Discourse analysis for language teachers Mccarthy

Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers MICHAEL McCAR T H Y a Cambridge Language Teaching Library Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers CAMBRIDGE LANGUAGE TEACHING LIBRARY A series covering central issues in language teaching and learning, by authors who have expert knowledge in their field In this series: Meet ia Language Lcatning edited by Jane Arnold Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching by Jack C Richards a d Theodore S Rodgen Appropriate Methodology and Social Context b.y Ad* Holliday Beyond Training by Jack C Richards C d a h a i v e Action Research For English Language Teachers by Anne B u m Collaborative Language Learning and Teaching edited by D a d Nunan Communicative Language Teaching by William Liftlewood Designing Tasks for the Communiative Classroom b y David Nunan Developing Reading Skills by Franpise Grellet Developments in English for SpecificPurposes by Tony Dudley-Evans and Maggie l o St John Discourse Analysis for Lauguage Teachers by Michael McCarthy Discourse and Language Education by Evelyn Hatch English for Academic Purposes by R R Jordan Englrsh for Specific Purposes by Tom Hutchinson and Alan Waters Establishing Self-Access: From Theory to Ptactice by David Gardner and Lindsay Miller Foreign and Second Language Learning by William L i t t h o o d Language Learning in Intercultural Perspective edited by Michael Byram and Michael F h i n g T h e Language Teaching Matrix by Jack C Richards Liwigulge Test Construction and Evaluation by J Charles Alderson, Caroline Clapham a d Dianne Wall Learnerantredness as Language Education by Ian Tudor Managing Curricular Innovation by Numa Markee Materials Development in Language Teaching edited by Brian Tomlinson Psychology for Langauage Teachers by Marion Williams and Robert L Burden Research Methdds in Language Learning by David Nunan Second Language Teacher Education edited by Jack C Richards and David Nunan Society and the Language Classroom edited b y Hywel Coleman Teacher Learning in Language Teaching edited by Donald Freeman and Jack C Richards Teaching the Spoken Language by Gillirrn Brown and George Ylsle Understanding Research in Second Language Learning by James Dean Brown Vocabulary: Description, Acquisition and Pedagogy edited by Norbert Schmitt and Michael McCartby Vocabulary, Semantics, and Language Education b y Evelyn Hatch and Cheryl Broum Voices from the Language Classroom edited by Kathleen M Bailey a d David Nunun Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers Michael McCarthy CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE The Pia Building, Tmpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS The Edinburgh Buildmg, Cambridge C82 2RU, UK 40 West 20th Straet, New Yorlq NY 10011-4211, USA 10 Seatfwd Road, Oakteigh, VIC 3166, Australia Ruiz de Alardn 13,28014 W d , Spain Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa 43 Cambridge University Press 1991 This book is in copyright Subjezt to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant colleaivc licensing agrccmenta, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published 1991 Tenth printing 2000 A wialogue record for this book is avaikrble fim the British L i ' m y Library of Congress caialogrcc curd w b + w90-20850 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University h, Cambridge ISBN 521 36541 hard covers ISBN 521 36746 paperback Dedication To John Harrington Acknowledgements Preface Chapter What is discourse analysis? 