term anatomy stems from the Greek word, ‘anatemnein’ which means to dissect, to cut apart. The important anatomist Hyrtl spoke consistently also of the art of dissection. The original meaning is true even today; although the term has gained a wider meaning. Modern anatomy is not limited to mere description but emphasizes the interrelations between form and function as well as the application of anatomical knowledge in the clinic. Then as today the student gains most of his knowledge by dissection of the animal body in the laboratory, where he lays bare the ‘naked truth’ (Nudas veritas). This practice also serves to obtain a necessary fingerdexterity, which in later professional life, in the first place in surgery, is of immeasurable value. Beyond that there are hardly any limits to investigation by enthusiastic dissection. Even the very best anatomical collection of outstanding demonstrationdissections cannot replace practical work in the laboratory, but can however indeed make it easier and more efficient. The thorough study of anatomical preparations is indispensable like the industrious use of textbooks and atlases. All of these aids are more important today than ever since there is much less time available for practical work in the laboratory than formerly. Shortening the teaching time allotted to anatomy in favor of newer disciplines was unavoidable. Anatomical study is, unlike any other basic discipline, important in learning the language of medicine, the terminology. Many terms for diseases and methods of treatment have their origin in anatomical terms. Centurieslong research and description brought an unforeseen abundance of synonyms. The function of the international nomenclature commission has been to thin out the jungle of terms and to publish a recognized list of official terms with useful synonyms. In its entirety, anatomy is subdivided into macroscopic (gross) anatomy, microscopic anatomy and developmental anatomy. However, the areas of anatomy flow together without boundary, forming a unit, an understanding constantly and forcefully advocated by the important Berlin veterinary anatomist and, at an earlier time, the professorial chair of our department, Professor Preuss. The oldest and most encompassing area is macroscopic anatomy, often placed equal to the term anatomy. Where the accessories to observation in macroscopic anatomy, the bare eye and the dissection hand lens no longer reach, it passes over into the area of microscopic anatomy (histology and cytology), to which the microscope serves as accessory. The boundary between macroscopic and microscopic anatomy is also called mesoscopy, which is gaining more and more in significance. The latter area deals with the same material and pursues the same goals; it is only the technique that is different. The third area, embryology, is concerned with ontogenesis (development of the individual) before and after birth and, in addition to embryological methods, applies also macroscopic, microscopic and mesoscopic methods. Like the remaining disciplines, macroscopic anatomy can be presented from different points of view with emphasis on special areas of greater difficulty. In so doing, the basic facts remain of course unchanged. Systematic, descriptive anatomy describes the animal body with all its parts as systems of structure and organsystems, strictly divided from one another and therefore without attention to their natural interdependence. Expansive descriptions treat many particulars and allow sometimes the view to the important to be missed; nevertheless they are a necessary prerequisite to the remaining, subsequent kinds of observations to which the descriptive anatomy has led. Systematic anatomy can be subdivided further into general and special anatomy. General anatomy treats of facts that are generally valid for the entire system of structure or the organsystem. Special anatomy provides special data for these structure and organsystems that hold for individual structures, as for one bone. Comparative anatomy emphasizes anatomical correlations, similarities and variations between the individual animal species and human beings. Comparisons of anatomy between the individual species are very often informative and helpful for homology and determining the function of anatomical structure. Already Goethe utilized principles of comparative anatomy to good advantage with the discovery of the incisive bone of human beings. This bone occurs regularly in our domestic animals and only occasionally in human beings. With his study of the human skull he encountered a specimen with a developed incisive bone. It was by comparison with the animal skull that he was able to identify the bone and establish its homology. Topographical anatomy emphasizes the varying positionrelationship of anatomical structures and underlines the areas of application for clinical medicine. The relationship of anatomical structures is analyzed step by step and in doing so the whole structural plan of the body is regarded. Applied anatomy is directed clinically and emphasizes the relationship of anatomical structures from which treatments or diseases of animals can be determined or explained. In that way not only interdisciplinary cooperation and interest for the veterinary profession are promoted but also the learning of anatomy is made easier. The anatomy of the living dog is undoubtedly a significant part of the whole of anatomy. It presents the body in its natural condition. In that way a significant completion and an adjustment for unavoidable disadvantage becomes imperative in the remaining subjects of the whole of anatomy, which must tolerate postmortem changes such as variations in color, consistency and character as well as artificial changes resulting from fixation. Anatomy of the living dog cannot be given attention here for several reasons. It is adaped even less for rendering in a book, but can be offered to the students better and more successfully in an exercise under the instruction of a clinically experienced anatomist. Radiographic anatomy and sonography are directly connected to the clinic. In the teaching of anatomy, the first experiences are obtained in analysis of radiographs of the normal animal body. This experience will be utilized and considerably supplemented in the total associated area of study. Presentations of abnormal or even pathological changes should awaken the interest and accordingly add ‘spice’ to the teaching of anatomy. The atlas of anatomy presented here is adapted in special measure to significantly combine and coordinate the different methods of presenting anatomy and the manner of viewing it. The textual part can be presented in a very compressed form since the different anatomical circumstances can be ‘read off’ from time to time from the adjacent colorplate. Beyond that, a good topographical colorplate presents an ideal introduction for topographical dissection, which is then completed only by brief remarks. Also the requisites of comparative veterinary anatomy are taken into account in this atlas insofar as the simply structured (from many points of view) canine body is set out as the ‘cornerstone.’ Building upon this knowledge, the more complicated (from many points of view) anatomy of the remaining domestic animals can be comprehended from the aspect of comparative anatomy. Art and anatomy with their mutual interrelations are forcefully impressed on us with each visit to a museum. The artist is inspired by the corporeal beauty, and teachers and students of anatomy enjoy and profit from the talent and painstaking detail in the artistic presentation. Gifted with genius were realized the claims of Leonardo da Vinci, whose abundant anatomical drawings came about after basic studies of anatomy. Aristotle published among other things an anatomical description of senile sexual reversal in the bird as well of the horse hoof in regard to founder. What fascination of anatomy passes over to art, Rembrandt immortalized in his work ‘The anatomy lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp.’ The greats of world history gifted with genius like Aristotle, Leonardo da Vinci and Goethe show proof of their enthusiasm for anatomy with anatomical illustrations, descriptions and research results. To Goethe’s credit was the promotion of educational art and the introduction of plastic wax models in Germany, to which he, himself, was inspired during his journey to Italy, especially in Florence. The good qualities of wax models, which is true to an equal measure for well done truetonature illustrations, Goethe expressed in his novel ‘Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre’ with the following excellent formulation: ‘If you concede that most physicians and surgeons retain in their minds only a general impression of the dissected human body and believe that to satisfy the purpose; so such models will certainly suffice, which refresh in his mind again little by little pictures that are fading and actively retain for him just the necessary.’ His investigative mind held Goethe...
Trang 19 783899 9301 84
Wolfgang Fricke · Renate Richter
Anatomy of the Dog
with Aaron Horowitz and Rolf Berg
The present volume of Anatomy of the Dog is based on the 8th
edition of the highly successful German text-atlas of canine
anatomy.
– Fully illustrated with color line diagrams, including unique
three-dimensional cross-sectional anatomy, together with
radiographs and ultrasound scans
– Includes topographic and surface anatomy
– Tabular appendices of relational and functional anatomy
“A region with which I was very familiar from a surgical standpoint
thus became more comprehensible […] Showing the clinical
rele-vance of anatomy in such a way is a powerful tool for stimulating
students’ interest […] In addition to putting anatomical structures
into clinical perspective, the text provides a brief but effective
guide to dissection.”
The Veterinary Record
“The present book-atlas offers the students clear illustrative
mate-rial and at the same time an abbreviated textbook for anatomical
study and for clinical coordinated study of applied anatomy.
