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Chapter 5 Job Order Costing Questions Such a company should not aggregate costs across customer orders because such a process could charge excessively high (or low) costs to orders that did not create those costs. Only by separating the costs by customers will a reliable basis be provided for determining job prices and evaluating job profitability A company should use job order costing only when it is necessary and possible to trace costs to products made for individual customers, and when the products made for one customer are very different from those made for other customers. In such a setting, no meaningful average cost exists across customers that could be used for important decisions such as setting prices The diametric alternative to the job order costing system is the process costing system. A process costing system is appropriate for those production environments that make homogeneous products, usually in large quantities, in batch or continuous flow systems. The three valuation methods are actual, normal, and standard costing. In actual costing, only the actual amounts of materials, labor, and overhead costs are assigned to production. Normal costing differs from actual costing in that an amount of overhead is applied to products using a predetermined overhead rate rather than the actual amount. Standard costing differs from actual and normal costing in that a perunit amount (standard) is established for direct material, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead. These predetermined amounts are charged to production rather than the actual or normal costs A job is a unit of work and may contain one or many product units. In a job order costing system it is necessary to specify each job because the job is the cost object and costs are separately accumulated for each job. 103 Chapter 5 Job Order Costing 104 The three stages for a job are started but not completed, completed but not sold, and sold. Cost information for completed jobs is used to evaluate the profitability of individual jobs, to serve as a basis for bidding future jobs, and to determine the cost of goods sold The principal documents are the material requisition forms, employee time sheets, and job order cost sheets. Material requisition forms are used to initiate the removal of raw materials from inventory or to acquire them from suppliers. Time sheets are used to track the time of individual employees to specific jobs. Job cost sheet are used to track the costs of direct materials, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead associated with particular jobs, and possibly compare those costs with budgeted costs The material requisition form is important because it establishes who authorized the purchase or use of raw materials and in what amounts. It therefore establishes the custody of materials through time and production A job order cost sheet is a detailed subsidiary ledger account. As such, it is the major accounting document used in a job order costing system. It typically contains information such as the customer identification; job description; starting, completion, and delivery dates; budgeted and actual costs; and contract price. Collectively, the job cost sheets serve as the subsidiary records for Work in Process Inventory, Finished Goods Inventory, and Cost of Goods Sold accounts 10 Job cost sheets provide managers with information about the costs that have been assigned to particular jobs. Some job cost sheets record both the budgeted and actual costs incurred on each specific job. The actual cost information can then be reflected in the various inventory accounts as well as cost of goods sold. Such cost information can be broken down into perunit costs on jobs consisting of multiple, similar outputs. This cost aggregation may prove useful for planning and control purposes as well as for bidding on future contracts 11 This statement is false. The job cost record is merely a subsidiary ledger account and, thus, serves as a backup to the general ledger control account. Therefore, any information that is recorded in the job cost record must also be recorded in the general ledger control account (Work in Process Inventory) to reconcile the control and subsidiary information. The postings to the general ledger control accounts and the subsidiary ledger may be made at different points in time Chapter 5 Job Order Costing 105 Chapter 5 Job Order Costing 106 12 An employee time sheet would show all hours worked, including overtime, by a given employee for a pay period. The time sheet is used to assign the cost of employee labor to specific jobs. Generally, however, overtime premiums will not be charged to specific jobs although the overtime hours worked will be charged to the jobs at regular hourly rates. 