Milk and Dairy Products in Human Nutrition Milk and Dairy Products in Human Nutrition Production, Composition and Health Edited by Young W Park, Ph.D Professor of Food Science, Georgia Small Ruminant Research and Extension Center Fort Valley State University, Fort Valley, Georgia, USA and Adjunct Professor, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA and George F.W Haenlein, D.Sci.Ag., Ph.D Professor Emeritus, Animal and Food Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication This edition first published 2013 © 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Wiley-Blackwell is an imprint of John Wiley & Sons, formed by the merger of Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical and Medical business with Blackwell Publishing Registered Office John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK Editorial Offices 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK 2121 State Avenue, Ames, Iowa 50014-8300, USA For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell The right of the authors to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Milk and dairy products in human nutrition : production, composition, and health / edited by Young W Park, Ph D., professor of Food Science, Georgia Small Ruminant Research & Extension Center, Fort Valley State University, Fort Valley, Georgia, USA, and adjunct professor, Department of Food Science & Technology, University of Georgia Athens, Georgia, USA, and George F W Haenlein, D Sci Ag., Ph D., professor emeritus, Animal and Food Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-470-67418-5 (hardback : alk paper) – ISBN 978-1-118-53416-8 – ISBN 978-1-118-53418-2 (emobi) – ISBN 978-1-118-53420-5 (epub) – ISBN 978-1-118-53422-9 (epdf) Dairy products in human nutrition Milk–Analysis I Park, Young W II Haenlein, George F W QP144.M54M535 2013 613.2′69–dc23 2013001799 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books Cover images: image of camel © iStockphoto/Byronsdad; image of milk and butter © istockphoto/Silberkorn; image of cows © iStockphoto/modernschism; image of child drinking © iStockphoto/jfmdesign Cover design by Meaden Creative Set in 9.5/11.5pt Times by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India 2013 Contents Contributors Preface xxiv xxvii Production Systems around the World Christian F Gall 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12 Ecological conditions Systems 1.2.1 Small-scale milk production 1.2.2 Specialised milk production in large commercial dairies 1.2.3 Dairy ranching 1.2.4 Urban dairies 1.2.5 Pastoralists Feed resources Animal species used for milk production 1.4.1 Cattle 1.4.1.1 Milk yield 1.4.1.2 Milk composition 1.4.1.3 Milk production in the tropics 1.4.2 Sheep and goats 1.4.3 Buffalo 1.4.4 Camel 1.4.5 Mare 1.4.6 Yak 1.4.7 Reindeer Breed improvement 1.5.1 Pure breeding 1.5.2 Artificial insemination 1.5.3 Embryo transfer 1.5.4 Genomic selection 1.5.5 Crossbreeding Nutrition Animal health Reproduction Rearing of youngstock Housing Milking Milk marketing 1.12.1 Marketing by smallholders 1.12.2 Milk collection 1.12.3 Producer organisations v 2 3 4 6 8 10 11 11 12 12 12 13 13 13 13 13 14 15 15 17 17 18 18 19 19 20 vi Contents 1.13 1.14 1.15 20 21 21 22 22 22 23 24 Mammary Secretion and Lactation Young W Park, Pierre-Guy Marnet, Lucile Yart, and George F.W Haenlein 31 2.1 2.2 31 32 32 32 33 35 36 38 38 39 39 40 41 42 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 Economics of milk production 1.13.1 Productivity 1.13.2 Longevity and lifetime production Criticism of milk production 1.14.1 Resource use 1.14.2 Impact on the environment Dairy development References Introduction Origin and