Therefore, it provides students with an excellent working
know-ledge and understanding of the anatomy of the dog Beyond this
the illustrated text will help in reviewing and in the preparation
for examinations For the practising veterinarians, the book-atlas
remains a current quick source of reference for anatomical
infor-mation on the dog at the preclinical, diagnostic, clinical and
Trang 2Anatomy of the Dog Fifth, revised Edition
Professor Klaus-Dieter Budras
Institute of Veterinary Anatomy
Free University of Berlin
Professor em Patrick H McCarthy
Dept of Veterinary Anatomy, University of Sydney
Professor Aaron Horowitz
Professor Rolf Berg
Dept of Structure and Function
School of Veterinary Medicine
Ross University, St Kitts, West Indies
Science Illustrator
Wolfgang Fricke
Renate Richter
Co worker
Dr Anita Wünsche and Dr Sven Reese
Contributions to Clinical and Functional Anatomy by
Dr Sven Reese, Dr Klaus Gerlach and Professor Klaus-Dieter Budras
Introduction to Radiographic Technique and Ultrasound Diagnosis
Professor Cordula Poulsen Nautrup
Introduction to Computed Tomography
Dr Claudia Nöller
Trang 3Co-workers on the Atlas of the Anatomy of the Dog
Fourth and Fifth Edition
Prof Dr Hermann Bragulla, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, USA
Dr Klaus Gerlach PhD, Tierärztliche Praxis, Berlin
TA Claudia Herrmann, Institut für Veterinär-Anatomie, Freie Universität Berlin
Dr Ruth Hirschberg, Institut für Veterinär-Anatomie, Freie Universität Berlin
Prof Dr Dr h.c Horst E König, Institut für Anatomie, Veterinärmedizinische Universität Wien
Prof Dr Dr h c Hans-Georg Liebich, Institut für Tieranatomie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München
Dr Claudia Nöller, Institut für Veterinär-Anatomie, Freie Universität Berlin
Prof Cordula Poulsen Nautrup, Institut für Tieranatomie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München
Dr Sven Reese PhD, Institut für Tieranatomie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München
Dr Anita Wünsche, Institut für Veterinär-Anatomie, Freie Universität Berlin
Prof Dr Paul Simoens, Faculteit Diergeneskunde, Gent, Belgium
Editorial contribution:
Dr Silke Buda, Institut für Veterinär-Anatomie, Freie Universität Berlin
Index:
Thilo Voges, Institut für Veterinär-Anatomie, Freie Universität Berlin
An index of earlier co-workers and of the sources for illustrations, radiographs, and photographs can be
obtained from the previous edition
© 2007, Schlütersche Verlagsgesellschaft mbH & Co KG, Hans-Böckler-Allee 7, 30173 Hannover
Printed in Germany
ISBN 978-3-89993-018-4
A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from Deutsche Nationalbibliothek, Frankfurt — Germany
All rights reserved The contents of this book both photographic and textual, may not be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, phototransparency, microfilm, video, video disc, microfiche, or any other means, nor may it be included in any computer retrieval system, without written permission from the publisher
Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims
Trang 4Table of Contents
References vi
Introduction to Anatomy 1
Topographical Anatomy: Chapter 1: Surface of the Body and Axial Skeleton 1 Division of the animal body 2
2 Skin (common integument) 4
3 Cutaneous glands, modifications of the skin, digital end-organs 6
4 Vertebral column and thorax 8
5 Articulations of the vertebral column and of the thorax; atlanto-occipital joint and atlanto-axial joints (A WÜNSCHE and K.-D BUDRAS) 10
Chapter 2: Neck and Chest Region (Cervical and Thoracic Region) 1 Cutaneous muscles and cutaneous nerves of the neck and thoracic wall 12
2 Dorsal extrinsic limb muscles 12
3 Ventral extrinsic limb muscles 14
4 Nerves, vessels, and visceral organs of the neck 14
Chapter 3: Thoracic Limb 1 The skeleton of the thoracic limb 16
2 Medial veins of the thoracic limb; medial shoulder and arm muscles and their nerve supply 18
3 Lateral veins of the thoracic limb; lateral shoulder and arm muscles and their nerve supply 20
4 Antebrachial (forearm) muscles and their nerve supply 22
5 Vessels and nerves of the thoracic limb 24
6 Synovial structures of the thoracic limb (A WÜNSCHE and K.-D BUDRAS) 26
Chapter 4: Thoracic and Abdominal Wall 1 Muscles of the vertebral column, nuchal ligament and lumbar cutaneous nerves 28
2 Respiratory muscles 30
3 Body wall, prepuce, and mammary glands (Mammae) 32
4 Abdominal muscles, rectus sheath, prepubic tendon 34
5 Inguinal region, inguinal space (inguinal canal), neuromuscular and vascular lacunae 36
Chapter 5: Thoracic Cavity 1 Lungs, tracheal bifurcation and bronchi 38
2 Blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic system of the lungs; aortic arch; lymph nodes of the thoracic cavity, thymus 40
3 Thoracic cavity, pleura, and veins of the thoracic cavity 42
4 Heart, surface of the heart, heart wall and relationships in the interior of the heart 44
5 Heart, coronary vessels, heart valves, cardiac conduction system 46
6 Autonomic nervous system 48
Chapter 6: Abdominal Cavity 1 Topography of the abdominal organs and relationships of the peritoneum 50
2 Peritoneal cavity, lymph nodes of stomach and intestine, cisterna chyli and spleen 52
3 Stomach and small intestine, pancreas 54
4 Large intestine, blood vessels of stomach and intestine 56
5 Liver and gall bladder (H BRAGULLA and K.-D BUDRAS) 58
6 Autonomic nervous system, abdominal aorta, caudal vena cava, sublumbar muscles and the lumbar plexus 60
Chapter 7: Urinary and Genital Organs, Pelvis 1 Urinary organs 62
2 Urinary bladder and peritoneal relationships of the genital organs 64
3 Female genital organs 66
4 Male genital organs, lymphatic system of the lumbar and pelvic regions 68
5 Arteries, veins and nerves of the pelvic cavity, adrenal glands 70
6 Pelvic diaphragm, ischiorectal fossa; associated arteries, veins and nerves 72
7 Smooth muscle of the pelvic diaphragm and the bony pelvic girdle 74
Chapter 8: Pelvic Limb 1 The skeleton of the pelvic limb 76
2 Muscles of the hip joint and their nerve supply 78
3 The medial saphenous vein, obturator nerve, femoral nerve, medial thigh muscles, femoral space (femoral canal) 80
4 The lateral saphenous vein, common peroneal nerve and tibial nerve; crural (leg) muscles and popliteus muscle 82
5 Arteries and accompanying vessels and nerves of the pelvic limb 84
6 Synovial structures of the pelvic limb (S REESE and K.-D BUDRAS) 86
Chapter 9: Head 1 Skull, including the hyoid apparatus 88
2 Skull, paranasal sinuses 90
3 Lymphatic system, superficial veins of the head, facial nerve (VII) 92
4 Facial muscles and mandibular muscles 94
5 Internal (deep) muscles of mastication, trigeminal nerve (V), mandibular nerve (V3), maxillary nerve (V2) 96
6 Lacrimal apparatus, optic nerve (II), ophthalmic nerve (V1), nerves and muscles of the eye, and external nose 98
7 Nose, larynx, oral cavity and pharynx .100
8 Pharyngeal muscles, cranial nerves of the vagus group (IX, X, XI), autonomic nervous system of the head, arteries of the head, external acoustic meatus 102
9 Tongue, lingual muscles, hypoglossal nerve (XII), salivary glands, and dentition 104
10.Joints of the head (S REESE and K.-D BUDRAS) 106
Trang 5Chapter 10: Central Nervous System
1 Spinal cord and meninges 108
2 Brain (Encephalon) and its meningeal coverings 110
3 Cerebrum (Telencephalon), brain stem and limbic system 112
4 Rhinencephalon, sites of egression of the cranial nerves, arterial supply of the brain .114
5 Cerebral veins, sinuses of the dura mater, cerebral ventricles and choroid plexuses 116
Chapter 11: Sense organs 1 The eye (P SIMOENS and K.-D BUDRAS) 118
2 The ear (H KÖNIG and K.-D BUDRAS) .120
3 Olfactory and gustatory (chemical) senses; superficial, deep, and visceral sensibility 122
Tables, Special Anatomy 1 Myology 124
2 Lymphology .134
3 Cranial nerves (C HERRMANN and K.-D BUDRAS) 136
General Anatomy 1 Osteology: membranous and chondral ossification; growth of bones in length and diameter .140
2 Osteology: structure and form of bone and cartilage 142
3 Arthrology: the connections of bones and the form of joints 144
4 Myology: general myology 146
5 Myology: skeletal musculature and its accessory structures 148
6 Nervous system 150
7 Endocrine system .152
8 Cardiovascular system (R HIRSCHBERG) 154
9 Lymphatic system (H.-G LIEBICH and K.-D BUDRAS) 156
10.Glands, mucous membranes, and serous membranes 158
Introduction to the physics of radiographic and ultrasound diagnostic techniques (C POULSENNAUTRUP) 160
Introduction to Computed Tomography and Anatomy of the CT Scan (C NÖLLER) 176
Contributions to Clinical and Functional Anatomy 180
Index 212
How to use this book:
The framed introductions at the beginning of the text-pages dealing with topographical anatomy give information with respect to the dis-section of the areas shown in the figures At the same time, they can be used as abbreviated disdis-section instructions Boldface terms of anatom-ical structures serve for emphasis and, insofar as they are identified by numbers, they are represented on the neighboring illustration-page where they are identified by the same number Numbers on the margin of the text-pages refer to the ‘Clinical and Functional Anatomy.’ The
numbers in the clinical anatomy part refer to the corresponding page in the topographical anatomy; e.g., ‘8.2’ refers to the part numbered
‘2’ on page 8 The anatomical/medical terms and expressions occurring in the text are explained and interpreted in ‘Anatomical Terms.’ Abbreviations of anatomical terms follow the abbreviations as employed in the Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria (2005) Other abbreviations are explained in the appertaining text, and in the titles and legends for the illustrations A few abbreviations that are not generally employed are listed here:
The cranial nerves (Nervi craniales) are designated with roman numerals I – XII
Spinal nerves (Nervi spinales):
n — Nervus spinalis
nd — Ramus dorsalis n spinalis
ndl — Ramus dorsolateralis
ndm — Ramus dorsomedialis
nv — Ramus ventralis
nvl — Ramus ventrolateralis
nvm — Ramus ventromedialis
nC — Nervus cervicalis (e.g., nC1 – first cervical nerve)
nCy — Nervus coccygeus s caudalis
nL — Nervus lumbalis
nS — Nervus sacralis
nT — Nervus thoracicus
Vertebrae
vC — Vertebra cervicalis (e.g., vC3 – third cervical vertebra)
vL — Vertebra lumbalis
vS — Vertebra sacralis
vT — Vertebra thoracica
Trang 6Preface to the Fifth Edition
The present revised and enlarged edition is published at a time of change,
which is characterized by the new appointment of all anatomically
orient-ed chairs in the German-speaking area The tendency to shorten the time
for anatomical education has existed for a longer time, which to a
moder-ate degree seems to be acceptable and unavoidable for the creation of free
space for new educational subjects Because this trend now seems to
assume excessive proportions, the danger exists of a partial or even total
renunciation of the dissection of the animal body, which since the time of
Leonardo da Vinci has been considered a very efficient and essential
method of deepening our knowledge The deficiency in practical exercises
cannot be compensated by our offer of anatomical drawings but will
miti-gate its negative impact Especially in the initial phase of the curriculum,
our realistic figures in the atlas part of our textbook have the indisputable