13 A predetermined overhead rate is generally better than an actual rate for several reasons. First, the actual amount of overhead incurred during one period cannot be known until well into the next period when all accruals and adjusting entries have been made; therefore, actual overhead could not be assigned to jobs until this information is known. Secondly, the numerator (actual overhead) or the denominator (activity level) could include distortions due to seasonal fluctuations, causing assigned costs to be abnormal. Last, changes in actual overhead costs in different months can be smoothed using an expected annual measure of costs and activity 14 Under or overapplied overhead will result when the estimates used in determining the predetermined overhead rate are different from the actual amount of overhead incurred or levels of activity performed, or both. If applied overhead is less than actual overhead, the difference is called underapplied overhead; if it is greater than actual, the difference is called overapplied overhead. In general, the differences should be small and the resulting under or overapplied overhead should be immaterial 15 The most significant difference between service and manufacturing firms is that the service firms cannot inventory services in the same manner that manufacturing firms can inventory products. Accordingly, job order costing plays a much less important role in service firms in valuing inventory, but may play an extremely important role in determining cost per job and customer profitability 16 The cost of goods sold is determined as the sum of costs for all jobs that have been sold during a period. In most businesses, this amount would be very close to the cost of goods manufactured because firms that use job costing produce to the orders of customers rather than to create inventory 17 Advancing technology is allowing companies to track more costs and other information about jobs. One of the most exciting developments are intranets that allow companies to post information, including cost data, in a central repository that can be accessed simultaneously by all managers who require such information to execute their job assignments. Further, the information available is increasingly realtime data Chapter 5 Job Order Costing 107 18 Student will have different answers. No solution provided 19 Under a job order costing system based on actual costs, entries to record costs to the control account Work in Process Inventory and the subsidiary job cost records are made for the actual amounts of materials, labor, and overhead used. In a standard cost job order system, norms are developed for materials, labor and overhead and it is these norms which are carried in the Work in Process Inventory and job order records. The standards or norms for materials and labor can be for quantities, prices, or both. The differences between actual and standard charges to WIP are called variances and will be computed as production gets under way A company would use a standard cost job order system to enable management to determine the efficiency with which jobs were performed. Standard costing with regard to quantity would only be useful in a production environment that generated some type of uniform output that would allow standards or norms to be developed 20 No. Only if a firm has an opportunity to routinely make a product will standard costs be very useful. For oneofakind products, there is simply no opportunity to develop reliable standards and no opportunity to learn from past experiences about ways to become more efficient in operations. 21 Variances identify the areas of efficiency and inefficiency in production operations. Managers, using the philosophy of management by exception, focus their attention on the significant variances. They attempt to determine causes of both significant favorable and unfavorable variances and will specifically look for interactions among the variances. By concentrating on the significant variances, managers focus on the aspects of operations that are out of control and try to correct the causes. 