anatomy of mammary glands 2.2.1 Types of mammalian species and mammary glands 2.2.2 Anatomy of mammary glands of domestic animals Mammogenesis and mammary gland growth Milk ejection (lactogenesis) and secretion Maintenance of lactation (galactopoiesis) Secretion of milk and its constituents 2.6.1 Types of milk secretion 2.6.2 Milk secretion process 2.6.3 Comparative composition of blood and milk nutrients Involution of the mammary gland Challenges and opportunities in mammary secretion today and tomorrow References Milking Procedures and Facilities Pierre-Guy Marnet 46 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 46 46 48 49 50 51 51 52 53 53 54 57 58 59 59 60 60 61 61 61 3.5 3.6 3.7 Introduction Machine milked animals throughout the world Milking principles Milking machine components and effects on milk harvesting and quality 3.4.1 Vacuum system 3.4.2 Pulsation system 3.4.3 Mechanical effect of machine milking on milk quality 3.4.3.1 Specific action of cluster and liners 3.4.3.2 Specific action at the milk pump level 3.4.4 Optional components 3.4.5 Milking parlors and milking stalls 3.4.6 Storing and cooling devices 3.4.7 Cleaning systems 3.4.8 New kinds of materials and sensing devices for better milk quality Milking practices Milking management of animals 3.6.1 Lowering milking frequency 3.6.2 Increasing milking frequency (three milkings and more per day) Conclusions References Contents Milk Lipids Michael H Gordon 65 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 65 65 67 68 68 70 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 vii Introduction Fatty acids Triacylglycerols Polar lipids: phospholipids and cholesterol Conjugated linoleic acids Genetic influences on milk fat concentrations and fatty acid profiles Influence of feeds, feeding regimes, pasture and stage of lactation on milk lipids and their levels Digestion of milk fat Nutritional effects of milk fatty acids Evidence for effects of milk fat on CVD from prospective cohort studies Evidence about the effects of dairy products on non-lipid risk factors Conclusion References Milk Major and Minor Proteins, Polymorphisms and Non-protein Nitrogen Sándor Kukovics and Tímea Németh 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Milk proteins 5.1.1 Factors affecting the protein content of the milk The major milk proteins 5.2.1 Caseins 5.2.1.1 αs1-Casein 5.2.1.2 αs2-Casein 5.2.1.3 β-Casein 5.2.1.4 κ-Casein 5.2.1.5 The question of casein structure 5.2.1.6 The importance of casein structure 5.2.2 Whey (serum) proteins 5.2.2.1 α-Lactalbumin 5.2.2.2 β-Lactoglobulin The polymorphisms of milk proteins 5.3.1 The presence of polymorphisms in cattle populations 5.3.2 Effects on milk production 5.3.3 Effects on milk composition 5.3.4 Interactions 5.3.5 Effects on cheesemaking properties 5.3.5.1 β-Lactoglobulin 5.3.5.2 κ-Casein 5.3.5.3 β-Casein Milk protein variants and human nutrition: the human benefit 5.4.1 Hypoallergenic milk 5.4.2 Biopeptides The minor proteins 5.5.1 Lactoferrin 5.5.2 Serum albumin (bovine serum albumin) 5.5.3 Immunoglobulins 5.5.4 Hormones 5.5.5 Growth factors 71 72 72 74 75 75 75 80 80 81 81 82 84 84 84 84 84 85 86 86 86 86 87 93 94 95 95 96 96 97 97 97 97 99 99 99 99 100 100 viii Contents 5.5.6 5.6 100 100 100 100 100 101 101 101 101 101 101 101 102 103 Milk Protein Allergy Melanie L Downs, Jamie L Kabourek, Joseph L Baumert, and Steve L Taylor 111 6.1 6.2 111 111 111 112 113 113 114 115 116 116 117 117 117 118 118 120 121 123 124 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 Milk enzymes 5.5.6.1 Lysozyme 5.5.6.2 Lactoperoxidase 5.5.7 Metal-binding proteins 5.5.8 Vitamin-binding proteins 5.5.9 Glycoproteins 5.5.10 Lactollin 5.5.11 