value that they provide the essential basis for understanding much used
sketches and schematic representations Beyond that, as an illustrated
guide to dissection, they promote the proper initiative for an independent
dissection and contribute by that to the acquisition of a solid knowledge For dissection and pictorial rendition, the topographical-anatomical pro-cedure offers the enormous advantage that comprehensive subjects can be imparted with brevity in a natural reality For the practicing veterinarian the topographical plates are suitable for orientation at surgical operations.The consideration of computed tomography, which thanks to Dr Nöller was integrated into the current eighth edition, has the objective to safe-guard an attractive field of activity for anatomy The imparting of normal structure discoverable by computed tomography and supplemented by the presentation of clinical-functional cases creates a solid basis for the further development and application of imaging procedures in the clinical curricu-lum and later in the practice of veterinary medicine
The Atlas of the Anatomy of the Dog was conceived as a compendium and
at the same time as an introduction to the topographical anatomical
dis-section as well as for teaching The subject matter of anatomy was
pre-pared from a topographical point of view with separation into systems To
do that, the osteology, myology, angiology, neurology and splanchnology
of the different parts of the body were dealt with in sequence in their
reci-procal re-lationship to one another and demonstrated by topographical
colored plates with complementary schematic diagrams The methods of
presentation emphasize the mutual topographical relationships of the
ves-sels and nerves considered, laying stress on their nomenclatural agreement
In that way, the concern for the multiplicity, the breadth, and the
com-plexity of the material should be minimized The concept chosen here, with
its close relationship of content and apposition of illustration and pertinent
description, has the advantage of being able to deal with the essential in the
smallest space
The present book offers to the students a clearly arranged illustrative
mate-rial and an abbreviated reading supplementing textbook study and
class-room material as well as an aid for review, especially for preparation
for examinations For the practising veterinarian, it is drawn up as a source
of quick information and to refresh and deepen what was previously
learned The breadth, division and sequence of the subject matter
accord-ing to the pre-cedaccord-ing are coordinated with the topographical dissection that
is offered to the students at the Free University of Berlin as the teaching
program in their first semester of study Upon the foundation achieved, the
subsequent study of comparative and clinically applied anatomy is
con-tin-ued Topographical anatomy is the foundation and the key to
understand-ing the associated medicine It is of special value to the surgeon and
pathol-ogist
Professor Fritz Preuss introduced the whole-animal topographical anatomy
in Berlin, and his dissection instructions directed the way for teaching up
to the dras-tinc shortening and repositioning of the dissection exercises The successful and exacting method of dissection with the short time avail-able places high demands on the students and requires a multisided support
by the instructors With its true to nature rendition of areas of dissection with accompanying text, the present atlas should serve for this purpose also Instructions for dissection of the illustrated preparation and guidance
to the person carrying out the exercise were placed at the beginning of the described part Structures to be dissected are specially emphasized in the text by boldface print To keep the space limitations, anatomical variations are given less attention The current Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria (HOLZHAUSEN, Vienna 1973) was utilized, which also holds in the main for the applied abbreviations Moreover, in the written material only ver-
tebrae and nerve branches were abbreviated (e.g.: VL 1 for the first lumbar
vertebra; nL 1vl for the ventrolateral branch of the first lumbar nerve) In the legends of the figures and the tabular compositions, owing to the limi-tations of space even more extensive, otherwise uncommon, abbreviations had to be used Suggestions and wishes of the students, for example with respect to preparing the tables for special myology and for anatomical terms were largely considered
Dissections from the anatomical collection of the Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology (Institute for Veterinary Anatomy, Histology and Embryology) of the Free University of Berlin served as models for the figures These specimens were prepared by the technical staff of the depart-ment, Mr Seifert, Mr Dressel, and Mr Schneider
Preface to the First German Edition (abridged)
Trang 7Adams, D R., 2004: Canine Anatomy 4 Ed., Iowa State University Press,
AmesAmman, E., E Seiferle und G Pelloni, 1978: Atlas zur chirurgisch-topo-
graphischen Anatomie des Hundes Paul Parey, Berlin, HamburgAnderson, W D and Anderson G B., 1994: Atlas of Canine Anatomy Lea
and Febinger, Philadelphia, BaltimoreBarone, R 1976: Anatomie Comparèe des Mammiferes Domestiques; T 1
– Osteologie; T 2 – Arthrologie et Myologie; T 3 – Splanchnologie, Foetus et ses Annexes Viget Freres, Paris
Baum, H., 1917: Die Lymphgefäße der Haut des Hundes Anat Anz 50:
521-539Baum, H und O Zietzschmann, 1936: Handbuch der Anatomie des Hun-
des, 2 Aufl., Paul Parey, BerlinBerg, R., 1995: Angewandte und topographische Anatomie der Haustiere
4 Aufl., Gustav Fischer, JenaBöhme, G., 1967: Unterschiede am Gehirnventrikelsystem von Hund und
Katze nach Untersuchungen an Ausgusspräparaten Berl Münch
Tierärztl Wschr 80: 195-196Bojrab, M J., 1981: Praxis der Kleintierchirurgie Enke, Stuttgart
Bonath, K H und W D Prieur, 1998: Kleintierkrankheiten Bd 3
Orthopä-dische Chirugie und Traumatologie Ulmer Verlag, StuttgartBoyd, J S., C Paterson and A H May, 1991: A Colour Atlas of Clinical
Anatomy of the Dog and Cat Wolfe Publ Ltd., LondonBradley, O Ch., 1959: Topographical Anatomy of the Dog 6 Ed., Oliver
and Boyd, Edinburgh, LondonBucher, O und W Wartenberg, 1997: Cytologie, Histologie und mikro-
skopische Anatomie des Menschen 12 Aufl., Hans Huber, Bern, Stuttgart, Wien
Budras, K.-D., 1972: Zur Homologisierung der Mm adductores und des
M pectineus der Haussäugetiere Zbl Vet Med., C, 1: 73-91Budras, K.-D., F Preuß, W Traeder und E Henschel, 1972: Der Leisten-
spalt und die Leistenringe unserer Haussäugetiere in neuer Sicht
Berl Münch Wschr 85: 427-431Budras, K.-D und E Seifert, 1972: Die Muskelinsertionsareale des Beckens
von Hund und Katze, zugleich ein Beitrag zur Homologisierung der Linea glutaeae unserer Haussäugetiere Anat Anz 132: 423-434Budras, K.-D und A Wünsche, 1972: Arcus inguinalis und Fibrae reflexae
des Hundes Gegenbauers morph Jb 1 17: 408-419Dämmrich, K., 1981: Zur Pathologie der degenerativen Erkrankungen der
Wirbelsäule bei Hunden Kleintierpraxis 26: 467-476Dahme E und E Weiss, 2007: Grundriss der speziellen pathologischen
Anatomie der Haustiere 6 Aufl., Enke, Stuttgart
De Lahunta, A., 1983: Veterinary Neuroanatomy and Clinical Neurology
2 Ed., W B Saunders Comp., Philadelphia
De Lahunta, A and R E Habel, 1986: Applied Veterinary Anatomy W B
Saunders Comp., PhiladelphiaDietz, O (Hrsg.), 2004: Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Chirurgie für Tiermedi-
ziner Begr v W Bolz, 6 Aufl., Enke, StuttgartDonat, K., 1971: Die Fixierung der Clavicula bei Katze und Hund Anat
Anz 128: 365-374Done, St H., P C Goody, S A Evans et al., 1996: Colour Atlas of Vete-
rinary Anatomy Vol 3: The Dog and Cat Mosby-Wolfe, LondonDyce, K M., W O Sack and C J G Wensing, 2002: Textbook of vete-
rinary anatomy 3 Ed., W B Saunders Comp., PhiladelphiaEllenberger, W und H Baum, 1943: Handbuch der vergleichenden Anato-
mie der Haustiere 18 Aufl., Springer, BerlinEurell, J A (Hrsg.), 2006: Dellmann’s textbook of veterinary histology 6
Ed., Blackwell, Ames, IowaEvans, H E and A de Lahunta, 2000: Guide to the Dissection of the Dog
5 Ed., W B Saunders Comp., Philadelphia, London, TorontoEvans, H E., 1993: Miller’s Anatomy of the Dog 3 Ed., W B Saunders
Comp., Philadelphia, London, TorontoFranke, H.-R., 1970: Zur Anatomie des Organum vomeronasale des Hun-
des Diss med Vet., Freie Universität BerlinFrewein, J und B Vollmerhaus, 1994: Anatomie von Hund und Katze
Blackwell Wissenschafts-Verlag, BerlinGetty, R., 1975: Sisson and Grossman’s Anatomy of the Domestic Animals
Vol 2 - Porcine, Carnivore, Aves 5 Ed., W B Saunders Comp., ladelpia, London, Toronto
Phi-Getty, R., H L Foust, E T Presley and M C Miller, 1956: Macroscopic
anatomy of the ear of the dog Amer J Vet Res 17: 364-375Gorman, N T., 1998: Canine Medicine and Therapeutics 4 Ed., Black-
well, Oxford, LondonGrandage, J 1972: The erect dog penis Vet Rec 91: 141-147
Habel, R E., 1985: Applied Veterinary Anatomie Pub by author, Ithaca,
N Y
Habel, R und K.-D Budras, 1992: Anatomy of the praepubic tendon in
horse, cow, sheep, goat and dog Am J Vet Res 53: 2183-2195Hennig, Ch., 1965: Zur Kenntnis des M retractor ani et penis s clitoridis
et constrictor recti (M retractor cloacae) beim Hund Anat Anz
117: 201-215Henning, P., 1965: Der M piriformis und die Nn clunium medii des Hun-
des Zbl Vet Med., A, 12: 263-275Henninger, W., 2002: Historischer Rückblick auf die Entwicklung der
Spiral-CT an der Veterinärmedizinischen Universität Wien Tierärztl.Mschr 89: 70-77
Henninger, W und S Kneissl, 2004: Seminar Computertomographie DVGArbeitstagung West „Kleintierkrankheiten“, Hofheim, 30.04.2004,
S 11-14Henninger, W und M Pavlicek, 2001: Konventionelle CT-Untersuchungs-protokolle, erstellt nach Regionen, für den optimalen Kontrastmittel -einsatz beim Hund Teil 1 und 2 Kleintierpraxis 46: 685-698, 761-772
Henschel, E und W Gastinger, 1963: Beitrag zur Arteriographie der Aa.carotis und vertebralis beim Hund Berl Münch Tierärztl Wschr 76: 241-243
Henschel, E., 1971: Zur Anatomie und Klinik der wachsenden knochen mit Vergleichen zwischen der Distractio cubiti des Hundes und der Madelungschen Deformität des Menschen Arch Experim Vet med 26: 741-787
Unterarm-Hoerlein, B F., 1978: Canine Neurology Diagnosis and Treatment 3 Ed.,
W B Saunders Comp., Philadelphia, London, TorontoHofer, M., 2000: CT-Kursbuch: Ein Arbeitsbuch für den Einstieg in dieComputertomographie 3 Aufl., Mattias Hofer Verlag Didamed Hyrtl, J., 1880: Onomatologia Anatomica Braunmüller, Wien International Committee on Gross Anatomical Nomenclature, 2005:Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria, 5 Ed., Nomina Histologica, 3 Ed., Ithaca, N Y
Kadletz, M., 1932: Anatomischer Atlas der Extremitätengelenke von Pferdund Hund Urban und Schwarzenberg, Berlin, Wien
Kealy, J K., 1991: Röntgendiagnostik bei Hund und Katze 2 Aufl., Enke,Stuttgart
King, A S., 1978: A Guide to the Physiological and Clinical Anatomy ofthe Thorax 4 Ed., Dept Vet Anat., University of Liverpool, Liver-pool
King, A S and V A Riley, 1980: A Guide to the Physiological and cal Anatomy of the Head 4 Ed., Dept Vet Anat., University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX
Clini-Koch, T und R Berg, 1981–1985: Lehrbuch der Veterinär-Anatomie Bd.1-3, Gustav Fischer, Jena