22 Job order costing facilitates a disaggregated analysis of costs. Rather than analyzing, for example, cost of goods sold, a manager can analyze the cost of specific jobs. This more detailed information allows managers to obtain insights that otherwise would be beyond their reach. For example, managers can examine important data such as job profitability, job pricing, cost control on a jobbyjob basis, job production schedules, and actual versus budgeted job costs 108 Chapter 5 Job Order Costing Exercises 23 a b c d e f g h i j job order process job order job order job order process job order process job order job order 24 a Raw Materials Inventory Accounts Payable 87,000 Work in Process Inventory Raw Materials Inventory 81,900 81,900 Work in Process Inventory Cash (1,700 × $18) 30,600 30,600 87,000 Manufacturing Overhead 41,100 Cash ($9,000 + $3,600 + $4,750) 17,350 Accumulated Depreciation 17,500 Supplies Inventory 6,250 Work in Process Inventory 42,500 Manufacturing Overhead (1,700 × $25) b 42,500 Raw Material = $2,150 + $87,000 $81,900 = $7,250 Work in Process = $2,350 (given) c Cost of Goods Manufactured = Beginning Work in Process + Current period costs – Ending Work in Process = $11,150 + $81,900 + $30,600 + $42,500 $2,350 = $163,800 Unit cost = $163,800 ÷ 5,000 = $32.76 d Applied overhead – Actual overhead = $42,500 $41,100 = $1,400 overapplied 109 Chapter 5 Job Order Costing 25 a Direct Materials Inventory Accounts Payable 19,000 WIP Job #217 WIP Job #218 WIP other jobs Direct Materials Inventory 11,200 1,800 13,400 WIP Job #217 WIP Job #218 WIP other jobs Cash/Wages Payable 2,600 3,500 4,900 Manufacturing Overhead Various accounts 18,900 19,000 26,400 11,000 18,900 WIP Job #217 (2,600 × $1.72) 4,472 WIP Job #218 (3,500 × $1.72) 6,020 WIP other jobs (4,900 × $1.72) 8,428 Manufacturing Overhead (Actual rate per DL$ = $18,900 $11,000 = $1.72 per DL$ Finished Goods Inventory WIP Inventory Job #217 ($2,800 + $11,200 + $2,600 + $4,472 = $21,072) 21,072 Cash 29,501 21,072 Sales ($21,072 × 140% = $29,501) Cost of Goods Sold Finished Goods Inventory b 18,920 29,501 21,072 21,072 Ending balance in WIP = Cost of job #218 + Cost of other jobs = ($1,400 + $1,800 + $3,500 + $6,020) + ($13,400 $4,900 + $8,428) = $12,720 + $26,728 = $39,448 Ending balance in Job #218 = $12,720 26 a OHrate=$345,600ữ$384,000=90%ofdirectlabor b EndingWIPBalance: DM$132,600 DL 93,600 MOH(0.9ì93,600)84,240 Endingbalance$310,440 Cost of goods completed = $554,400 + $384,000 + $345,600 Chapter 5 Job Order Costing $310,440 = $973,560 110 Chapter 5 Job Order Costing 27 a $120,000 + $30,800 + $108,500 = $259,300 b Overheadrate=$1,200,000ữ40,000=$30perMH $120,000+$30,800+($30ì3,400) =$120,000+$30,800+$102,000=$252,800 c Theonlyfactordrivingthedifferenceismanufacturing overhead.Underactualcosting,$108,500ofoverheadis assignedtoproduction;undernormalcosting,$102,000of overheadisassignedtoproduction($30perMHì3,400 MHs) a CGS is the amount credited to Finished Goods Inventory for the year = $342,500 b Beg. FG + CGM – End. FG = CGS CGM = CGS + End. FG – Beg. FG = $342,500 + $21,000 $22,500 = $341,000 c Beg. WIP + DM + DL + OH – End. WIP = CGM DM = CGM Beg. WIP DL OH + End. WIP = $341,000 $14,000 $45,000 ($45,000 × 1.2) + $12,000 = $240,000 28 111 d Applied overhead = $45,000 × 1.20 = $54,000 29 e Beg.DM+PurchasesưUsage=End.DM $6,150+Purchasesư$240,000=$2,050 Purchases=$235,900 a MixingDept.=$60,000ữ7,500=$8perMH PavingDept.=$98,000ữ3,500=$28perDLH b.MixingDept.80MHs.ì$8= $640 Paving Dept. 60 DLHs. × $28 = 1,680 Total overhead applied $2,320 c No, because the amounts of overhead in each department are extremely varied as are the number of machine and direct labor hours worked in each department 112 Chapter 5 JobOrderCosting 30 a Secretary($1,800ữ160hrs.=$11.25; $11.25ì14hrs.)$157.50 Copies(126pagesì$0.04perpage)5.04 Phonecalls165.50 Overhead($7,200ữ120hrs.