β2-Microglobulin 5.5.12 Osteopontin 5.5.13 Proteose peptone 5.5.14 Milk fat globule membrane proteins Non-protein nitrogen 5.6.1 Urea References Introduction IgE-mediated food allergy 6.2.1 Mechanism 6.2.2 Commonly allergenic foods 6.2.3 Sensitization and its prevention 6.2.4 Diagnosis of food allergies 6.2.5 Prevention and treatment of food allergy 6.2.6 Cows’ milk and avoidance diets Delayed food allergies Cows’ milk allergy 6.4.1 Whey proteins 6.4.1.1 β-Lactoglobulin 6.4.1.2 α-Lactalbumin 6.4.1.3 Minor whey proteins 6.4.2 Caseins Cross-reactivity with milk from other species Effects of processing on allergenicity Other mechanisms References Milk Carbohydrates and Oligosaccharides Alessandra Crisà 129 7.1 7.2 129 129 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 Introduction Lactose and minor sugar 7.2.1 Composition and concentration of carbohydrate in milk and dairy products of different species Oligosaccharides 7.3.1 Purification and characterization of oligosaccharides from milk 7.3.2 Methods for structural analysis 7.3.3 Composition and concentration of oligosaccharides in milk of different species Carbohydrates as prebiotics in the gastrointestinal tract Other oligosaccharide functions Genetics of carbohydrate metabolism during lactation References 130 134 135 135 136 138 139 140 141 Contents Milk Bioactive Proteins and Peptides Hannu J Korhonen and Pertti Marnila 148 8.1 8.2 8.3 148 149 149 149 150 150 151 152 152 153 153 153 154 155 156 156 157 158 158 159 159 159 160 161 161 161 163 163 164 8.4 8.5 8.6 ix Introduction Caseins Whey proteins 8.3.1 α-Lactalbumin 8.3.2 β-Lactoglobulin 8.3.3 Glycomacropeptide 8.3.4 Lactoferrin 8.3.4.1 Antimicrobial effects 8.3.4.2 Immunological effects and cancer prevention 8.3.4.3 Applications and safety aspects 8.3.5 Lactoperoxidase and lysozyme 8.3.5.1 Lactoperoxidase 8.3.5.2 Lysozyme 8.3.6 Growth factors and cytokines 8.3.7 Immunoglobulins 8.3.7.1 Functions of immunoglobulins 8.3.7.2 Immunoglobulins and immune milk preparations Bioactive peptides 8.4.1 Production systems 8.4.2 Functionality 8.4.2.1 Antihypertensive 8.4.2.2 Antimicrobial 8.4.2.3 Immunomodulatory 8.4.2.4 Mineral binding 8.4.3 Occurrence in dairy products 8.4.4 Applications Other minor proteins Conclusions References Milk Minerals, Trace Elements, and Macroelements Frédéric Gaucheron 172 9.1 9.2 172 172 172 172 172 178 178 180 180 180 180 181 181 181 181 181 Introduction Macroelements in milk and dairy products from the cow 9.2.1 Calcium (Ca) 9.2.1.1 Calcium in the human organism and biological roles 9.2.1.2 Contents and chemical forms of Ca in milk and dairy products 9.2.1.3 Dairy contribution to the total Ca intake and Ca absorption 9.2.1.4 Physiological roles of Ca from milk and dairy products 9.2.1.5 Calcium supplementation of dairy products 9.2.2 Phosphorus (P) 9.2.2.1 Phosphorus in the human organism and biological roles 9.2.2.2 Contents and chemical forms of P in milk and dairy products 9.2.2.3 Dairy contribution to the total P intake and P absorption 9.2.3 Magnesium (Mg) 9.2.3.1 Magnesium in the human organism and biological roles 9.2.3.2 Contents and chemical forms of Mg in milk and dairy products 9.2.3.3 Dairy contribution to the total Mg intake and Mg absorption x Contents 9.3 9.4 9.5 10 9.2.4 Sodium (Na), chloride (Cl), and potassium (K) 9.2.4.1 Sodium, chloride, and potassium in the human organism and biological roles 9.2.4.2 Contents and chemical forms of Na, Cl, and K in milk and dairy products 9.2.4.3 Dairy contribution to the total Na, Cl, and K intakes and Na, Cl, and K absorptions Trace elements in milk and dairy products from the cow 9.3.1 Iron (Fe) 9.3.1.1 Iron in the human organism and biological