König, H E., 1992: Anatomie der Katze Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart, Jena,
Krstic, R V., 1984: Illustrated Encyclopedia of Human Histology Springer,Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, Tokyo
Krüger, G., 1968: Veterinärmedizinische Terminologie 3 Aufl., Hirzel,Leipzig
Leonhardt, H., 1990: Histologie, Zytologie und Mikroanatomie des schen 8 Aufl., Thieme, Stuttgart
Men-Liebich, H.-G., 2004: Funktionelle Histologie 4 Aufl., Schattauer, gart, N Y
Stutt-Lippert, H., 2006: Lehrbuch Anatomie 7 Aufl., Urban und Fischer, chen
Mün-Nickel, R., A Schummer und E Seiferle, 2003: Lehrbuch der Anatomie derHaustiere Gesamtausgabe, 5 Bd., Paul Parey, Berlin, Hamburg Nitschke, Th., 1970: Diaphragma pelvis, Clitoris und Vestibulum vaginaeder Hündin Anat Anz 127: 76-125
Nöller, C., 2006 : Klinisch-funktionelle Anatomie und phische Darstellung der Nase bei normo- und brachycephalen Kat-zen Diss med vet., Berlin
comptertomogra-Pierard, J., 1972: Anatomie Appliquee des Carnivores Domestiques, Chien
et Chat Sornabec, QuebecReese, S., 1995: Untersuchungen am intakten und rupturierten Lig crucia-tum craniale des Hundes Diss med vet., Berlin
Rohde, U, U Wiskott und H E König, 1980: Computertomographie desAbdomens beim Menschen und Hund – eine vergleichende Studie Kleintierpraxis 25: 135-142
Ruedorffer, N v., 1996: Morphologische Untersuchungen zur Orthologieund Pathologie der Tuberositas tibiae bei Hunden bis zum Alter von
2 Jahren Diss med vet., BerlinSalomon, F.-V und H Geyer, 2007: Atlas der angewandten Anatomie derHaustiere 3 erw Aufl., Enke, Stuttgart
Schaller, O., 1992: Illustrated Veterinary Anatomical Nomenclature Enke,Stuttgart
Schwarz, T, 2002: General principles in CT imaging planning The pean Association of Veterinary Diagnostic Imaging, Yearbook 2002,
Euro-S 9-23Simoens, P., 1985: Morphologic study of the vasculature in the orbit andeyeball of the pig Thesis Fakul Vet Med., State Univ GhentSuter, P F und B Kohn, 2006: Praktikum der Hundeklinik Begr v H G.Niemand, 10 Aufl., Paul Parey, Berlin, Hamburg
Wünsche, A und K.-D Budras, 1972: Der M cremaster externus resp
Trang 8Introduction to Anatomy
The term anatomy stems from the Greek word, ‘anatemnein’ which means
to dissect, to cut apart The important anatomist Hyrtl spoke consistently
also of the art of dissection The original meaning is true even today;
although the term has gained a wider meaning Modern anatomy is not
limited to mere description but emphasizes the interrelations between form
and function as well as the application of anatomical knowledge in the
clin-ic Then as today the student gains most of his knowledge by dissection of
the animal body in the laboratory, where he lays bare the ‘naked truth’
(Nudas veritas) This practice also serves to obtain a necessary
finger-dex-terity, which in later professional life, in the first place in surgery, is of
immeasurable value Beyond that there are hardly any limits to
investiga-tion by enthusiastic dissecinvestiga-tion Even the very best anatomical collecinvestiga-tion of
outstanding demonstration-dissections cannot replace practical work in
the laboratory, but can however indeed make it easier and more efficient
The thorough study of anatomical preparations is indispensable like the
industrious use of textbooks and atlases All of these aids are more
impor-tant today than ever since there is much less time available for practical
work in the laboratory than formerly Shortening the teaching time
allot-ted to anatomy in favor of newer disciplines was unavoidable
Anatomical study is, unlike any other basic discipline, important in
learn-ing the language of medicine, the terminology Many terms for diseases and
methods of treatment have their origin in anatomical terms Centuries-long
research and description brought an unforeseen abundance of synonyms
The function of the international nomenclature commission has been to
thin out the jungle of terms and to publish a recognized list of official terms
with useful synonyms
In its entirety, anatomy is subdivided into macroscopic (gross) anatomy,
microscopic anatomy and developmental anatomy However, the areas of
anatomy flow together without boundary, forming a unit, an
understand-ing constantly and forcefully advocated by the important Berlin veterinary
anatomist and, at an earlier time, the professorial chair of our department,
Professor Preuss The oldest and most encompassing area is macroscopic
anatomy, often placed equal to the term anatomy Where the accessories to
observation in macroscopic anatomy, the bare eye and the dissection hand
lens no longer reach, it passes over into the area of microscopic anatomy
(histology and cytology), to which the microscope serves as accessory The
boundary between macroscopic and microscopic anatomy is also called
mesoscopy, which is gaining more and more in significance The latter area
deals with the same material and pursues the same goals; it is only the
tech-nique that is different The third area, embryology, is concerned with
onto-genesis (development of the individual) before and after birth and, in
addi-tion to embryological methods, applies also macroscopic, microscopic and
mesoscopic methods
Like the remaining disciplines, macroscopic anatomy can be presented
from different points of view with emphasis on special areas of greater
dif-ficulty In so doing, the basic facts remain of course unchanged
Systematic, descriptive anatomy describes the animal body with all its parts
as systems of structure and organ-systems, strictly divided from one
anoth-er and thanoth-erefore without attention to their natural intanoth-erdependence
Expan-sive descriptions treat many particulars and allow some-times the view to
the important to be missed; nevertheless they are a necessary prerequisite
to the remaining, subsequent kinds of observations to which the
descrip-tive anatomy has led
Systematic anatomy can be subdivided further into general and special
anatomy
General anatomy treats of facts that are generally valid for the entire
sys-tem of structure or the organ-syssys-tem
Special anatomy provides special data for these structure- and
organ-sys-tems that hold for individual structures, as for one bone
Comparative anatomy emphasizes anatomical correlations, similarities
and variations between the individual animal species and human beings
Comparisons of anatomy between the individual species are very often
informative and helpful for homology and determining the function of
anatomical structure Already Goethe utilized principles of comparative
anatomy to good advantage with the discovery of the incisive bone of
human beings This bone occurs regularly in our domestic animals and
only occasionally in human beings With his study of the human skull he encountered a specimen with a developed incisive bone It was by compar-ison with the animal skull that he was able to identify the bone and estab-lish its homology
Topographical anatomy emphasizes the varying position-relationship of
anatomical structures and underlines the areas of application for clinical medicine The relationship of anatomical structures is analyzed step
by step and in doing so the whole structural plan of the body is regarded
Applied anatomy is directed clinically and emphasizes the relationship of
anatomical structures from which treatments or diseases of animals can be determined or explained In that way not only interdisciplinary coopera-tion and interest for the veterinary profession are promoted but also the learning of anatomy is made easier
The anatomy of the living dog is undoubtedly a significant part of the
whole of anatomy It presents the body in its natural condition In that way
a significant completion and an adjustment for unavoidable disadvantage becomes imperative in the remaining subjects of the whole of anatomy, which must tolerate postmortem changes such as variations in color, con-sistency and character as well as artificial changes resulting from fixation Anatomy of the living dog cannot be given attention here for several rea-sons It is adaped even less for rendering in a book, but can be offered to the students better and more successfully in an exercise under the instruc-tion of a clinically experienced anatomist
Radiographic anatomy and sonography are directly connected to the
clin-ic In the teaching of anatomy, the first experiences are obtained in sis of radiographs of the normal animal body This experience will be uti-lized and considerably supplemented in the total associated area of study Presentations of abnormal or even pathological changes should awaken the interest and accordingly add ‘spice’ to the teaching of anatomy
analy-The atlas of anatomy presented here is adapted in special measure to
signif-icantly combine and coordinate the different methods of presenting
anato-my and the manner of viewing it The textual part can be presented in a very compressed form since the different anatomical circumstances can be
‘read off’ from time to time from the adjacent color-plate Beyond that, a good topographical color-plate presents an ideal introduction for topo-graphical dissection, which is then completed only by brief remarks Also the requisites of comparative veterinary anatomy are taken into account in this atlas insofar as the simply structured (from many points of view) canine body is set out as the ‘cornerstone.’ Building upon this knowledge, the more complicated (from many points of view) anatomy of the remain-ing domestic animals can be comprehended from the aspect of comparative anatomy
Art and anatomy with their mutual interrelations are forcefully impressed
on us with each visit to a museum The artist is inspired by the corporeal beauty, and teachers and students of anatomy enjoy and profit from the tal-ent and painstaking detail in the artistic presentation Gifted with genius were realized the claims of Leonardo da Vinci, whose abundant anatomi-cal drawings came about after basic studies of anatomy Aristotle published among other things an anatomical description of senile sexual reversal in the bird as well of the horse hoof in regard to founder What fascination of anatomy passes over to art, Rembrandt immortalized in his work ‘The anatomy lesson of Dr Nicolaes Tulp.’ The greats of world history gifted with genius like Aristotle, Leonardo da Vinci and Goethe show proof of their enthusiasm for anatomy with anatomical illustrations, descriptions and research results To Goethe’s credit was the promotion of educational art and the introduction of plastic wax models in Germany, to which he, himself, was inspired during his journey to Italy, especially in Florence The good qualities of wax models, which is true to an equal measure for well done true-to-nature illustrations, Goethe expressed in his novel ‘Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre’ with the following excellent formulation: ‘If you concede that most physicians and surgeons retain in their minds only a gen-eral impression of the dissected human body and believe that to satisfy the purpose; so such models will certainly suffice, which refresh in his mind again little by little pictures that are fading and actively retain for him just the necessary.’ His investigative mind held Goethe, who with his discovery
of the human incisive bone felt ‘unspeakable joy.’