=$60;$60ì85hrs.)5,100.00 Attorney'stime($40ì85hrs.)3,400.00 Totalcharges$8,828.04 ThismeansGunnwouldbecharging,$8,828.04ữ85= $103.86perhour b Directcosts($5.04+$165.50+$3,400.00)$3,570.54 Allocatedsecretarialcosts157.50 Allocatedoverhead5,100.00 Margin($40+$60)ì0.50ì854,250.00 Totalbilling$13,078.04 31 a 24,900ì$23.20*=$577,680OHappliedtoWIP * $556,800ữ24,000MHs=$23.20perMH 32 b BudgetedoverheadActualoverhead=Over/Underưapplied $577,680ư$562,600=$15,080overapplied c 750ì$23.20=$17,400 d If the $15,080 overapplication is judged immaterial, it is deducted from Cost of Goods Sold. If judged material, it is prorated to the Work in Process, Finished Goods, and Cost of Goods Sold accounts according to the relative magnitude of the ending balances of those accounts a Work in Process Inventory Manufacturing Overhead (30,100 × $2.20 = $66,200) 66,220 66,220 b $2.20 × 13,900 = $30,580 c Beginning balance Direct materials Direct labor Applied overhead Ending balance d Overhead rate = Budgeted OH ÷ Budgeted DL cost $2.20 = $660,000 ÷ Budgeted DL cost $660,000 ÷ $2.20 = Budgeted DL cost $300,000 = Budgeted DL cost $14,350 24,800 13,900 30,580 $83,630 Overhead rate = $660,000 ÷ $300,000 = $2.20 Chapter 5 Job Order Costing Totals $336,000 127 128 Chapter 5 Job Order Costing b Work in Process Job #515 Direct Material Inventory Work in Process Job #515 Work in Process other jobs Overhead (Ind. labor) Salaries and Wages Expense Cash/Wages Payable 30,900 30,900 47,520 204,480 27,900 19,800 299,700 Overhead 25,200 Depreciation Expense 3,900 Utilities Expense 900 Accumulated Depr. Const. Assets 13,200 Accumulated Depr. Office Assets 3,900 Supplies Inventory 9,300 Utilities Payable 3,600 Sales Promotion Expense Accounts Payable 5,550 Advertising Expense Cash 3,300 Miscellaneous Expense Accounts Payable 5,100 5,550 3,300 5,100 Work in Process Job #515* 28,512 ** Work in Process other jobs 122,688 Overhead 151,200 * $47,520 × .6 = $28,512 ** $204,480 × .6 = $122,688 Cash/Accounts Receivable Sales 312,000 312,000 Cost of Completed Jobs 214,500 Work in Process Inventory 214,500 c. Work in Process beginning $135,900 Production costs: DM $ 30,900 DL ($47,520 + $204,480) 252,000 Applied overhead 151,200 434,100 $570,000 Work in process ending (355,500) Cost of goods manufactured $214,500 129 Chapter 5 Job Order Costing d. Starr Construction Company Income Statement For the Month Ended August 31, 2003 Revenues from completed projects Less Cost of Goods Manufactured Gross Margin on Completed Jobs NonProduction Expenses: Salaries and Wages Expense $19,800 Depreciation Expense 3,900 Utilities Expense 900 Sales Promotion Expense 5,550 Advertising Expense 3,300 Miscellaneous Expense 5,100 Income Before Income Taxes Income Taxes (40%) Net Income 50 Job #2019: Design ($10,200 × 40%) Production (90 MH × $15) Installation ($1,260 × 90%) Total overhead applied $312,000 (214,500) $ 97,500 (38,550) $ 58,950 (23,580) $ 35,370 a $ 4,080 1,350 1,134 $ 6,564 Job #2020: Design ($8,670 × 40%) $ 3,468 Production (300 MH × $15) 4,500 Installation ($1,440 × 90%) 1,296 Total overhead applied $ 9,264 Job #2021: Design ($9,180 × 40%) $ 3,672 Production (120 MH × $15) 1,800 Installation ($1,900 × 90%) 1,710 Total overhead applied $ 7,182 Design Production Installation Actual $13,200 $ 7,500 $3,650 Applied (11,220) (7,650) (4,140) (Over)/under applied $ 1,980 $ (150) $ (490) Actual OH for company $24,350 Applied OH for company (23,010) Total company underapplied OH $ 1,340 Chapter 5 Job Order Costing b Work in Process Design Dept. 43,695 Wages Payable (or Cash) Raw Material Inventory Overhead 130 28,050 4,425 11,220 Work in Process Prod. Dept. 99,450 Wages Payable (or Cash) 14,650 Raw Material Inventory 77,150 Overhead 7,650 Work in Process Install. Dept. 15,940 Wages Payable (or Cash) 4,600 Raw Material Inventory 7,200 Overhead 4,140 c Job #2019: Direct material Direct labor Overhead Total cost $17,050 15,710 6,564 $39,324 Job #2020: Direct material Direct labor Overhead Total cost $39,225 17,560 9,264 $66,049 Job #2021: Direct material Direct labor Overhead Total cost $32,500 14,030 7,182 $53,712 Chapter 5 Job Order Costing 51 a 131 Actual DM cost $2,900,000 Standard DM cost ($14,000 × 200) (2,800,000) Variance $ 100,000 U Actual DL cost $1,739,400 Standard DL cost ($8,600 × 200) (1,720,000) Variance $ 19,400 U Actual OH cost $3,700,000 Standard OH cost ($19,000 × 200) (3,800,000) Variance $ (100,000)F Material price variance AP × AQ SP × AQ $2 × 1,500,000 $2,900,000 $3,000,000 | | | | | $100,000 F | b Material quantity variance SP × AQ SP × SQ $2 × 1,500,000 $2 × 1,400,000 $3,000,000 $2,800,000 | | | | | $200,000 U | The overall unfavorable variance of $100,000 was a combination of a $100,000 favorable price variance and a $200,000 unfavorable quantity variance. The net result is obviously influenced more by the larger variance, the material quantity variance Chapter 5 Job Order Costing 52 132 a DM cost $4.50 DL cost ($20 × (6 60)) 2.00 Total standard prime costs $6.50 Note: Total standard cost cannot be determined for the product because no information for overhead is provided b Job #918 DM cost ($4.50 × 1,200) $5,400 DL cost ($2.00 × 1,200) 2,400 Total standard prime cost $7,800 Job #2002 DM cost ($4.50 × 2,000) $ 9,000 DL cost ($2.00 × 2,000) 4,000 Total standard prime cost $13,000 c Job #918 Standard Actual Variance DM $5,400 $5,250 $150 F DL 2,400 2,470 70 U Total $7,800 $7,720 $ 80 F Job #2002 DM $ 9,000 $ 9,440 $440 U DL 4,000 4,255 255 U Total $13,000 $13,695 $695 U d By computing variances for each job, managers become aware of any trends in costs. If costs are aggregated across jobs, any trends may be obscured. 