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 A brief historical overview Form and function Speech acts and discourse structures The scope of discourse analysis Spoken discourse: models of analysis Conversations outside the classroom Talk as a social activity Written discourse Text and interpretation Larger patterns in text Conclusion Chapter Dlscwrse analyslr and grammar 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Grammatical cohesion and textuality 2.2.1 Reference 2.2.2 Ellipsis and substitution 2.2.3 Conjunction 2.3 Theme and rheme 2.4 Tense and aspect 2.5 Conclusion Chapter Discounce analysis and vocabulary 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Lexical cohesion 3.3 Lexis in talk Contents 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 Textual aspeas of lexical competence Vocabulary and the organising of text Signalling l a m textual patterns Register and signalling vocabulary Modality Conclusion Chapfer Dlircoum analyrir, and phonology 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 Introduction Pronunciation Rhythm Word stress and prominence The placing of prominence Intonational units Tones and their meanings 4.7.1 Types of tones 4.7.2 Grammatical approaches 4.7.3 Attitudinal approaches 4.7.4 Interactive approaches Key Pitch across speakers Summary Conclusion Chapter Spoken lanwaw 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 Introduction Adjacency pairs Exchanges Turnding Transactions and topics 5.5.1 Transactions 5.5.2 Topics Interactional and transactional talk Stories, anecdotes, jokes Other spoken discourse types Speech and grammar Conclusion Chapter W t m n Ianguage 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 Introduction Text types Spetch and writing Units in written discourse Clause relations Getting to grips with laqger w Patterns and the learner Culture and rhetoric Discourse and the reader Conclusion Guldance for Reader activities References Index s Acknowledgements Thanks are due to Jim Lawley, of Avila, Spain, for permission t o use conversational data reproduced in Chapter 5, to Roger Smith, Gill Meldrum and Hilary Boo1 of CELE, University of Nottingham, for assistance with the gathering of written data, and to the late Michael Griffiths, Senior Prison Officer at HM Prison, Cardiff, for permission to use an interview with him, part of which is transcribed in Chapter The author and publishers are grateful to the authors, publishers and others who have given permission for the use of copyright material It has not been possible to trace the sources of all the material used and in such cases the publishers would welcome information from copyright owners Edward Arnold for the extract from M A K Halliday (1985) An Introduction to Functional Grammar on pp 47, 58; The Birmingham Post for the article on p 27; British Nuclear Forum for the advertisement on p 49; CambridgelNewmarket Town Crier for the article on p 170; Cambridge University Press for the extract from Brown and Yule (1983) Discourse Analysis on pp 1024, Cambridge Weekly News for the article on pp 75, 85, 159; Collins ELT for the extracts from the Collins COBUlLD English Language Dictionary on p 84; the Consumers' Association for the extracts from Which? on pp 25,26,37, 86, 160; Elida Gibbs