Trang 9a) S UBDIVISION OF THE B ODY
The longitudinal lines and planes of the body are useful for the orientation
of the body and of the body surface The dorsal (a) and ventral midline (b)
are the dorsal and ventral median lines of the body, respectively
The median plane (A) is the plane between the two lines mentioned above
It divides the body into right and left halves Sagittal (paramedian) planes
(B) are adjacent planes parallel and lateral to the median plane They divide
the body longitudinally, but into unequal parts Transverse planes (C) are
planes that divide the body transversely and are perpendicular to the
medi-an medi-and sagittal plmedi-anes Dorsal plmedi-anes (D) lie parallel to the dorsal body
sur-face They divide the body perpendicular to the longitudinal (median and
paramedian planes) and transverse planes In that view, two symmetrical
body sides appear and it is for that reason that dorsal planes are also called
bilateral planes
b) T ERMS THAT D ESCRIBE THE D IRECTION AND T OPOGRAPHICAL R ELATIONS OF
O RGANS derive partially from body parts, e.g., in direction toward the tail
(caudal — c), partially from landmarks of the body surface, e.g., parallel to
the median plane (sagittal —d) or designate with respect to hollow organs
external or internal Furthermore terms are used as left (sinister) and right
(dexter), short (brevis) and long (longus) or deep (profundus) and
superfi-cial (superfisuperfi-cialis), longitudinal (longitudinalis) or transverse (transversus)
as well as lateral (lateralis) and toward the median plane (medialis) The
term cranial (e), in a direction toward the head, cannot be applied in the
head region Here the term rostral is used (f, in a direction toward the tip
of the nose) The term dorsal (g) relates to the ‘back’ or dorsum of the body
It may also be used with respect to the proximal parts of the limbs; but has
Topographical Anatomy
Chapter 1: Surface of the Body and Axial Skeleton
1 Division of the animal body
a different meaning on the limb extremities The term ventral, in a
direc-tion toward the belly (venter), may be used on the proximal parts of the
limb, but is not used on the free part of the limbs The terms proximal (i, toward the attached end) and distal (m, toward the free end) are related to
the axis of the body (vertebral column and spinal cord with the origin of
spinal nerves) On the limbs, from the carpus distally, the term palmar (l,
the surface of the manus that faces caudally in the normal standing
atti-tude) is employed; from the tarsus distally (m, the surface of the pes that faces caudally in the normal standing attitude of the animal), the term plan-
tar The term dorsal is utilized alike on the thoracic limb from the carpus
distally and on the pelvic limb from the tarsus distally It refers to surface
of the manus and pes that is cranial in the normal standing attitude of the
animal Terms like abaxial (n, away from the axis) and axial (o, toward the
axis) are related to the central axis of the hand (manus) or foot (pes), in which the axis lies between the third and fourth digits In front (anterior), behind (posterior), above (superior) and below (inferior) are terms often used in human anatomy and refer to the human body in the normal upright attitude To avoid misunderstanding, these terms are not applied to the quadruped animal body Their use in veterinary anatomy is restricted to
certain areas of the head; e.g., upper and lower eyelids, anterior and
pos-terior surfaces of the eye
c) P ARTS OF THE B ODY AND B ODY R EGIONS subdivide the body, including the surface of the body Parts of the body are head and trunk with neck, rump, and tail, as well as the limbs The body regions divide the surface of the body and can be subdivided into subregions In the latter case, they appear indented in the following table
Regions of the cranium
6' Dorsal nasal region
6'' Lateral nasal region
6''' Region of the naris
7 Oral region
7' Superior labial region
7'' Inferior labial region
Regions of the neck
18 Dorsal neck region
19 Lateral neck region
Regions of the dorsum
23 Thoracic vertebral region 23' Interscapular region
Regions of the abdomen
30 Cranial abdominal region 30' Hypochondriac region 30'' Xiphoid region
31 Middle abdominal region 31' Lateral abdominal region
37 Region of the tuber ischiadicum
38 Caudal region (tail region)38' Region of the root of the tail
39 Perineal region39' Anal region39'' Urogenital region
40 Scrotal region
Regions of the thoracic limb
41 Region of the humeral joint
42 Axillary region 42' Axillary fossa
Regions of the pelvic limb
51 Region of the hip joint
52 Region of the thigh
53 Genual region (region of the knee, region of the stifle joint) 53' Patellar region
Trang 10d 32
9 12101311
6'9'
9''
6 6'' 14
167156'''
23 g 24
31''
a
3534
3338'
52
41 44
43
h264626
50m
n oo ni
g
kg
555756
ig
b
20513
16 1915
22' 22 22''21
1787''14
b
6'''7'
25
26
42
49 5048
47
43
292630''
42'28
5855
545353'
g59k
Trang 112 The Skin (Common Integument)
lay-ers: I an epithelial layer designated epidermis and II a connective tissue
layer designated dermis or corium The dermis rests upon an underlying
layer of connective tissue, the subcutaneous layer or subcutis (Tela
subcu-tanea) The latter consists of a fatty part, the panniculus adiposus, and a
supporting fibrous part that, together, constitute the superficial fascia
I The epidermis (1) is made up of a stratified squamous epithelium that is
cornified (keratinized) at its surface Thickness and degree of keratinization
depend on the mechanical stress to which this layer is subject The
epider-mis is composed of a deep, still living, layer, (stratum germinativum = basal
layer, —27) which, by mitotic division, furnishes cell replacement, a
spin-ous layer (26), a cornifying, dying layer (stratum granulosum, —25) as well
as cornified cell layers, stratum lucidum (24) and stratum corneum (23) In
addition to the epidermal cells, there are melanocytes, LANGERHANS’
cells, and MERKEL’S tactile discs, especially in the stratum germinativum
‘Horn’ is cornified epidermis and is of varying quality in the different
regions of the body On the pads and in other regions of the skin there is
soft horn Hard horn is found at the claw In the skin and at the pads, the
cornified cells are shed as scales owing to reduced adhesion of membrane
coating materials At the same time, because of good adhesion as a solid
mass, the horn of the claws remains restored by distal growth conical The
individual horn cell of the claw is distinctly harder than that of the skin In
areas where soft horn is formed, the epidermis exhibits a stratum
granulo-sum between the stratum spinogranulo-sum and the cornified layers The stratum
granulosum is so-named because of the keratohyalin granules that it
con-tains The proteins within this layer of cells coat and ‘glue’ the keratin
fil-aments together At individual sites additionally a stratum lucidum occurs
It consists of young, not yet differentiated, cornifying cells, the cytoplasm
of which appears somewhat transparent when examined under the
micro-scope, hence the name stratum lucidum In the areas of formation of hard
horn, these layers are absent, so that the cells of the stratum spinosum
cornify directly without intervening strata granulosum and lucidum
The function of the epidermis consists of the replacement of cornified cells
as a protection from radiation (radiation absorbing pigments; see
histol-ogy), from the loss and entrance of water into the body, from the entrance
of parasites and for protection against trauma With traumatic injury to the
skin, healing is furthered by covering the exposed dermis by epidermal cells
as soon as possible
II The dermis or corium (6) consists of a thin, loosely arranged papillary
layer (2), the papillae of which are seated in corresponding depressions of
the epidermis, and a dense reticular layer (7) The papillary layer contains
mainly loosely arranged collagenous fibrils The reticular layer consists of
a plexus of coarse nondistensible collagenic fibers with a predominant
course direction Elastic fibers are present in both layers and function to
restore the typical texture of the tissue following lacerations or other
dis-tortion of the skin (with respect to the cells that are found here, especially
fibrocytes, fibroblasts, mast cells, plasma cells, macrophages and pigment
cells, see histology)
The subcutis (10) (Tela subcutanea) consists mainly of loose connective
and adipose tissue It is penetrated by connective tissue cords that fix the
skin to the underlying fascia or periosteum The panniculus adiposus is the
layer of fat tissue within the subcutis
Functionally, the subcutis with its subcutaneous fat tissue serves as a
cush-ioning tissue, serves for the storage of calories and water as well as
ther-moregulation Its loose connective tissue functions as a gliding layer Where
the subcutis is lacking (lips, cheeks, and eyelids) this gliding function is
lacking and the striated musculature ends here directly in the dermis
The blood supply of the skin is provided by larger arteries and veins of the
subcutis that, owing to the mobility of the skin, have a tortuous course
They send branches to the dermis that form here two networks The
arter-ial network of the dermis (9) is located at the boundary with the subcutis
and the subpapillary network (3) lies between the papillary and reticular
layers and gives off subepidermal capillary loops into the papillary body
The corresponding venous plexuses have a comparable location A further
subfascial vascular plexus joins the blood supply of the subcutis The blood
flow can be cut short by arteriovenous anastomoses (4), thus avoiding the
capillary bed, and in this way the vascularization of the skin is regulated
The papillary layer is especially well supplied with blood These vessels
dilate in order to give off heat and constrict to conserve body temperature
In this way they function like the sweat glands in thermoregulation The
venous plexuses also function as a place to store blood
The lymphatic supply is by lymph capillary networks that begin
subepi-dermally and invest the hair follicles and skin glands
The nerve supply is by sensory and sympathetic neurons (sympathetic
nerve plexuses invest the blood vessels and function to regulate the blood pressure and in thermoregulation) The skin can be considered as the
largest sensory organ of the body Numerous nerve terminals (16) and
ter-minal end corpuscles (e.g., MEISSNER’S tactile discs, —17, and
VATER-PACINIAN lamellar corpuscles, —22) serve as receptors for sensory
stim-uli With loss of their myelin sheaths, free nerve endings penetrate the dermis at particular sites of the body and serve to mediate the sensation of pain
epi-b) The H AIRS cover nearly the entire body surface, except the planum
nasale, anus, vulvar lips and limb pads Hairs are cornified filiform
struc-tures that are formed by the skin The hair is subdivided into the shaft (15), which projects beyond the surface of the skin, the root (21), which is
obliquely oriented within the dermis and has at its proximal end an
expanded part, the hair bulb (8) Hair root and hair bulb are in a divided
epithelial root sheath (Vagina epithelialis radicularis) The outer part of the
sheath is continuous with the superficial epidermis Its inner part cornifies
above the mouth of the sebaceous gland (18) and will be shed The
con-nective tissue root sheath (Vagina dermalis radicularis) is continuous with
the surrounding connective tissue The epidermal and dermal root sheaths together with the bulb of the hair constitute the hair follicle The parts of
the hair are medulla (12), the cortex (13) and the superficial hair cuticle
(14), which consists of thin scale-like cornified cells and, the same as the
medulla, is used for forensic species identification and individual
diagnos-tic procedures The arrector pili muscle (5) terminates below the mouth of
the sebaceous gland, attaching obliquely to the dermal sheath of the root
of the hair Its contraction results in erection of the hair (in human beings, this brings about the phenomenon of ‘goose pimples’) Contraction of the arrector pili muscle compresses the sebaceous glands and, in erecting the hair, increases the air space between the hairs and the skin surface for ther-mo-isolation
The hair coat depends on the breed and is characterized by the individual
and group-like arrangement of the hairs, the different portions of the vidual hair types (lead hairs, guard hairs, wool hairs) as well as by the den-sity, length and color of the hairs There are basically three types of hairs:
indi-The ‘lead’ hair or ‘main’ hair is long, stiff, and slightly curved It is pendent of other hairs and in the dog occurs only rarely Guard hairs are
inde-shorter than the lead hair, arched near the tip and thickened Both lead and
guard hair types form the hair coat (Capilli) The third and shortest type of
hair is the wool hair It is very thin, pliable and in its course slightly or strongly undulated Guard and wool hairs pass in a bundle or tuft togeth-
er from a compound hair follicle, in which case one guard hair is rounded by the six to twelve wool hairs that accompany it
sur-The wool hairs (11) predominate in the coat of the puppy In most canine
breeds they lie under the hair coat and only in a few breeds such as the Puli and Commodore, do they project above the hair coat and form a superfi-cial ‘wool coat.’
