y axis as a function of x Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part 759 25.5 Electric Potential Due to Continuous Charge Distributions Example 25.5 Electric Potential Due to a Uniformly Charged Ring (A) Find an expression for the electric potential at a point P located on the perpendicular central axis of a uniformly charged ring of radius a and total charge Q dq a ϩx a S o l u ti o n Conceptualize Study Figure 25.14, in which the ring is oriented so that its plane x is perpendicular to the x axis and its center is at the origin Notice that the symmetry of the situation means that all the charges on the ring are the same distance from point P Compare this example to Example 23.8 Notice that no vector considerations are necessary here because electric potential is a scalar formly charged ring of radius a lies in a plane perpendicular to the x axis All elements dq of the ring are the same distance from a point P lying on the x axis rather than a set of discrete charges, we must use the integration technique represented by Equation 25.20 in this example Analyze We take point P to be at a distance x from the center of the ring as Use Equation 25.20 to express V in terms of the geometry: Noting that a and x not vary for an integration over the ring, bring "a x in front of the integral sign and integrate over the ring: dq dq V ke ke r "a x V5 ke "a x x Figure 25.14 (Example 25.5) A uni- Categorize Because the ring consists of a continuous distribution of charge shown in Figure 25.14 P dq ke Q "a x (25.21) (B) Find an expression for the magnitude of the electric field at point P S o l u ti o n S From symmetry, notice that along the x axis E can have only an x component Therefore, apply Equation 25.16 to Equation 25.21: Ex dV d a x 2 21/2 2k e Q dx dx 2ke Q 12 a x 2 23/2 2x Ex ke x 1a x 2 3/2 Q (25.22) Finalize The only variable in the expressions for V and Ex is x That is not surprising because our calculation is valid only for points along the x axis, where y and z are both zero This result for the electric field agrees with that obtained by direct integration (see Example 23.8) For practice, use the result of part (B) in Equation 25.3 to verify that the potential is given by the expression in part (A) Example 25.6 Electric Potential Due to a Uniformly Charged Disk A uniformly charged disk has radius R and surface charge density s (A) F ind the electric potential at a point P along the perpendicular central axis of the disk S o l u ti o n Conceptualize If we consider the disk to be a set of concentric rings, we can use our result from Example 25.5— which gives the potential due to a ring of radius a—and sum the contributions of all rings making up the disk Figure continued Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part 760 Chapter 25 Electric Potential ▸ 25.6 c o n t i n u e d 25.15 shows one such ring Because point P is on the central axis of the disk, symmetry again tells us that all points in a given ring are the same distance from P Categorize Because the disk is continuous, we evaluate the potential due to a continuous charge distribution rather than a group of individual charges Figure 25.15 (Example 25.6) A uniformly charged disk of radius R lies in a plane perpendicular to the x axis The calculation of the electric potential at any point P on the x axis is simplified by dividing the disk into many rings of radius r and width dr, with area 2pr dr Analyze Find the amount of charge dq on a ring of radius r and width dr as shown in Figure 25.15: Use this result in Equation 25.21 in Example 25.5 (with a replaced by the variable r and Q replaced by the differential dq) to find the potential due to the ring: To obtain the total potential at P, integrate this expression over the limits r to r R, noting that x is a constant: This integral is of the common form e un du, where n 212 and u r x 2, and has the value u n11/(n 1) Use this result to evaluate the integral: R r ϩx r P x x dA ϭ 2pr dr dr dq s dA s 2pr dr 2psr dr dV ke dq "r x V pke s R ke 2psr dr "r x 2r dr "r x pke s r x 2 21/2 2r dr R (25.23) V 2pk e s R x 2 1/2 x ind the x component of the electric field at a point P along the perpendicular central axis of the disk (B) F S o l u ti o n As in Example 25.5, use Equation 25.16 to find the electric field at any axial point: Ex dV x 2pke s c d R x 2 1/2 dx (25.24) S Finalize Compare Equation 25.24 with the result of Example 23.9 They are the same The calculation of V and E for an arbitrary point off the x axis is more difficult to perform because of the absence of symmetry and we not treat that situation in this book Example 25.7 Electric Potential Due to a Finite Line of Charge y A rod of length , located along the x axis has a total charge Q and a uniform linear charge density l Find the electric potential at a point P located on the y axis a distance a from the origin (Fig 25.16) P S o l u ti o n a Conceptualize The potential at P due to every segment of charge on the rod is positive because every segment carries a positive charge Notice that we have no symmetry to appeal to here, but the simple geometry should make the problem solvable Categorize Because the rod is continuous, we evaluate the potential due to a continuous charge distribution rather than a group of individual charges Analyze In Figure 25.16, the rod lies along the x axis, dx is the length of one small segment, and dq is the charge on that segment Because the rod has a charge per unit length l, the charge dq on the small segment is dq l dx r dq O x x dx ᐉ Figure 25.16 (Example 25.7) A uniform line charge of length , located along the x axis To calculate the electric potential at P, the line charge is divided into segments each of length dx and each carrying a charge dq