for the advertisement on p 56; A Firth for the extract on p 50; Ford Motor Company for the advertisement on p 32; Headway Publications for the article from Moneycare on p 158; Hunting Specialised Products (UK) Ltd for the advertisement on p 72; Imperial Chemical Industries plc and Cogents for the advertisement for Lawnsman Mosskiller on p 83; International Certificate Conference and Padagogische Arbeitsstelle des DVV for the extracts on pp 124, 125, 126, 140-1, 150-1; D Johnson for the article from The Guardian on p 41; Longman Group UK Ltd for the extract from D Crystal and D Davy (1975) Advanced Conversational English on p 69; New Statesman & Society for the extracts from New Society on pp 77, 80, 81 and 82; Newsweek International for the extracts from Newsweek on pp 37, 41-2; The Observer for the extracts on pp 28, 30,40,57, 77,79; Oxford University Press for the extract from J McH Sinclair and R M Coulthard (1975) Towards an Analysis of Discourse on p 13; J Svartvik for the extract from Svartvik and Quirk (1980) A Corpus o f English Conversation on pp 70-1; the University of Birmingham on behalf of thecopyright holders for the extracts from the Birmingham Collection of English Text on pp 10, 17; World Press Network for the extracts from New Scientist on pp 37,57 References Holmes, J 1983 Spcalung English with the appropriate degree of conviction In C B ~ m f i o(Ed.) 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enhancement, 47 of extension, 47 Connor, U., 171 context, 10,43,64, 149 conversation, 19-25,145 analysis, 6,33, 146 conversational maxims,2 , s conversational norms, Cook, C., 33 Cook, V J., 117 coordination, grammar bf, 45 co-rderena, 46,65 Corsdn, D., 84 co-text, 64 Coulmas, F., 145 Coulthard, R M., 6,12-19,22,24,33, 117, 122,128 Coupcr-Kuhlen, E., 91 Couture, B., 171 Craig, R T., 145 Crcider, C A., 59 crosssultural &dies, 1644,171 Crow, B K., 145 Cruse, D A., 87 Crumnden, A., 94,101,106, -109, 117 Crystal, D., 69,145 cultural concurt, 40 cuhure and rhetoric ,164-8 Currie, K L., 97, 113 Cutler, A., 117 Dal Martello, M F., 146 Dan&, F., 63 Danish, 109 Dauer, R M., 92 Davy, D., 69 De Beaugrande, R., 6,27,28,33 ddinite article, 35,40,42 deictic words, 149,150 demonstratives, 35,42,74 directions, giving someone, 142-3, 146 disagreement patterns, 71,121 discourse analysis American, 6,33 Birmingham model of, 6, 12-19,22,33, 122 British, 6,33 historical overview of, 5-7 scope of, 12 discouficorganising words, 4 dominant speaker, 24,111,128 Donaldson, S K., 146 Dressier, W., 27,28,33 Duncan, S., 146 Duranti, A,, 59 Dutch, 63,114 echoing, 43-4 Edmondson, W., 145 Edwards, D., 139 Ehrich, V., 63 Eiler, M.A, 63 Eiscnstein, M., 145 Eisterhold, J C., 171 elicitation, 20,23 elision, 89 ellipsis, 25,35,43-6,62,63, 143,166 Ellis, J., 73, 87 Ellis, R., 68,71 Ernest, P., 157 Eskey, D E., 168 Esling, J H., 117 ethnomethodology, 6,24,70,127,145 evaluation, 61,138,140 exchange, 15-18,21,22,25,46,122-6 exophoric reference, see reference F b r , D., 92,93 face, preservation of, 6,24 feedback, 15 feet, 91, 117 field of discourse, 87, 152 Finnish, 129 Firbas, J., 52 first pair-part, 120, 122 Firth, A., 49 focus of attention, 38-9,54 foregrounding, 54,59,100 see also topic, foregrounding of foreign accent, 89 form and function, 7-10,18,21,106,120 formulaic utterances, 122,145 Fox, A., 114 Fox, B., 66 framing mechanism, 20 framing words, Francis, G., 33,63,76,78 Freeborn, D., 