Sinus or tactile hairs (19) are remarkably long, special forms of hair in the
vicinity of the opening of the mouth (Rima oris) To receive tactile stimuli,
the root of the hair is ensheathed by a blood sinus (20) that is contacted by
numerous sensory nerve endings Owing to the great lever action of this long hair even the finest tactile stimuli result in stimulation of this receptor The length of the hairs varies considerably and is dependent on breed In the ancestors of the dog, who lived in the wild, the longest hairs are found
on the dorsum and the shorter ones on the belly and head But this pattern
is mostly lost with domestication In wild Canidae, the thickness of the hairs increases toward the belly (thickness is about 0.1 mm) The color of the hair is effected by the melanin content of the cornified cells as well as the inter- and intracellular air bubbles, especially of the medullary cells
The direction of the hairs characterizes the coat That part of the coat in
which the hairs have a uniform direction is called the Flumina pilorum In
a vortex, the hairs are arranged divergently or convergently with respect to
a central point By the crossing of converging lines of hairs, hair ‘crosses’ are formed
Trang 1288
8
h
gf
dca
b
ee
Epidermis Common integument
Epidermis of digital pad Epidermis of wall of claw
Legend:
a Intrapapillary capillary loop
b Apocrine sweat gland
c Elastic fiber
d Collagenic fiber
e Unilocular adipocyte
f Dermal root sheath
g Epithelial root sheath
h Hair papilla
Fibrous layer
Panniculus adiposus
10 Subcutis
9 Arterial network and venous
plexus of the dermis
Trang 13subcutis and fix the pad to the underlying fascia and to the skeleton
Well-developed connective tissue bands (Tractus tori —15) are present in the
metacarpal and metatarsal pads They fix the pads proximally to the metacarpal or metatarsal bones, respectively The dermis has very firm con-nective tissue bundles and forms a very high papillary body with conical papillae The epidermis of the pad is up to 2 mm in thickness and forms cor-responding depressions in the soft horn (soft cornified epidermis) The pads are richly supplied with blood and lymph vessels as well as nerves
3 Cutaneous Glands, Modifications of the Skin, Digital End-organs
the mammary gland, which is a modified sweat gland
I The sebaceous glands (see p 4) open into the hair follicles and are
pre-sent at a few sites of the body independent of the presence of hairs as at the
transition of the skin to the cutaneous mucous membrane (lips, anus)
Sebaceous glands are lobular The peripheral cells have a high rate of
mito-sis and the daughter cells are pushed centrally to the lumen of the gland
Here the enlarged and aging cells break down (holocrine secretion) and the
sebum thus liberated reaches the lumen of the gland It passes by way of a
short excretory duct to the lumen of the hair follicle and thus to the skin
Sebum makes the skin soft and pliable and gives the hairs a natural sheen
II The sweat or sudoriferous glands are classified as merocrine (eccrine)
and apocrine glands (odor glands) This classification was based on a
sup-posed apocrine secretion of the (apocrine) odor glands; however, this was
subsequently disproven Both types of sweat glands secrete according to the
merocrine (eccrine) manner of secretion (see histology)
The merocrine sweat glands are usually coiled, unbranched, tubular
glands They occur in the dog only on the pads of the limbs (see below;
some authors consider these glands to be apocrine sweat glands) In human
beings, real merocrine (eccrine) sweat glands are present in large areas of
the skin surface
Apocrine sweat glands or odor glands (see p 4) are present over wide areas
of the skin surface, but they are comparatively underdeveloped These
tubular glands open usually into the hair follicle Their thick secretion has
an alkaline reaction and is responsible for the individual species odor In
man, the glands are well developed but limited to a few regions of the body:
anus, vulva, axilla
III Special modifications of the skin occur as the glands of the external
acoustic meatus, the circumanal glands, glands of the paranal sinus (‘anal
sac’) and glands of the dorsal tail organ, glands of the eyelids and the
mam-mary glands
The ceruminal glands of the external acoustic meatus are mainly sebaceous
glands with fewer apocrine sweat glands Their brown, oily secretion is
called cerumen
The circumanal glands surround the anus in the hairless or nearly hairless
region of the anal cutaneous area In the dog, we are dealing with modified
sebaceous glands; in other domesticated animals, with modified apocrine
sweat glands Superficially located individual glands open into the hair
fol-licles Deep glands are also called hepatoid glands as their secretory cells
appear similar to hepatocytes The glands lack an excretory duct and their
function is unclear
The glands of the wall of the paranal sinus (see clinical-functional
anato-my, 56.5) are apocrine sweat glands and sebaceous glands The paranal
sinus is commonly termed the ‘anal sac.’
The dorsal caudal (tail) organ is composed of sebaceous and apocrine
glands and is described more fully in the clinical-functional anatomy (6.5)
Glands of the eyelids are described in the clinical-functional anatomy (see
also 118.1)
Mammary gland; see p 32.
b) S KIN M ODIFICATIONS are the nasal plane and the limb pads: carpal pad,
metacarpal/metatarsal pad, digital pads
I The nasal plane (see p 98), depending on breed, varies from
unpigment-ed to its being strongly pigmentunpigment-ed The dermis forms distinct papillae The
epidermis is strikingly thin, and its superficial, cornified layer (stratum
corneum) consists of hard ‘horn’ (hard cornified epidermis) that exhibits a
polygonal pattern The surface pattern is individually specific and for this
reason serves to identify the individual animal Glands are absent The nose
of the dog is kept moist by lacrimal fluid (see p 98) and the secretion of the
lateral nasal gland, which is located deeply in the maxillary recess of the
nasal cavity The evaporation of the fluid lowers the temperature of the nasal
plane, which ordinarily feels cold to the touch (hence the saying, ‘cold as a
dog’s nose’)
II The pads of the dog are the digital pads (14) at the level of the distal
inter-phalangeal joints, the metacarpal (13) or metatarsal pad at the level of the
metacarpophalangeal and metatarsophalangeal joints and the carpal pad
(12) that is laterodistal at the carpus The thick subcutis of the pads has
much fat tissue and contains sweat glands It is subdi vided into
compart-ments by radiating strands of collagenous and elastic fibers and is very
sen-sitive (painful) if swollen due to increased tissue pressure when inflamed
The connective tissue strands radiate from the dermis of the pad into the
c) The D IGITAL E ND - ORGAN is the bony end of the digit invested by a highly modified cutis (skin) Except for the digital pad, a subcutis is lacking The dermis is developed in the form of papillae, villi or laminae or it has a smooth surface The inner surface of the epidermis has a corresponding configuration: depressions that seat the papillae and villi, narrow furrows adaped to the laminae, or a smooth surface where it contacts the smooth surface of the dermis
The cornified epidermis of the claw (Unguicula) is conical in form and invests the unguicular process (11) Dermis and epidermis are segmentally
similarly differentiated as on the fingernail of the human being and on the equine hoof Both, dermis and epidermis, are adapted to one another like the patrix (stamp = dermis) to the matrix (impression = epidermis)
The bony unguicular crest is overlain basally by a prominence of the skin,
the vallum (7) The external lamina of the vallum is haired; the unhaired
inner lamella is comparable to the limbus (periople) of the horse It forms
a soft horn (Eponychium, —1) over the hard cornified epidermis of the
claw The eponychium corresponds to the periople of the horse and, like the periople, is worn off far proximal to the distal end of the claw (On the human fingernail, the soft eponychium is removed at the manicure.)
In the depth of the unguicular groove is the fold that corresponds to the
coronary part of the equine hoof Its dermis bears papillae (10) Its ing epidermis produces a tubular horn that, as a mesonychium (2), pro-
cover-vides a considerable part of the claw Dorsal on the unguicular process
there is a smooth dorsal swelling of the dermis (Dorsum dermale —8), that
is particular to the digital end-organ of the dog and that, according to our investigations, is not comparable to the coronary part of the equine hoof
On the epidermis covering it, the dorsal horn of the wall (dorsal hypo
-nychium —3) is formed In the lateral region of the unguicular process
lamellae are present, dermal lamellae (9) and correspondingly formed cornified epidermal lamellae that form the lateral wall horn (Hyponychi-
non-um laterale, —4), which is simply layered and forms the internal lining of
the conical claw horn
Palmar (plantar) on the unguicular process is the solear part on which the
dermis bears distinct villi Here, tubular solear horn (5) is formed, the cells
of which undergo substantial desquamation
Around the tip of the unguicular process there is present a soft terminal
horn (Hyponychium terminale, —6) that fills out the distal part of the
con-ical claw horn and serves thus as a ‘filling’ horn
Trang 141
2
3 4
5
8 910
1011
Claw and digital pad
Subcutaneous tissue of pad:
16 Retinacula
17 Panniculus adiposus (Fat pad)
(cross section)
Trang 15a) The V ERTEBRAL C OLUMNencloses and protects the spinal cord It has a
sup-porting function with respect to the statics and dynamics of the animal’s
body For that, stability is assured by the individual vertebrae, and elasticity
as well as pliability by the intervertebral symphyses and the vertebral joints
The vertebral column consists of seven cervical vertebrae (vC 1 – 7),
thir-teen thoracic (vT 1 – 13), seven lumbar (vL 1 – 7), three sacral (vS 1 – 3),
which are fused to form the sacrum, and about twenty caudal (coccygeal)
vertebrae (vCy 1 – 20)
I The vertebrae (see text-illustration) consist of three basic constituents:
body and its parts, arch and processes, that are modified in different ways
according to the functional requirements of the particular region
The body of the vertebra (1) has a ventral crest (2), (distinct in the region
of the cervical vertebral column) and cranial (3) and caudal (4) extremities
On the thoracic vertebrae, both the caudal (5) and cranial costal foveae (6)
form a common articular facet for the head (Capitulum) of the rib (see
below) The vertebral foramen (7) is the space enclosed by the body and
arch The vertebral canal is formed by the serial vertebral foramina and the
soft tissues extending between adjacent vertebral arches and bodies It
con-tains the spinal cord with its cauda equina
The arch of the vertebra (8) is made up of a pedicle basally and a flattened
lamina dorsally The intervertebral foramina (9) are bounded by the cranial
(10) and caudal (11) vertebral notches of the vertebra of the same and
pre-ceding segments Excepting the first cervical nerve (see below), these
foramina are passages for the spinal nerves
Of the processes of the vertebrae, the spinous process (12) is most distinct
(exceptions are the first cervical vertebra and the caudal vertebrae) The
transverse processes (13) are well developed on the cervical and lumbar
vertebrae On the thoracic vertebrae, they have a costal fovea (14) that
bears an articular facet for the costal tubercle (see below) From the first to
the sixth cervical vertebrae there are transverse foramina (15) at the base
of the transverse processes, which altogether form the transverse canal that
transmits the vertebral artery, vein and nerve The cranial articular
process-es (16) and the caudal articular procprocess-essprocess-es (17) form synovial joints between
the vertebrae A costal process (18) is present on the 3rd – 6th cervical
ver-tebrae as the ventrocranial extremity of the transverse process, which is
bifurcate in this region In the lumbar vertebral column the ends of the
transverse processes represent costal processes that are remnants of the
ribs, and can develop to form lumbar ‘ribs.’ An accessory process (19) is
lacking or poorly developed in the caudal part of the lumbar vertebral
col-umn In the cranial lumbar region it is developed as an independent
process At the transition to the thoracic vertebral column, it passes onto
the caudal contour of the transverse process and no longer stands
inde-pendently The mamillary process (20) of the lumbar vertebrae is expressed
on the cranial articular process (mamiloarticular process) and changes its
position at the transition to the thoracic vertebral column, passing onto the
transverse process, actually to the cranial contour of the transverse process
Hemal processes (21) are developed from the 4th caudal vertebra and
become gradually indistinct caudally On the 4th to the 7th or 8th caudal
ver-tebra, they may unite to form a hemal arch (22).