133 Chapter 5 Job Order Costing Cases 53 a Oct 1 Raw Material Inventory Accounts Payable 150,000 150,000 Work in Process P 130,000 Raw Materials Inventory 130,000 Manufacturing Overhead C 15,000 Accounts Payable 15,000 Manufacturing Overhead P 4,000 Cash 4,000 15 No entry needed 20 Manufacturing Overhead C 30,000 Cash (or Rent Payable) 30,000 24 Raw Material Inventory 285,000 Accounts Payable 31 31 31 285,000 Manufacturing Overhead P 36,320 Cash ($7,600 +$6,220 + $7,900) 21,120 Accumulated Depr. P 15,200 Work in Process P Cash (for DL) 45,000 45,000 Manufacturing Overhead C 18,650 Cash ($2,300 + $5,700 + $1,900) 9,900 Accumulated Depr. C 8,750 31 Work in Process C 16,300 Cash (for DL) 16,300 31 Accounts Payable 435,000 Cash ($150,000 + $285,000) 435,000 31 Work in Process P 36,000 Manufacturing Overhead P 36,000 (2,000 MHs × $18) 31 Work in Process C 16,300 Manufacturing Overhead C 16,300 ($16,300 × 100%) Chapter 5 Job Order Costing Nov. 1 134 Manufacturing Overhead C 5,000 Cash 5,000 4 Work in Process P 165,000 Manufacturing Overhead P 35,000 Raw Material Inventory 200,000 Manufacturing Overhead P 4,000 Cash 4,000 15 Work in Process C 40,000 Manufacturing Overhead C 45,000 Raw Material Inventory 85,000 18 No entry needed 24 No entry needed 29 No entry needed; it will be accounted for on the 30th 30 Manufacturing Overhead P 54,050 Cash ($15,900 + $9,350 + $14,500) 38,850 Accumulated Depr. P 15,200 30 Work in Process P 115,000 Cash (for DL) 115,000 30 Manufacturing Overhead C 43,850 Cash ($4,900 + $15,200 + $5,400) Accumulated Depr. C 30 Work in Process C 134,300 Cash (for DL) 30 Work in Process P 71,100 Manufacturing Overhead P (3,950 × $18) 30 Work in Process C 134,300 Manufacturing Overhead C ($134,300 × 100%) 25,500 18,350 134,300 71,100 134,300 30 Completed Projects Inventory 903,300 Work in Process P 562,100 Work in Process C 341,200 (details in taccounts) 30 Cost of Contracts Sold 903,300 Completed Projects Inventory 903,300 Chapter 5 Job Order Costing 135 30 Accounts Receivable 1,550,000 Construction Revenue 1,550,000 b. Precast Construction Raw Materials Overhead Overhead 150,000|130,000 4,000|36,000 15,000| 16,300 285,000|165,000 36,320|71,100 30,000|134,300 | 35,000 35,000| 18,650| | 40,000 4,000| 5,000| | 45,000 54,050| 45,000| | | 43,850| | | | Bal 20,000| Bal 26,270| Bal 6,900| WIP Precast WIP Construction 130,000|562,100 16,300|341,200 45,000| 16,300| 36,000| 40,000| 165,000| 134,300| 115,000| 134,300| 71,100| | | | Bal. 0| Bal. 0| Completed projects Cost of Contracts Sold 903,300|903,300 903,300| | | Bal. 0| c (bottom section of job cost sheet) Precast Department D.M. (Est. $310,500) D.L. (Est. $150,000) Overhead (Est. $110,000) Date Amount Date Amount Date Amount Oct. 1 $130,000 Oct. 31 $ 45,000 Oct. 31 $ 36,000 Nov. 4 165,000 Nov. 30 115,000 Nov. 30 71,100 $295,000 $160,000 $107,100 Construction Department D.M. (Est. $50,000) D.L. (Est. $160,000) Overhead (Est. $160,000) Date Amount Date Amount Date Amount Nov. 15 $40,000 Oct. 31 $ 16,300 Oct. 31 $ 16,300 Nov. 30 134,300 Nov. 30 134,300 $150,600 $150,600 136 Chapter 5 Job Order Costing 54 a A job order cost system is appropriate in any environment in which costs can be readily identified with specific products, batches, contracts, or projects. For adopting this system there should be a justification on a cost benefit basis to trace costs to those specific products, batches, contracts, or projects b The only job remaining in WIP at 5/31 is DRS114: DRS114 balance 4/30 $1,570,000 May additions: Raw material $124,000 Purchased parts 87,000 Direct labor 200,500 Overhead (19,500 hrs. @ $7.50*) 146,250 557,750 WIP balance 5/31 $2,127,750 *OH rate = $4,500,000 ÷ 600,000 hrs. = $7.50 per hour c FG inventory of playpens 4/30 Units completed in May Units available Units shipped in May FG inventory 5/31 19,400 15,000 34,400 (21,000) 13,400 Since WiddleThang uses the FIFO inventory method, all units remaining in FG inventory were completed in May Work in process inventory 4/30 May