roles 9.3.1.2 Contents and chemical forms of Fe in milk and dairy products 9.3.1.3 Dairy contribution to the total Fe intake and Fe absorption 9.3.1.4 Iron supplementation of dairy products 9.3.2 Copper (Cu) 9.3.2.1 Copper in the human organism and biological roles 9.3.2.2 Contents and chemical forms of Cu in milk and dairy products 9.3.2.3 Dairy contribution to the total Cu intake and Cu absorption 9.3.3 Zinc (Zn) 9.3.3.1 Zinc in the human organism and biological roles 9.3.3.2 Contents and chemical forms of Zn in milk and dairy products 9.3.3.3 Dairy contribution to the total Zn intake and Zn absorption 9.3.4 Selenium (Se) 9.3.4.1 Selenium in the human organism and biological roles 9.3.4.2 Contents and chemical forms of Se in milk and dairy products 9.3.4.3 Dairy contribution to the total Se intake 9.3.4.4 Selenium supplementation of dairy products 9.3.5 The other trace elements in milk and dairy products from the cow 9.3.5.1 Manganese (Mn) 9.3.5.2 Iodine (I) 9.3.5.3 Fluoride (F) 9.3.5.4 Chromium (Cr) 9.3.5.5 Lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) 9.3.5.6 Cobalt (Co) 9.3.5.7 Molybdenum (Mo) 9.3.5.8 Arsenic (As) 9.3.5.9 Nickel (Ni) 9.3.5.10 Silicon (Si) 9.3.5.11 Boron (B) Minerals in milk and dairy products of other species 9.4.1 Sheep 9.4.2 Goat 9.4.3 Buffalo 9.4.4 Yak 9.4.5 Camel 9.4.6 Mare Conclusion References 181 181 182 182 182 182 182 182 183 183 183 183 183 184 184 184 184 184 185 185 185 185 185 185 185 186 186 187 187 187 187 187 188 188 188 188 188 188 190 190 190 191 191 191 Vitamins in Milks Bent Graulet, Bruno Martin, Claire Agabriel and Christiane L Girard 200 10.1 10.2 200 201 Introduction Availability of vitamins in milk in relation to human health Contents 10.2.1 10.3 10.4 10.5 11 Fat-soluble vitamins 10.2.1.1 Vitamin A 10.2.1.2 Vitamin D 10.2.1.3 Vitamin E 10.2.1.4 Vitamin K 10.2.2 Water-soluble vitamins 10.2.2.1 B-complex vitamins 10.2.2.2 Vitamin C 10.2.3 Differences in milk vitamin content between bovine and other dairy species Animal and nutritional factors modulating vitamin content in bovine milk 10.3.1 Effects of feeding practices on vitamin concentrations in milk 10.3.2 Non-dietary factors affecting milk concentrations of vitamins Vitamin content in cheeses Conclusions References xi 201 201 203 204 205 206 206 211 211 212 212 214 214 215 215 Milk Minor Constituents, Enzymes, Hormones, Growth Factors, and Organic Acids Lígia R Rodrigues 220 11.1 11.2 220 221 221 221 224 224 225 225 226 226 226 227 227 229 229 229 230 230 230 230 231 231 231 231 232 232 232 232 233 233 233 11.3 Introduction Milk minor constituents 11.2.1 Salts and minerals 11.2.2 Vitamins 11.2.3 Immune components 11.2.4 Bioactive peptides 11.2.5 Polyamines 11.2.6 Nucleotides 11.2.7 Proteose peptones 11.2.8 Branched-chain amino acids and other amino acids 11.2.9 Taurine 11.2.10 Glutathione Milk enzymes 11.3.1 Lactoperoxidase 11.3.2 Catalase 11.3.3 Xanthine oxidoreductase 11.3.4 Proteinases 11.3.4.1 Plasmin 11.3.4.2 Cathepsin D 11.3.5 Lipases and esterases 11.3.6 Amylase 11.3.7 Alkaline phosphatase 11.3.8 Acid phosphatase 11.3.9 Ribonuclease 11.3.10 N-Acetyl-β-d-glucosaminidase 11.3.11 Lysozyme 11.3.12 γ-Glutamyl transferase 11.3.13 Superoxide dismutase 11.3.14 Sulfhydryl oxidase 11.3.15 Aldolase 11.3.16 Glutathione peroxidase 698 sweet whey 477–8 vitamins in 492 see also whey sweeteners 438, 440–41, 440, 441 non-nutritive 441 Swiss cheeses lactose content 247 see also individual cheeses Switzerland cheese consumption 382 cheese production 382 synbiotics 468 syneresis 365, 367 Syria, commercial dairies Taleggio cheese, water activity 369 tandem milking parlors 54, 54 tarag 580, 589 Tarentaise, milk composition, vitamins 214 taurine 