The interarcuate spaces are dorsal and, in life, closed off by the
interarcu-ate ligaments The lumbosacral space (23) and the sacrococcygeal
(sacro-caudal) space (24) are especially wide and of significance in performing
epidural anesthesia The atlanto-occipital space is suitable for tapping the
subarachnoid space, which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid
Special features are present on the following cervical vertebrae: The first
cervical vertebra (atlas, —25) has a broad-surfaced lateral process (26), also
designated the wing of the atlas (Ala atlantis) The alar notch (27) calar
foramen of other domestic mammals) is cranial at the attachment of the
wing of the atlas to the lateral mass (see below) and is occupied by the
ven-tral branch of the first cervical nerve Contrary to the other spinal nerves,
the first cervical nerve does not exit the vertebral canal by an intervertebral
foramen but by the lateral vertebral foramen (28) The vertebral foramen
of the atlas is also different in that it is bounded dorsally by a dorsal arch
(29), ventrally by a ventral arch (30) The two arches are joined laterally by
bone designated the lateral mass (Massa lateralis) The atlas is the only
ver-tebra to have a ventral arch (30) in the place of the body This is due to the
caudal shift of a great part of the embryonal primordium of its vertebral
body to form the dens of the axis The second cervical vertebra, the axis
(31), for this reason contains in its dens (32) the displaced part of the body
of the atlas The last cervical vertebra differs from the other cervical vertebra
by its large spinous process, its caudal costal foveae for the first ribs and by the absence of the transverse foramen
4 Vertebral Column and Thorax
The vertebrae are studied individually and on the mounted skeleton to obtain a total overview of the normal S-shaped curvature with its lordoses (ventral convexities) and kyphoses (ventral concavities) From a forensic view, particular attention is placed on the identification of individual vertebrae, for which reason comparison of the different segments of the vertebral column is done
II The sacrum is formed by the fusion of the three sacral vertebrae ally, it bears the sacral wing (33), whose auricular surface (34) forms a syn- ovial joint with the auricular surface of the ilium The median sacral crest
Later-(35) is formed by an incomplete fusion of the spinous processes The
later-al ends of the fused laterlater-al (transverse) processes form the laterlater-al sacrlater-al
crest (36) The intermediate sacral crest (37) results from the sequential
arrangement of the fused mamilloarticular processes The promontory (38)
forms the cranioventral contour of the sacral bone and takes part in the limiting terminal line of the pelvic inlet From the vertebral canal, the sacral nerves enter intervertebral foramina and leave the vertebral column after
dividing into dorsal and ventral branches that emerge from the dorsal (39)
and ventral sacral foramina (40), respectively, that proceed from each
inter-vertebral foramen
(41), connected to the sternum by synovial articulation Ribs 10 – 12 are
the freely moveable, ‘breathing’ asternal ribs (42) By the overlapping of
the cartilaginous parts of the asternal ribs, a costal arch is formed on both sides of the body The last rib does not regularly participate in the forma-tion of the arch It usually terminates freely in the musculature of the
abdominal wall as a ‘floating’ rib (43) Ribs, sternum and thoracic
verte-bral column form the thorax, the inlet of which is bounded by the first pair of ribs and the outlet by the costal arches The dorsal part of the rib
is osseous (Os costae, —44) Its head (45) bears cranial and caudal
artic-ular facets (46) The two articartic-ular facets are separated by a rough crest
that, in most ribs, is indirectly in contact with the intervertebral disc by means of the intercapital ligament (see illustration, p 11) An indistinct
neck of the rib (47) connects the head to the body of the rib (48) The
prox-imodorsally located costal tubercle (49) bears an articular surface (50) for articulation with the costal fovea of the transverse process The angle of
the rib (51) is only indistinctly recognizable The costal cartilage (52)
begins at the costochondral junction and, slightly distal to this, there is a
distinct bend, the knee of the rib (53) that in other domestic mammals is
in the area of the costochondral junction
(55) with its six sternebrae (56), and the xiphoid process (57), which is
bony cranially, cartilaginous caudally The first pair of ribs articulates with the manubrium, the second at the synchondrosis that joins the manubrium
to the body of the sternum, the third through the seventh at the following sternal synchondroses, and the eighth and ninth jointly at the synchondro-sis joining the body to the xiphoid process
8 74
7 3
Trang 1643 4241
12
2116
15131110
8
26
2517
32
31
302827
15
29
31
1213
54
3
12173
12
15
1313
18
1616
4
765
161718
54
14131211109
57
55
56
5352
4448
5145
4946
4750
201918=131817
3338
171913
1220
12
146
16
1013
111917
16
2417
37
39363534
2312
16
3716
2237
1617
40
211313
Caudal costal fovea (5)
Cranial costal fovea (6)
Vertebral canal (7)
Vertebral arch (8)
Intervertebral foramen (9)
Cranial vertebral notch (10)
Caudal vertebral notch (11)
Spinous process (12)
Transverse process (13)
Costal fovea (14)
Transverse foramen (15)
Cranial articular process (16)
Caudal articular process (17)
Median sacral crest (35)
Lateral sacral crest (36)
Intermediate sacral crest (37)
Promontory (38)
Dorsal sacral foramen (39)
Ventral sacral foramen (40)
(lateral view)
Trang 17b) L IGAMENTS OF THE V ERTEBRAL C OLUMN
Three ligaments extend over longer areas of the vertebral column Short
ligaments bridge over the space between individual vertebrae
The ventral longitudinal ligament is attached ventrally to the bodies of the
vertebrae and to the intervertebral discs It extends from the second
cervi-cal vertebra to the sacrum
The dorsal longitudinal ligament lies on the floor of the vertebral canal and
attaches at the dorsal border of the intervertebral disc It extends from the
axis to the first caudal vertebrae
The nuchal ligament (see p 29) in the dog consists only of the paired
elas-tic funiculus nuchae It bridges over the cervical vertebral column from the
caudal end of the spinous process of the axis and extends to the spinous
process of the first thoracic vertebra Here it is continued by the
supraspinous ligament with loss of elasticity and attaches to the spinous
process of all the vertebrae up to the third sacral vertebra
The ligamenta flava extend as short elastic ligaments from vertebral arch
to vertebral arch and thus close the interarcuate spaces dorsally
Interspinous ligaments are lacking The M interspinalis lies between the
spinous processes of adjacent vertebrae
c) L IGAMENTS OF THE A TLANTO -O CCIPITAL AND A TLANTO -A XIAL J OINTS ,
AND OF THE T HORAX
At the atlanto-occipital joint, the dorsal atlanto-occipital membrane
rein-forces the joint capsule and bridges over the atlanto-occipital space (access
to the cerebellomedullar cistern for withdrawal of cerebrospinal fluid for
diagnostic purposes) The ventral atlanto-occipital membrane is a ventral rein-forcement of the joint capsule The lateral ligament is a lateral rein-
forcement of the joint capsule
On the atlanto-axial joint the dens is held to the floor of the vertebral canal and to the occipital bone by the apical ligament of the dens, the transverse
atlantal ligament and the alar ligaments The transverse atlantal ligament
is underlain by a synovial bursa and is attached to either side of the atlas
In the case of rupture of these ligaments or fracture of the dens following car accidents or strangulation, damage to the spinal cord may occur with
paralysis and death as consequences The elastic dorsal atlanto-axial
mem-brane extends from the cranial projection of the spine of the axis to the
dor-sal arch of the atlas
The joints between the articular processes of the vertebrae lack ligaments
The joint capsule is either tightly attached or more loose according to the degree of movement and influences the direction of the movement, which depends on the position of the articular surfaces
At the joint of the rib-head, the intra-articular ligament of the head of the
rib connects the costal heads of both sides and lies over the intervertebral
disc It is also called the intercapital ligament It is lacking at the first and the last two pairs of ribs The radiate ligament of the head of the rib is pre-
sent as a strengthening of the joint capsule
At the costotransverse joints, the joint capsule is reinforced by a
costo-transverse ligament.
5 Articulations of the Vertebral Column and of the Thorax;
Atlanto-Occipital and Atlanto-Axial Joints
a) J OINTS (A RTICULATIONS )
Composition
I Atlanto-occipital joint Occipital condyles and Elliptical joint, Hinge joint, Right and left joint cavities
cranial articular foveae simple joint dorsal and ventral communicate ventrally
of the atlas flexion
II Atlanto-axial joint Fovea of the dens and Trochoid joint, Axial rotation The atlanto-axial joint communicates
caudal articular fossa of simple joint of the head on with the atlanto-occipital joint
the atlas, dens and ventral the neck, head articular surface of the dens ‘shaking’
III Joints of the Articular processes Plane joints Sliding joints Considerable mobility in the cervical articular processes of adjacent vertebrae region, decreasing in the thoracic and
costal fovea of the same-numbered (the more caudal) vertebra
V Joint of the rib tubercle Articular surface of the Plane joint, Hinge joint On the last ribs, the costotransverse
(costotransverse joint) costal tubercle and the simple joint joint approaches and then fuses with the
costal fovea of the trans- costovertebral joint
verse process of the same numbered (the more caudal) vertebra
VI Sternocostal joint Cartilaginous ends of Condylar joint, Hinge joint The first rib articulates with the
manu-the first to manu-the eighth simple joint brium of manu-the sternum The ninth (last ribs and the sternum sternal) rib is not connected to the sternum
by a synovial joint but by fibrous tissue
VII Costochondral Costal bone and Synchondrosis Nearly rigid and Postnatally a true joint may develop
synchondrosis costal cartilage immoveable from a synchondrosis
VIII Sternal synchondroses Manubrium of the sternum, Synchondrosis Increasingly Of the sternal synchondroses, the
sternebrae of the body of the rigid and manubriosternal and xiphosternal sternum, xiphoid process immoveable synchondroses are specially named
IX Intervertebral symphysis Bodies of adjacent vertebrae, Intervertebral Slight The discs in the intervertebral region
(joints between the starting with the axis disc without mobility of the sacrum ossify in the secondbodies of adjacent and including the a space year of life
vertebrae) caudal vertebrae
X Sacroiliac joint See joints of the pelvic limb
1
2
3
Trang 18vC4
D
ACB
D
vC5
BAE
vT5
F
C DG
Alar ligg.