additions: Raw material Purchased parts Direct labor Overhead (4,400 X $7.50) Total cost $420,000 $ 3,000 10,800 43,200 33,000 90,000 $510,000 Unit cost = $510,000 ÷ 15,000 units completed = $34 per unit FG inventory = $34 X 13,400 = $455,600 d If the amount of overapplied or underapplied OH is not material or the result of an error in the OH application rate, the amount is generally treated as a period cost and charged to CGS. If the amount is significant, the amount should be prorated over the relevant accounts (i.e., WIP, FG, and CGS) (CMA adapted) 137 Chapter 5 Job Order Costing 55 a, b Direct material and raw material issued during April: Cost of goods manufactured $48,000 Add ending work in process: Two jobs open have DM of $ 2,400 Two jobs open have DL of 4,500 Two jobs open have applied OH of ($3 × 1,072) 3,216 10,116 Total costs accounted for $58,116 Less beginning work in process (7,700) Cost of production inputs $50,416 Less: Direct labor $18,200 Applied OH ($3.00 × 4,400) 13,200 31,400 Cost of direct material used $19,016 Cost of indirect material issued 5,800 Total cost of raw material used $24,816 c Beginning raw material Raw material purchased Total raw material available Raw material issued Ending raw material d Overhead applied ($3 × 4,400) Actual overhead charges: Indirect labor Indirect material All other Underapplied overhead in April e Beginning finished goods Add cost of goods manufactured Cost of goods available Less ending finished goods Cost of goods sold $ 4,800 28,000 $32,800 (24,816) $ 7,984 $13,200 $5,400 5,800 2,500 (13,700) $ 500 $ 8,400 48,000 $56,400 6,600 $49,800 Chapter 5 Job Order Costing 138 Reality Check 56 57 a It is likely that the least popular thoughts and opinions would not be heard on campus. Students would naturally support those ideas and positions that were consistent with their own ethics, philosophies, and self interests. As a consequence, the overall diversity of ideas would probably decline b Assuming diversity of opinions ultimately benefits all students, the University of Wisconsin is possibly supporting diversity with the only means available—student dollars. However, this approach may not be ethical because it forces students to support opinions, beliefs, and ideas that may violate their personal ethics. Although the Supreme Court of the United States will ultimately determine whether this is a legal practice, each individual student can reach his/her own conclusion as to whether the practice is ethical a Absent an understanding of a free market economy, it would be very difficult for workers to understand how customers drive markets, and, thus, why quality is such an important organizational dimension. The objective of operating the plant at a profit is simply not understood. At best, a company could make employees understand why it is important to produce products that are not defective. This would be more of an internal view of quality than the external view that would be typical of a worldclass organization b Because the Chongqing plant operates in a culture that is unique compared to other Ford plants, it is tempting to argue that a different ethical standard could be used. However, in the long term, there must be an ethical standard that is constant across all plants, regardless of location. Customers, employees, and other stakeholders expect to be treated consistently irrespective of which plant with which they interact. However, it is clear that there is going to be a transition period from the current ethical culture to the desired one. Although this is an extreme example, a similar transition is required any time a company buys another firm or a division or plant from another firm. The culture of the acquired unit is established and cannot be dramatically changed in the short term. Chapter 5 Job Order Costing 58 59 139 a Appropriate training given to employees can help eliminate middle tiers of management because workers become empowered to oversee their own functions and hence have a reduced need for supervision. This makes workers more accountable for the quantity and quality of their output and for their contributions to the organization; the oversight role of middle managers is eliminated. Empowering employees can have positive impacts on quality and costs because the workers who know the most about their job tasks have the authority to make changes that will yield cost reductions and quality improvements. Training is also critical so that workers can use new