101, 102, 223, 226–7, 468 goat’s milk 509 infant formula 460 Tegricel 162 Telemes cheese 510 Telligo cheese, moulding and pressing 369 temperate lowland regions temperature and milk composition 278–9 terpenes 316 Thailand, buffalo population 520 theileriosis 540 Theria 32 thermal processing see heat treatment thermisation 292 thermolysin 158 thiamin 202, 206, 222 buffalo milk 525 butter, ghee and cream 396 camel milk 583 cow’s milk 453, 468, 604, 641, 663 dietary reference intake 201 donkey milk 604 goat’s milk 641 human milk 468, 604, 641, 663 infant formula 460, 472, 663 mare’s milk 604 ruminant vs human milk 211 sheep milk 569, 641 skimmed milk 430 whey 492 yak milk 641 threonine 223, 226, 396 buffalo milk 524 cow’s milk 449 infant formula 463 skimmed milk 430 Index yak milk 636, 637 thyrotrophin 34 tick-borne encephalitis 16 Tilsit cheese, water activity 369 Timor-Leste, buffalo population 520 tin cow’s milk 467 human milk 467 Toggenburg goat 10, 277 Torta del Casar cheese, water activity 369 Torulaspora spp., camel milk 589 tos 580 total microbial count 263 total solids 10, 36, 96, 277, 278, 281, 342, 360, 372, 417, 421, 423, 430, 436, 437, 439, 440, 441, 447, 456, 478, 479, 481, 484, 486, 499, 522, 523, 534, 554, 555, 583, 597, 598, 621, 628, 629, 645, 646, 649, 650, 651, 652, 655 trace elements 173, 182–8, 222 buffalo milk 525, 535–6 cow’s milk 182–8, 222 see also individual trace elements trans fatty acids 73 sheep milk 558 transferrin 224 transforming growth factor (TGF) 155, 236 transhumance systems transmitted off-flavours 313 triacylglycerols 66, 67–8, 67, 68 2-tridecanone 314 triglycerides 555–6, 556 tropical regions 1, milk production 8–9 trypanosomiasis 2, 15, 16, 540 tryptophan 223, 396 cow’s milk 449 infant formula 463 skimmed milk 430 yak milk 636, 637 tsagaa 580 tsegee 580 tuberculosis 15, 16 Tunisia, camel milk 580 Turkey, buffalo milk consumption 521 Turkish Black & White milk proteins caseins 88, 89, 91 whey proteins 92 tyrosine 223, 396 buffalo milk 524 cow’s milk 449 infant formula 463 skimmed milk 430 yak milk 636, 637 udder 32–3, 32, 33 massage 59 stripping 60 UHT milk 294–5 enzymes 229 flavour 298, 322–3, 324–5 UK cheese consumption 382 cheese production 382 horse and donkey populations 595 Ukraine cheese consumption 382 cheese production 382 horse and donkey populations 595 ultra-high-pressure homogenization 328, 417 ultrafiltration 371 low concentration factor 372 medium concentration factor 372 ultrapasteurized milk 322–3, 324 ultrasound, and milk flavour 327 2-undecanone 314 ungulates 86, 646, 647, 648, 653 see also individual species United Arab Emirates, camel milk 580 unsaponifiable lipids 66 unsaturated fatty acids 557–8 urban dairies urea 102 musk ox milk 649 uridine 223 uridine monophosphate 134 uridyl-5′-monophosphate 223 Uruguay, cheese production 382 USA allergenic foods 113 cheese consumption 382 horse and donkey populations 595 quality control of fermented milk products 343, 343, 345 vaccenic acid 67 vacuum evaporation 413–14, 414 vacuum system 50–51 valine 223, 226, 396 buffalo milk 524 cow’s milk 449 infant formula 463 skimmed milk 430 yak milk 636, 637 vanadium cow’s milk 467 human milk 467 vat pasteurization 282–3 Venezuela, horse and donkey populations 595 699 Index ventilation, and milk composition/ yield 279 very low density lipoproteins see VLDL Vibrio parahaemolyticus, water activity for growth 370 Vietnam buffalo milk consumption 521 buffalo population 520 vitamins 200–219, 201, 221, 222, 224, 302–3 buffalo milk 525, 537–8 butter 396 camel milk 582, 583 cheese 214–15 cow’s milk 211, 222, 452–3, 453, 468, 641, 663 cream 396 dietary reference intake 201 donkey milk 603, 604 factors