l dx Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part 25.6 Electric Potential Due to a Charged Conductor 761 ▸ 25.7 c o n t i n u e d Find the potential at P due to one segment of the rod at an arbitrary position x : dV k e V ke , Find the total potential at P by integrating this expression over the limits x to x ,: Noting that ke and l Q /, are constants and can be removed from the integral, evaluate the integral with the help of Appendix B: Evaluate the result between the limits: V ke Q , dq l dx ke r "a x l dx V ke l "a x , dx "a x ln , "a , 2 ln a k e ke Q , Q , ln a ln x "a x 2 ` , , "a , b (25.25) a Finalize If , ,, a, the potential at P should approach that of a point charge because the rod is very short compared to the distance from the rod to P By using a series expansion for the natural logarithm from Appendix B.5, it is easy to show that Equation 25.25 becomes V = keQ /a What if you were asked to find the electric field at point P ? Would that be a simple calculation? W h at I f ? Answer Calculating the electric field by means of Equation 23.11 would be a little messy There is no symmetry to appeal to, and the integration over the line of charge would represent a vector addition of electric fields at point P Using Equation 25.18, you could find E y by replacing a with y in Equation 25.25 and performing the differentiation with respect to y Because the charged rod in Figure 25.16 lies entirely to the right of x 0, the electric field at point P would have an x component to the left if the rod is charged positively You cannot use Equation 25.18 to find the x component of the field, however, because the potential due to the rod was evaluated at a specific value of x (x 5 0) rather than a general value of x You would have to find the potential as a function of both x and y to be able to find the x and y components of the electric field using Equation 25.18 25.6 Electric Potential Due to a Charged Conductor In Section 24.4, we found that when a solid conductor in equilibrium carries a net charge, the charge resides on the conductor’s outer surface Furthermore, the electric field just outside the conductor is perpendicular to the surface and the field inside is zero We now generate another property of a charged conductor, related to electric potential Consider two points A and B on the surface of a charged conductor as S shown in Figure 25.17 Along a surface path connecting these points, E is always ϩ ϩ ϩϩ Notice from the spacing of the positive signs that the surface charge density is nonuniform ϩ ϩ ϩ ϩ ϩ ϩ ϩ ϩ ϩ ϩ ϩ B ϩ ϩ ϩ ϩ ϩ ϩ ϩ ϩ ϩ ϩ ϩ ϩ ϩ ϩ AS E Pitfall Prevention 25.6 Potential May Not Be Zero The electric potential inside the conductor is not necessarily zero in Figure 25.17, even though the electric field is zero Equation 25.15 shows that a zero value of the field results in no change in the potential from one point to another inside the conductor Therefore, the potential everywhere inside the conductor, including the surface, has the same value, which may or may not be zero, depending on where the zero of potential is defined Figure 25.17 A n arbitrarily shaped conductor carrying a positive charge When the conductor is in electrostatic equiS librium, all the charge resides at the surface, E inside S the conductor, and the direction of E immediately outside the conductor is perpendicular to the surface The electric potential is constant inside the conductor and is equal to the potential at the surface Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part 762 Chapter 25 Electric Potential ϩ a ϩ ϩ S ϩ ϩ R ϩ ϩ s VB VA E ? d S B V b perpendicular to the displacement d S s ; therefore, E ? d S s Using this result and Equation 25.3, we conclude that the potential difference between A and B is necessarily zero: ϩ k eQ r k eQ R A This result applies to any two points on the surface Therefore, V is constant everywhere on the surface of a charged conductor in equilibrium That is, r k eQ r2 E c R S r Figure 25.18 (a) The excess charge on a conducting sphere of radius R is uniformly distributed on its surface (b) Electric potential versus distance r from the center of the charged conducting sphere (c) Electric field magnitude versus distance r from the center of the charged conducting sphere the surface of any charged conductor in electrostatic equilibrium is an equipotential surface: every point on the surface of a charged conductor in equilibrium is at the same electric potential Furthermore, because the electric field is zero inside the conductor, the electric potential is constant everywhere inside the conductor and equal to its value at the surface Because of the constant value of the potential, no work is required to move a charge from the interior of a charged conductor to its surface Consider a solid metal conducting sphere of radius R and total positive charge Q as shown in Figure 25.18a As determined in part (A) of Example 24.3, the electric field outside the sphere is k e Q /r and points radially outward Because the field outside a spherically symmetric charge distribution is identical to that of a point charge, we expect the potential to also be that of a point charge, ke Q /r At the surface of the conducting sphere in Figure 25.18a, the potential must be ke Q /R Because the entire sphere must be at the same potential, the potential at any point within the sphere must also be ke Q /R Figure 25.18b is a plot of the electric potential as a function of r, and Figure 25.18c shows how the electric field varies with r When a net charge is placed on a spherical conductor, the surface charge density is uniform as indicated in Figure 25.18a If the conductor is nonspherical as in Figure 25.17, however, the surface charge density is high where the