technology. Higher technology relies on fewer workers to produce goods and services and, therefore, fewer managers are needed to oversee the workers. b The hostile relationship between managers and workers that has characterized the history of many of America’s industrial firms constrains the extent to which the two groups can cooperate to make their organizations more competitive. The history of hostility makes workers reluctant to share their knowledge about the organization with managers for fear that knowledge will be exploited. For example, workers fear that if they find ways to increase output, managers will simply raise the standard or expectation for output and the workers will receive no benefit for identifying ways to improve operations. Another fear is that if the workers find ways to become more efficient, fewer workers will be needed and layoffs will occur. It is this absence of trust between managers and workers that places some American firms at a disadvantage to companies (whether domestic or foreign) operating in an atmosphere of cooperation a The company is utilizing the benefits of automation to reduce the costs of handling so many parts. By standardizing processes, the company can assemble a messenger bag with a diverse set of parts in an amount of time that is similar to that required for massproduced ones. Accordingly, although the company is probably paying, on average, more for parts on custom messenger bags than massproduced ones, it is holding the line on direct labor and production overhead. By holding costs down for labor and overhead, the total cost of the custom produced messenger bags is not significantly higher than that of the mass produced messenger bags Chapter 5 Job Order Costing 60 140 b Quality as viewed from the perspective of the consumer should be much higher with the custommade messenger bags because customers are able to specify the various parts they want included. By getting the exact combination of parts the customers desire, they will perceive the quality of the product to be very high relative to the premium in price they pay over the massproduced messenger bags c The answer is mostly revealed in part (b). By holding costs down to levels close to those of massproduced messenger bags, but allowing the customer to choose the combination of parts they desire, a very substantial gross profit can be achieved. The higher gross profit reflects the customers' willingness to pay a premium for the exact combination of parts desired, even though the company's costs are not significantly greater than those incurred to mass produce messenger bags a Profit on the fixedprice contracts is constrained by the contract price. Profit can only be increased if ways are found to reduce costs. One way that costs can be reduced is to shift them to other contracts. This is a particularly effective strategy if the costs that are shifted to another contract can be recouped under the terms of that other contract. By shifting some costs of the fixedprice contracts to the costplus contracts, the profit on the fixedprice contracts rises and the shifted costs can be recovered under the terms of the costplus contracts. Further, this strategy may have the effect of increasing costs under the costplus contracts if those contracts determine profit as a percentage of total costs b This type of cost shifting is dishonest and unethical. It has the effect of increasing the total prices of cost plus contracts, and, if those contracts are government related, those prices are typically borne by taxpayers. In a sense it is a way for the stockholders and managers of the defense contractors to steal from the taxpayers. It is difficult to imagine a setting in which this process could be labeled ethical Chapter 5 Job Order Costing 141 ... managers can examine important data such as job profitability, job pricing, cost control on a job by job basis, job production schedules, and actual versus budgeted job costs 108 Chapter 5 Job Order Costing Exercises 23 a b c d e f g h i j job order. .. Job Order Costing Exercises 23 a b c d e f g h i j job order process job order job order job order process job order process job order job order 24 a Raw Materials Inventory Accounts Payable 87,000... would be suitable for the use of process costing high volume, homogeneous output. The small Mexican shops might use either process costing or job order costing. Job order costing would be appropriate if each shop produced customized frozen meals