affecting 212–14 feeding practices 212–14 non-dietary 214 fat-soluble 201–6, 202, 537–8 ghee 396 goat’s milk 211, 222, 502, 509, 641 heat treatment effects 302–3 human milk 211, 222, 468, 641, 663, 670–72, 671 infant formula 460, 467–8, 468, 472, 663 mare’s milk 603, 604 ruminant vs human milk 211–12, 211 sheep milk 211, 222, 569, 569, 641 skimmed milk 430 water-soluble 206–11, 538 whey 492 yak milk 640–41, 641 see also individual vitamins vitamin A 201–3, 202, 222 buffalo milk 525 butter, ghee and cream 396 camel milk 583 cow’s milk 453, 468, 604, 641, 663 deficiency 203 dietary reference intake 201 donkey milk 604 goat’s milk 641 human milk 468, 604, 641, 663, 670 hypervitaminosis 203 ice cream 453, 454 infant formula 460, 472, 663 mare’s milk 604 ruminant vs human milk 211 sheep milk 569, 641 skimmed milk 430 yak milk 641 vitamin B1 see thiamin vitamin B2 see riboflavin vitamin B3 see niacin vitamin B5 see pantothenic acid vitamin B6 see pyridoxine vitamin B8 see biotin vitamin B9 see folic acid vitamin B12 see cyanocobalamin vitamin C 202, 211, 222 buffalo milk 525 butter, ghee and cream 396 camel milk 583 cow’s milk 453, 468, 604, 663 dietary reference intake 201 donkey milk 604 heat treatment effects 302–3 human milk 468, 604, 663, 670 infant formula 460, 472, 663 mare’s milk 604 ruminant vs human milk 211 sheep milk 569 skimmed milk 430 vitamin D 202, 203–4, 222 butter, ghee and cream 396 camel milk 583 cow’s milk 453, 468, 604, 641, 663 deficiency 204 dietary reference intake 201 donkey milk 604 goat’s milk 641 human milk 468, 604, 641, 663, 670–72, 671 ice cream 453, 454 infant formula 460, 472, 663 mare’s milk 604 ruminant vs human milk 211 sheep milk 569, 641 skimmed milk 430 toxicity 204 yak milk 641 vitamin E 202, 204–5, 222 buffalo milk 525 butter, ghee and cream 396 camel milk 583 cow’s milk 453, 468, 604, 641 deficiency 205 dietary reference intake 201 donkey milk 604 goat’s milk 641 human milk 468, 604, 641 infant formula 460, 472 mare’s milk 604 ruminant vs human milk 211 sheep milk 569, 641 skimmed milk 430 toxicity 205 yak milk 641 vitamin K 202, 205–6 butter, ghee and cream 396 cow’s milk 453, 468 deficiency 206 dietary reference intake 201 donkey milk 604 human milk 468, 670 infant formula 460, 472 mare’s milk 604 vitamin-binding proteins 100–101 Vivinal Alpha 162 VLDL 72 waste handling 3, 18 water activity cheese 369 powdered milk 426–7, 427 water buffalo see buffalo water ice 436 water-soluble vitamins 206–11, 538 Weissella spp., camel milk 588 West African Dwarf goat 278 whale birthweight 663 lactation and weaning 663 whale milk composition 662 lactose 248 wheat, amino acids 490 whey 130, 477–97 acid 477–8, 478 crystallisation 417–18 nutritional qualities 487–92 minerals 485–6, 492 protein and bioactive peptides 487–91 vitamins in 492, 492 permeate 133 production and utilization 480 species differences 478–80, 479 sweet 477–8, 492 whey products 480–87 cheese 486 in lactose intolerance 491–2 non-bovine 486–7 non-protein 485–6 powder 480–81, 482 protein concentrates 481, 482 protein fractions 483–5 protein isolates 148, 481–3 osteoporosis prevention 349 whey proteins 80–81, 83, 86, 149–58 allergy to 117–18 amino acids in 490 antimicrobial activity 488–9 bioactivity 450 biological functions 488 700 whey proteins (cont’d) buffalo milk 524, 528, 530 camel milk 585–6 cheesemaking properties 96 cow’s milk 599 digestion and absorption 488 donkey milk 599, 600–601, 600 genetic variants 87 goat’s milk 501 human milk 599 hydrolysates 490–91 ice cream 436 infant formula 463 mare’s milk 599, 600–601, 600 quality 487–8 sheep milk 562 specialised nutrition 489–91 obesity 491 phenylketonuria 489–90 sports nutrition 490 