171 French, 6.3,78,92,109,152 Fries, C C., 106 Fries, P H., 63,87 fronting devices, 51,53 front-placing, 47,52,54,63,169 Fuller, J W., 63 function(s),9-11, 18,33 Cairns, R., 64 Gardner, R., 145,146 Gcluykens, R., 117 generakptcific, see patterns in text genre, conventions of, 62 German, 36,114,145,150,156,165,171 Ghadessy, M., 161 Gibbs, R W., 145,150 given and new, 63,-101 Givhn, T., 63 Coffman, E., 6,70 grammar and discourse, 6,25,34-63 Greaves, W S., 87 Greek, 92 Greenall, S., 77,168 Greenwood, J., 92 Grellet, F., 63 Gricc, H P., 2,s Gumpen, J J., Gundcl, J K., 63 Guy, C., 117 Halliday, M.A K., 6,25,32,33,35,36, 47-8,52,58,63,65,66,67,69,85,87, 99,100,104,152,171 Hamp-Lyons, E., 168 Hams, Z., Hasan, R., 6,2.5,33,36,63,65,66,67,69, 73,87 Heaslcy, B., 168 Hebrew, 164 Hermerkn, L., 85 Hewings, M., 33,117 Hcyrnan, R D., 145 Hilsdon, J,, 49 Hindi, 171 Hinds, J., 43,59,71,87, 146, 152, 164 Hine, R R., 146 Hoey, M P., 29,30,33,78,87,155,158, 171 Hofrnann, T R., 171 Holmes, J., 85 Honikman, B., 90 Hopper, P J., 63 House, J., 171 Houtkoop, H., 146 Hunston, S., 33 Hymes, D., , hyponymy, 65,68,71,87 hypothetical-real, see patterns in text ideational meaning, 58 idioms, 83 illocutionary acts, 29 Indian English, 90,164 information structure, 47,99 instantial rchaons, 72-3,87 interactional talk, 136-7,145 interpersonal meaning, 58,85 interruptions, 129 interviews, 1244, 128, 136 intonation, 88, 89 and attitude, 107-9 and grammar, 106,117 and interactive approaches, 109-H, 114 invitations, 120-1 isolate pronunciation, 94 it as refrrenct item, 26,35-9.46 Italian, 59,92,162,163,165 Japanese, 36,43,59,71,123,129,145,146, 152,164,165,167,171 Jdferwn, C., 6,134,145 Jenltins, S., 152 jigsaw activity, 1534 Johns A M., 154 JohwLewis, C., 114,117 jokes, 13742,145 Jones,L,10 Jones, L B., 58 Jones, L K., 58 Jordan, M P., 63,65, 77,78,80 LSP (Languages for Spscific Purposes), 137 Lynch, T., 146 Mandarin, 171 markers, 2&7,49,54,130,135,145,169 Kachru, Y., 164 K;rplan, R B., 164,165,171 Karwonhy, J., 113 key, 111-13,115 high, 112,113,131 hw, 112,131 mid, 112 Kies, D., 63 k g , P., 87 Knowle, G., 98 Korean, 171 Koster, C., 63 Kozloff, M., 142 LPbov, W., 6,5461, 137-9 Lndd, D R., 117 'language in action', 149 Leech, G., I&-displacement, 54,59 lemn (asdiscourse typc), 152,161 Levinson, S., 6,24,33,145 lexical bar, M lexical relatioar, 65-8+71, ?&, 87 lexicalisatibn, 7 ' lcxix in talk, 68-71 Linde, C, 38,39,54,63 Lindebcrg, A-C, 87 Lindstrom, O., 117 listarer(s),35, 13941 listening, 36,146 activities, 135,142 Lo,W.A., 165 Locasao, V., 145 LMgauc, R., 171 - Maynard, D W., 134,145 Mazeland, H., 146 Mazzie, C., 171 McCagg, P., 171 McCarthy, M J., 33,87 McGngor, G., 145 Melrose, R., 145 MeIrost, S F., 145 Mmn, L., 101 mental lexicon, 72 Michaels, S., 171 Middleton, I).,139 modal verbs, 84-5 modality, W , epistcmic, 85 h t , 85 mode of discourse!, 152 Mohan, B., 165 Monaghan, J., 63 Montgomery, M., 33 Monville-Burston, M., 63 Moon, R., 83 Mosenthal, J H., 171 moves, 15; 22,25 answering, 16 follow-up, 16-17,20,22,33,122-3,125 framing, 13-14,22 initiating, 1-6,U), 22, 122, 126 opening, 16 responding, 16,20,122,126 ~ u e l l e r R , A., 145 Murphy, G.,.I 87 narrauve, 5,6,61,137-42,146,157,169 natural conversarim, 125 naaual data, 49,59,127,144 natural discoune, 21,54,67,94,118,127 a a d archngc pmm, 126 natural speech, 46 natural talk, 143,145 Ncubawr, F., 26,33 Nicdercht, C., 146 Noguchi, R R., 129 