radius of curvature is small (as noted in Section 24.4) and low where the radius of curvature is large Because the electric field immediately outside the conductor is proportional to the surface charge density, the electric field is large near convex points having small radii of curvature and reaches very high values at sharp points In Example 25.8, the relationship between electric field and radius of curvature is explored mathematically Example 25.8 Two Connected Charged Spheres Two spherical conductors of radii r and r are separated by a distance much greater than the radius of either sphere The spheres are connected by a conducting wire as shown in Figure 25.19 The charges on the spheres in equilibrium are q and q 2, respectively, and they are uniformly charged Find the ratio of the magnitudes of the electric fields at the surfaces of the spheres r1 q1 S o l u ti o n Conceptualize Imagine the spheres are much farther apart than shown in Figure 25.19 Because they are so far apart, the field of one does not affect the charge distribution on the other The conducting wire between them ensures that both spheres have the same electric potential r2 q2 Figure 25.19 (Example 25.8) Two Categorize Because the spheres are so far apart, we model the charge dis- charged spherical conductors connected by a conducting wire The spheres are at the same electric potential V tribution on them as spherically symmetric, and we can model the field and potential outside the spheres to be that due to point charges Analyze Set the electric potentials at the surfaces of the spheres equal to each other: V ke q1 q2 ke r1 r2 Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part 25.6 Electric Potential Due to a Charged Conductor 763 ▸ 25.8 c o n t i n u e d Solve for the ratio of charges on the spheres: (1) Write expressions for the magnitudes of the electric fields at the surfaces of the spheres: q1 r1 q2 r2 E1 ke q1 r 12 Evaluate the ratio of these two fields: q r 22 E1 q r 12 E2 Substitute for the ratio of charges from Equation (1): (2) and E k e q2 r 22 r2 E1 r r 22 5 r2 r1 r1 E2 Finalize The field is stronger in the vicinity of the smaller sphere even though the electric potentials at the surfaces of both spheres are the same If r S 0, then E S `, verifying the statement above that the electric field is very large at sharp points A Cavity Within a Conductor Suppose a conductor of arbitrary shape contains a cavity as shown in Figure 25.20 Let’s assume no charges are inside the cavity In this case, the electric field inside the cavity must be zero regardless of the charge distribution on the outside surface of the conductor as we mentioned in Section 24.4 Furthermore, the field in the cavity is zero even if an electric field exists outside the conductor To prove this point, remember that every point on the conductor is at the same electric potential; therefore, any two points A and B on the cavity’s surface must S be at the same potential Now imagine a field E exists in the cavity and evaluate the potential difference VB VA defined by Equation 25.3: The electric field in the cavity is zero regardless of the charge on the conductor B A VB VA E ? d s B S S A S S Because VB VA 0, the integral of E ? d s must be zero for all paths between any two points A and B on the conductor The only way that can be true for all S paths is if E is zero everywhere in the cavity Therefore, a cavity surrounded by conducting walls is a field-free region as long as no charges are inside the cavity Figure 25.20 A conductor in electrostatic equilibrium containing a cavity Corona Discharge A phenomenon known as corona discharge is often observed near a conductor such as a high-voltage power line When the electric field in the vicinity of the conductor is sufficiently strong, electrons resulting from random ionizations of air molecules near the conductor accelerate away from their parent molecules These rapidly moving electrons can ionize additional molecules near the conductor, creating more free electrons The observed glow (or corona discharge) results from the recombination of these free electrons with the ionized air molecules If a conductor has an irregular shape, the electric field can be very high near sharp points or edges of the conductor; consequently, the ionization process and corona discharge are most likely to occur around such points Corona discharge is used in the electrical transmission industry to locate broken or faulty components For example, a broken insulator on a transmission tower has sharp edges where corona discharge is likely to occur Similarly, corona discharge will occur at the sharp end of a broken conductor strand Observation of these discharges is difficult because the visible radiation emitted is weak and most of the radiation is in the ultraviolet (We will discuss ultraviolet radiation and other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum in Section 34.7.) Even use of traditional ultraviolet cameras is of little help because the radiation from the corona Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part ... Mercury 3.30 10 23 2.44 10 6 7.60 10 6 5.79 10 10 Venus 4.87 10 24 6.05 10 6 1. 94 10 7 1. 08 10 11 Earth 5.97 10 24 6.37 10 6 3 .15 6 10 7 1. 496 10 11 Mars 6.42 10 23 3.39 10 6 5.94 10 7 2.28 10 11 Jupiter 1. 90 10 27 6.99 10 7 3.74... 10 8 7.78 10 11 Saturn 5.68 10 26 5.82 10 7 9.29 10 8 1. 43 10 12 Uranus 8.68 10 25 2.54 10 7 2.65 10 9 2.87 10 12 Neptune 1. 02 10 26 2.46 10 7 5 .18 10 9 4.50 10 12 Plutoa 1. 25 10 22 1. 20 10 6 7.82 10 9 5. 91 1 012 ... Images Formed by Thin Lenses 11 04 Lens Aberrations 11 12 The Camera 11 13 The Eye 11 15 The Simple Magnifier 11 18 The Compound Microscope 11 19 The Telescope 11 20 37 Wave Optics 11 34 37 .1 Young’s