therapeutic values 489 yak milk 631 see also individual proteins whipping cream 394 whole milk, glass transition temperature 429 women, smallholder dairies xanthine oxidase 163 buffalo milk 525, 537 Index heat treatment effects 300, 301 xanthine oxidoreductase 227, 229–30, 229 xerophthalmia 203 xylitol 440 yak milk 12, 627–43 colostrum 629 composition 455, 627–9, 628, 629 amino acids 636–7, 636, 637 by breed 628 by season 628 fatty acids 71, 639 lipids 638–40, 639 minerals 189, 190, 640, 640 proteins 84, 630–38 vitamins 640–41, 641 physical properties 629–30, 629, 630 whey 479, 479 yeasts 290, 340 camel milk 587–9, 589 water activity for growth 370 Yemen, camel milk 580 Yersinia enterocolitica 290, 544 water activity for growth 370 yoghurt 9, 129, 338–40, 340 composition enzymes 229 lactose 247 minerals 174–5 frozen 436, 448 formulation 437 goat’s milk 510 Greek-style 339–40 production and consumption 339, 339 quality control 343, 344 starter cultures 338 types of 338–9 Zamorano cheese, water activity 369 Zebu cattle see Bos indicus see also individual breeds zinc 173, 184, 222 biological roles 184 buffalo milk 525 camel milk 582 cow’s milk 452, 467, 603, 663 dairy products 174–7, 184 butter, ghee and cream 396 contribution to total intake 184 donkey milk 603 human milk 467, 603, 663 infant formula 460, 472, 663 mare’s milk 603 sheep milk 569 skimmed milk 430 yak milk 640 zoonoses 15, 16 zymogen 275 (a) (b) 100 μm (c) Number of Ki67+MEC/mm2 of epithelium (d) Epithelial area (% total area) 12 * 10 Int Ovx Prepuberty Int Ovx Postpuberty 12000 10000 8000 * 6000 4000 2000 Int Ovx Prepuberty Int Ovx Postpuberty Plate 2.1 Effects of ovarian secretions on mammary gland development in young goats at puberty Histological section of mammary gland obtained at months of age from control intact young goats (a) and from young goats ovariectomized at month of age (b) (bar = 100 μm) Ovariectomy before puberty affects mammary epithelium development (c) and proliferation of mammary epithelial cells (MEC) (d), but has no effect on these two parameters after puberty * P < 0.05 Int, intact control young goats; Ovx, ovariectomized young goats Milk and Dairy Products in Human Nutrition: Production, Composition and Health, First Edition Edited by Young W Park and George F.W Haenlein © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Published 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Plate 3.1 Simple platform, side-by-side, milking parlor for goats at the AGROCAMPUS OUEST/INRA laboratory Plate 3.2 Buffalo milking with autonomous bucket machine milking Plate 3.3 Camel milking stall and equipment in Saudi Arabia Courtesy of Dr B Faye Plate 3.4 Tandem milking parlor (a) (b) Plate 3.5 (a) Side-by-side milking parlor with rapid exit; (b) view of a cow in a side-by-side milking parlor Access to the mammary gland is limited and observation of the cow reduced Courtesy of Dairymaster Plate 3.6 Rotary parlor milking system (a) (d) Milk at rennet addition: intact casein micelles in milk with micelle cores and k-casein glycomacropeptide region (red) Rennet-induced gel network: a three-dimensional structural continuum of aggregated para-casein micelles (b) Milk after rennet addition: partially rennethydrolysed micelles, with some of liberated glycomacropeptide released into surrounding serum Different cheesemaking operations pH Temperature Para-casein concentration and dehydration (6–12×) Whey (c) (e) Milk prior to onset of rennet-induced gelation: fully rennet-hydrolysed para-casein micelles forming into aggregates Cheese curd: a matrix consisting of a concentrated para-casein network with pores, occupied by fat globules or pools of fat (not shown) and serum