Nystrand, M., 171 object (of clause), 51 Ochs, E., 59 Odlin, T., 145 Olesky, W., 145 open-ended sets,,74 Oriental tcxt, rhetoric of, 164, 165 orientation (of audience), 56,61,138, 167 paragraph, 58,66,171 see also rherne, theme paratone, 102,112 Parker, R., 145 patterns in text, 28,30-2,78-83,15744 claim?rounrerclaim, 75,7942, 157, 159, 161 general-specific, 158-9,165 hypothetical-real, 80,157 problun-solution, 3&2,74-6,78-82, 157,15944,168,169 quescion-answcr, 1574,171 Peatson, E., 71,121 Pearson, M., 117 Pennington, M C., 90 performance, 50 phonemes, 88-90 phonology and discourse, 88-117 Pike, K L., 117 pitch, 20,129 concord, 113 level, 8,101,102,105,111-12,113,127 range, 101,102,109,133 Polanyi, L., 145 Polish, 145 polite(neat),6, 15,2O, 24, 145 Pomerana, A., 71 Power, R J., 146 pragmatics, 2,5-6 Prague School, 6,S2 prediction, ?7,127,142,169 problab.solution see patterns in text ptocedural approach, see written discourse process approach to writing, 156,168 prodaiming function, 109 prominence, W-9,101,117 nuclear, 99 pronominalisation, 25,63,166 pronouns, 34,35,36,42,65,74,87 pronunciation, 88-90 prosodic kturcs, 90 Psathas, G., 142,145,146 question-answer, see pattvns in text questions, 7-8, 15, 18,21,1M, 125 Quirk, R., 37,43 reader, 35,36,42 discoutse a d the, 168-9 reading, 26-7,58,77,171 reciprocity, 136,145, 171Rcddick, R J., 33 Redcker, G., 171 Redman, S., 64,68,713 reentering of noun phrases, 66,87 Rccs, A B., 114 reference, 34,35-42,46,166 anaphoric, 34,35,42,43, 166,167 cataphoric, 36,41-2,43 exophoric, 35,39-41,43,149-50 register, 32,56, 82-4,85,87, 154 Reichrnan-Adar, R., 63 reiteration, 654.69 relexicalisation, 6P-71 repetition, 26,65-8,71,166,167 mo1ution (of story), 61, 138 theme, 34,47,51-9,63,100,165 of paragraph, 58 rhetoric, 56,1644,171 rhythm, 904,117 rhythmicality, 89,91-3 Ricento, T., 63 Richards, J., 87,90, 146 Riddle, E., 63 Riley, R., 33 Rivero, M-L., 63 Rob-, J., 108 Robinson, P., 78 role play, 121,128 Romance texts, rhaoric of, 164 Rumelha% D E., 171 Russian, 63,164 Ryaoft, R., 157 Sacks, H., 6,120,127,145,146 S d a , R., 44,121,171 Sc&, D., 101,104 Sdugloff, E A., 6,120,146 schema theory, 168-9,171 schemata, content and formal, 169,171 Schenkein, J., 33, 145 Schiffrin, D.,61,63, 145 Schmidt, R W., 87 Schopf, A,, 63 Schubiger, M., 117 scientific text, 60 Scollon, R., 94 Scuffil, M., 114 Searle, J R., 5,9 second pair-part, 120, 122 segmental features, 90 segments, 28-9,36,38,46,60,66,74,75, 83,112,155,162,171 semiotics, Semitic, 164 sentence, 152 shared knowledge, 3941,149 Shih, M., 171 signals, W,31,46,49-50,75,824,87,157, 1634; 166,169 Signorini, A., 92 silences, 129,134 simplification, 67 Sindair, J McH., 6, 12-19,22,24,33, 122, 128 SIater, S., 136 Slavic, 62, 63 Smith, E L,171 Spanish, 36,63,68,78,92,123 spatial orientation, 54 speech act(s) and discourse, 9-11,12,18,tt, 29 theory, SPA and grammar, 143-4, I45 and writing, 14%52,171 spoken discourse, models of analysis of, 12-25 Stalker, J C., 171 Stalker, J W., 171 Stark, H., 171 Starkey, D., 146 starter, 20 St&, E L,134,145 Stdfensen, M., 168,171 Stenstriim, A-B., 117 stories, 136,13742, 145 strcss, 108,117 primary, 95 secondary, 95 word, 94-6,97,94 stress-timing, 91-2,117 Stubbs, M., 33,68, 87 style, 56 subject, 51,52 substitution, 35,45-6,63, 166 sub-topic, 49,54,69-70, 101,115,133, 134 superordinate, 66,67,87 Swan, M., 60,95,138,168 Swedish, 78, 123 syllable-timing, 92 synonymy, 65-8,69,71,87 Tagalog, 59 tags, 106 Tannen, D., 33,149 task-bad learning, 131,150 Taylor, D S., 94 Taylor, T J., 145 telephone calls, 146 tempo, 94 tenor of discourse, 85, 152 tense, 5942,63,153 historic present, 61 past simple, 59-62 present perfect, 5940,62 termination, 113 text grammar, turt types, 147-9 textual meaning, 58 textuality, 35,46,65,87 Thai, 92 thanking, 15,16,18,1U), 145 that, 11,35-9,63,74,142 Thavenius, C., 37 them, 34,47,51-9,63,87,100,165 of paragraph, 58 his, 11,35-9,74, 142 Thomas, A L., 43 Thompson, I., 108 Tierney, R J., 171 Index ton&) approaches to, 10611 contour, 8,105, 107,109 fall-rise, 105,110-11,114 fill(ing), 13,105-11,114 group, 99-101, 109, 117 level, 105, 108-9 rise-fall, 105, 107, 111 risc(ing), 105-6, 1Oel types of, 105-6 unit, 99 tonic, 99-101, 1W Toolan, M J., 146 topic, 24,38,6%70,87, 131-6, 145 foregrounding of, 66 framework, 5 key and, 112-13 natural development of, 70 paratone and, 102 pitch and, 101, 113,115 sentences, 58,63 'topping-and-tailing' activities, 131 Tottie, G., 171 Tracy, K., 145 transaction, 13-14,22,24,130-1 transactional talk, 136-7, 145 transcription, 102,104,115 Trosborg, A,, 121 turn, 69,70,113 rum-taking, 6,24,101,104,117,127-9, 146 Van Dijk, T A., 6,33 'vocabulary 3', 76 vocabulary and discourse, 6+87 Graeco-Latin, 82,M materials, 68 and the organising of text, 7444,1634, 166 procedural, 78 schematic, 78 voice-setting features, 90,117 vowels full, 92 reduced, 92,93 Walter, C., 60,95 Wardaugh, R., 70 Waugh, L R., 63 well, 11 wb- clauses, 143-4 wh- questions, 106,111 Widdowson, H C., 33,78 Wienbidta, A,, 171 Willems, N., 114 Winter, E O., W,33,47,76, 155, 171 Wisniewski, E J., 87 Wong, R., 117 word(s) content, 74 empty, 74 full, 74 €unction, , general, 66 grammar, 74,97 lexical, 74,85,97 word order, 52,63 writing, 26,87 written discourse, 25-32 procedural approach, 27,33 units in, 152-4 Yngve, V H., 127 Yule, G., 33,41, 87,97, 101, 117 Zambian English, 49 Zmel, V., 171 Zydatiss, W., 59-60 Discc,.me Analysis for Language Teacbrs Diwmrse And3sjs jor hngunge Te~r'hi?r$ is a practjc~l introdurtion to discourse analysis and ifa reWdrrce for Ianguage teaching, The book begins with fhe q t i o n : What is discourw analysis.: Diflment plackls of analysis are outlind and waluated in terms of their ~lvefulnessto language teachers ThiY is folhwed by chapters d d n g with new w q s of hkiing at grammar, mateulary and phmal~gyin the light td &swum?malyds The fmal sation of t k h k Concentrates on spoken d written language w i h exampla from native-speaker and learner data, It aI%oconsi&rs some teaching approaches based on tbe insights ofdiscoars# analysis TL -, Wxorlrs;e Aiml#ris for Ltltgua$t Tmrh~ncontains I r~a&ractivities with guidame on appropdate rspcqses m further Ireading wggmtions for each chapter CAMBRIDGI UNIVERSITY PRES: ... English for SpecificPurposes by Tony Dudley-Evans and Maggie l o St John Discourse Analysis for Lauguage Teachers by Michael McCarthy Discourse and Language Education by Evelyn Hatch English for. .. Semantics, and Language Education b y Evelyn Hatch and Cheryl Broum Voices from the Language Classroom edited by Kathleen M Bailey a d David Nunun Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers Michael McCarthy. . .Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers CAMBRIDGE LANGUAGE TEACHING LIBRARY A series covering central issues in language teaching and learning, by authors