Plate 17.1 Schematic representation of the various stages involved in the formation of cheese curd from milk, starting from the initial mixture of casein micelles and added enzyme (rennet ✂) in the milk (a), and proceeding through rennet-induced hydrolysis of κ-casein (b, c), aggregation of para-casein micelles (c) and formation of para-casein gel network (d), which is dehydrated and concentrated into cheese curd (e) Months J F M A M J J A S O N 0.5 Milk production per day 50 43 43 1 1.5 30 32.9 27.1 2.5 27 26 29 28 26 26 25 3.5 29 30 2.4 28 1.9 1.6 40 35 30 27 28.8 25 2.2 26.6 20 Butterfat and protein 3.6 10 4.2 3.9 4.5 Milk output Butterfat content per kg of milk Protein content per kg of milk Plate 23.1 Changes in milk yield (kg) and butterfat and protein content (g/kg) during different stages of lactation in goats Modified from Le Jaouen (1987), with permission of New England Cheesemaking Supply Company (www.cheesemaking.com) Murrah Surti Banni Azeri Mediterranean Albino Jaffarabadi Plate 24.1 Major dairy buffalo breeds Nili-Ravi Kundi Mehsana Toda Pandharpuri Bhadawari Nagpuri Plate 26.1 Domesticated Bactrian camel in Gobi desert area (Left) A nursing camel (Right) A camel being milked by a nomad woman Photos taken by the author in March 2009 in Haruult and Zagiin-Us, Ulziit soum, Dundgovi aimag in Mongolia (about 260 km south of Ulaanbaatar) Plate 26.2 A cask for making acidified camel milk Photo taken by the author in March 2009 in the same location as for Plate 26.1 Lactating gland x10 Non-lactating gland Lactating gland Non-lactating gland L L A A CT CT x10 x20 x20 Plate 28.1 Structure of porcine mammary gland L, lobule; A, alveoli; CT, connective tissue (Left) ×10 (Right) ×20 Based on Kim (1999) Plate 30.1 A milkmaid at the Kostroma Moose Farm in Kostroma Oblast, Russia, prepares to milk a moose From http://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitxer:Milkmaid-and-Moose-Cow-hp4080.jpg Courtesy of Dr Alexander Minaev (a) O CH3 OH Fucose (164/146) OH OH OH MONOFUCOSYLMONOSIALYLLACTO-N-HEXAOSE I CH2 OH O OH O OH OH O O O OH OH Glucose (180/180) CH2 OH O CH2 NHAc O OH CH3 OH O OH OH O OH OH OH CHOH O CHOH CH2OH OH AcHN OH OH [M+Na]+ 1532.523 CH2 OH O OH CO2 H O O OH O CH2 OH O OH OH OH Galactose (180/162) OH OH OH O CH2 OH O OH OH O OH OH OH GlcNAc (221/203) β1–4 OH HN C CH O AcHN NHAc O OH OH OH OH β1–6 α1–3 β1–3 α2–6 Neu5AC (309/291) COOH β1–3 OH (b) β1–4 β1–4 β1–3 β1–6 β1–4 β1–4 α2–6 α1–3 α1–4 β1–3 β1–4 β1–3 α1–3 β1–4 β1–3 β1–3 α2–6 β1–3/4 α1–2 α2–3 Plate 31.1 (a) Illustration of a human milk oligosaccharide (HMO) structure with key for interpreting symbols (b) Examples of “branched” and “linear” HMO structures Reproduced with permission from Wu et al (2010) Copyright (2010) the American Chemical Society Fucosidase Sialidase Neu5Ac N-Acetyl Galactose Fucose Glucosamine Glycan key Glucose Fructose α1–2, α1–3, α2–6, β1–4 α1–4/3, α2–3/6, β1–3/4, β1–3/6 Plate 31.2 Basic structure of HMO molecules Sites of fucosidase and sialidase activity are denoted by arrows Reproduced from Sela (2011), with permission of Elsevier ... Contents and chemical forms of Na, Cl, and K in milk and dairy products 9.2.4.3 Dairy contribution to the total Na, Cl, and K intakes and Na, Cl, and K absorptions Trace elements in milk and dairy products. .. separated from their Milk and Dairy Products in Human Nutrition calves in the evening, milked in the morning and spend the day with their calves In the evening there is no milking The lactation... nutrition and mammary gland growth 28.2.4 Litter size and mammary gland growth Porcine colostrum and milk Dietary manipulations that affect milk production and composition Sow milk in human nutrition