Lat ligament Articular capsule
Articular capsule
Transverse atlantal lig.
Apical lig of dens Occipital condyle
Caudal extremity
Atlanto-occipital and atlanto-axial joints
Costovertebral joints Cranial extremity Joint of head of rib
Costal fovea Joints of articular process Interspinalis m.
A Dorsal longitudinal lig.
B Cran articular process
Intervertebral disc:
C Nucleus pulposus
E Radiate lig of head of rib
F Intra-articular lig of head of rib
H Costotransverse lig.
I Radiate sternocostal lig.
(see pp 9, 89, 91)
Trang 19The origin of the muscles or, respectively, their attachment to the skull and
the cervical and thoracic parts of the vertebral column, the ribs and
ster-num (collectively, the trunk) as well as to the thoracic limb is decisive for
their designation as trunk-limb muscles Because they insert on part of the
shoulder girdle, it is also justified to designate them synonymously as
mus-cles of the shoulder girdle Of these musmus-cles, the serratus ventralis provides
the main synsarcotic junction between the trunk and the limb, its area of
rotation being found in the middle of the serrate surface of the scapula
The trapezius muscle originates with both its parts (according to Donat et al.,
1967, three parts) at the dorsal midline above the spinous processes of the
cer-vical and thoracic vertebrae Its thoracic part (7) ends in a cranioventral
direc-tion on the dorsal third of the spine of the scapula The cervical part (6) inserts
after a caudoventral course on the dorsal two-thirds of the spine of the
scapu-la Despite the different directions of their fiber course, both parts act as
pro-tractors of the limb This is because the thoracic part inserts dorsal to and the
cervical part ventral to the area of rotation of the synsarcotic trunk-limb
junc-tion The cleidocervical muscle (15) according to the nomenclature proposal
of Donat et al., 1967, is considered as a third part (clavicular part) of the
trapezius muscle It courses between the clavicular intersection (16) and the
dorsal midline of the neck The dorsal branch of the accessory nerve (13),
which innervates this muscle, appears between the cleidocervical muscle and the cervical part of the trapezius muscle at the apex of a muscularly bounded triangle, and can be followed further where the transection of the trapezius muscle (see the dissection instructions) begins
The omotransversarius muscle (14) runs as its name suggests between the
acromion and shoulder (omos) and the transverse process (wing) of the
atlas Innervation: nC 4vm Deep to its dorsomedial surface is the
superfi-cial cervical lymph node, which should be preserved
The latissimus dorsi muscle (8) arises from the broad thoracolumbar fascia
(9) and ends chiefly on the teres major tuberosity by common tendon with
the teres major It has attachments to the brachial fascia as well as to the major and minor tubercular crests of the humerus, by which a broad axil-
lary arch is formed The thoracodorsal nerve and vessels (see p 19) enter
the medial aspect of the muscle
The rhomboideus muscle (10) is covered by the trapezius muscle and sists of the M rhomboideus capitis (nC vm), M rhomboideus cervicis (nC vm) and M rhomboideus thoracis (nT vm) They originate at the nuchal crest and at the dorsal midline and end on the scapular cartilage Function:
con-To fix, elevate, and retract the thoracic limb; when the neck is lowered, to elevate the neck
Chapter 2: Neck and Chest Region (Cervical and Thoracic Region)
1 Cutaneous Muscles and Cutaneous Nerves of the Neck and Thoracic Wall
To demonstrate the cutaneous muscles a longitudinal incision is made through the skin on the left side of the body The incision should extend from the base of the ear to the midlevel of the scapula up to the ventral end of the last rib In doing this, the cutaneous muscles must be preserved At the ends of the incision at the base of the ear and at the level of the last rib, a transverse section is made through the skin, which is then reflected to the dorsal and ventral midlines The external jugular and omobrachial veins, which are superficially located, are examined first in order to avoid unintended damage to the vessels and the smearing of the dissection site with the coagulated blood
and thus bring about movement of the skin, for example, to ward off
insects
The cutaneus trunci muscle (4) converges in its fiber course to the axillary
fossa and to the ventromedian linea alba and is penetrated by fine
cuta-neous nerves Its motor innervation is by the lateral thoracic nerve (5), the
branches of which can be seen through the ventral half of this thin muscle
The platysma (2) can be seen extending from its origin on the dorsal
mid-line to the border between head and neck where it is continued by the
cuta-neus faciei muscle
The nerve supply of the cervical platysma (3) originates from the
caudal auricular nerve of the seventh cranial nerve (facial nerve) It crosses deep to the muscle in a dorsal paramedian course The nerve can be iden-tified by spreading the coarse fiber bundles of the muscle
The superficial sphincter colli muscle (1) is ventral on the neck with
trans-verse fibers that are closely attached to the skin
To demonstrate the cervical cutaneous nerves, cut the dorsal linear origin of the platysma and reflect the muscle cranially to the cranial transverse section
of the skin To demonstrate the thoracic cutaneous nerves, cut the cutaneus trunci muscle along the caudal transverse section of the skin at the level of the last rib as well as at the caudal border of the triceps brachii muscle and reflect it ventrally toward the linea alba In the ventral thoracic and abdominal regions in all cases the aponeurosis of the external abdominal oblique muscle (34) should be preserved
(they also contain autonomic fibers); they are the parts of the spinal nerves
that are visible subcutaneously The spinal nerves (e.g., nC4) divide at their
exit from the intervertebral foramen into a dorsal branch (d) and a ventral
branch (v) that further divide into a medial branch (dm or, respectively, vm)
and a lateral branch (dl or, respectively, vl) Except for the dorsal cervical
region, the deeply located medial branches contain predominantly motor
fibers, the lateral branches mainly sensory fibers for the supply of the skin
Of the eight cervical nerves, only nC1 passes through the lateral vertebral
foramen of the atlas The second through the seventh cervical nerves leave the
vertebral canal cranial to the vertebra of the same number, and the eighth
cer-vical nerve caudal to the seventh cercer-vical vertebra The first cercer-vical nerve
does not reach the skin of the neck with its dorsomedial branch (nC 1dm)
The major occipital nerve (nC 2dm) runs deep to the superficial
cervicoau-ricularis muscle to the occipital region The following nC 3 dm to nC 6dm are
often double The last two, nC 7dm and nC 8dm are small and do not
usual-ly reach the skin but end in the thick muscular layer The inner vation of the
dorsal cutaneous cervical region by dm-branches is dif ferent from the
arrangement in other regions of the body in which the skin is supplied by
lat-eral branches, and the musculature by medial The difference is clear when
one compares sites of emergence of the cutaneous nerves in the dorsal
cervi-cal and dorsal thoracic regions
I The dorsal cutaneous branches of the cervical nerves reach the dorsal
midline in the company of cutaneous blood vessels and are formed by
dm-branches
II The dorsal cutaneous branches of the thoracic nerves appear a
hands-breadth dorsal and paramedian; that is, they are more lateral and are ularly formed by dl-branches They are accompanied by cutaneous blood vessels The thirteen thoracic nerves leave the vertebral canal caudal to the vertebra of the same number and divide into a dorsal and a ventral branch The ventral branch passes as an intercostal nerve ventrally between the ribs and gives off a vl (prox or lateral cutaneous)-branch about the middle of the length of the intercostal space and a vl (dist or ventral cutaneous)-branch at the ventral end of the intercostal space
reg-III The ventral cutaneous branches of the cervical nerves are in a
ventro-lateral row and are formed by vl-branches (nC 2vl to nC 5vl) The nC 2v through nC 5v communicate with each other and form a cervical plexus in the depth of the musculature The ventral cutaneous nerve of C2 runs with
its great auricular nerve (11) to the base of the ear and with its transverse
cervical nerve (12) to the ventral cervical region and the caudal part of the
mandibular space The ventral branches of C6 to T2 join to form the brachial plexus with their main parts (see p 19), and it is from this plexus that the plexus nerves of the thoracic limb originate
IV The lateral cutaneous branches of the thoracic nerves are formed by the
proximal vl-branches (lateral cutaneous branches of the intercostal nerves) mentioned above
V The ventral cutaneous branches of the thoracic nerves are formed by the
distal vl branches (ventral cutaneous branches of the intercostal nerves) These nerves are very small
2 Dorsal Extrinsic Limb Muscles
Knowledge of the bones of the shoulder girdle is required for the dissection (see p 17) In the course of the dissection, the cleidocervical and trapezius muscles are cut along the course of the dorsal branch of the accessory nerve (cranial nerve XI) and reflected to either side Following this, the division of the accessory nerve into a long dorsal and a short ventral branch can be demonstrated
Trang 20T13dl
34
2928
14
g
C vl 5
C vl 415
1918
ab17
24
j25
26
1522
m Lateral thoracic a., v and n.
n Int thoracic a and v (cutaneous br.)
19 Clavicular part brachialis m.)
(cleido-20 Acromial part
21 Scapular part
22 Brachialis m.
23 Extensor carpi radialis m.
24 Lateral head of triceps m.
25 Long head of triceps m.
26 Teat (mammary papilla)
27 Sternohyoid and sternothyroid mm.
1 Superficial sphincter colli m.
2 Platysma
3 Platysma branch of facial nerve (VII)
Trang 21a) Like the subclavian and internal jugular veins, the E XTERNAL J UGULAR VEIN
(8) originates from the brachiocephalic vein at the level of the thoracic inlet
In caudal-cranial sequence, it gives off the cephalic, superficial cervical and
omobrachial veins It then divides at the caudal border of the mandibular
gland into a dorsal branch, the maxillary vein (19), and a ventral branch, the
linguofacial vein (18) At its union with the external jugular vein, the
cephal-ic vein (11) lies in the medial part of the lateral pectoral groove and joins the
external jugular just cranial to the thoracic inlet The superficial cervical vein
(10) is satellite to the extrathoracic part of the same-named artery; it joins the
external jugular near the root of the neck, usually just opposite the cephalic
vein The omobrachial vein (9) courses superficially upon the deltoid and
clei-docervical muscles; it extends between the axillobrachial vein and the
exter-nal jugular The axillobrachial vein passes dorsally from the cephalic along the
lateral border of the cleidobrachialis muscle, then deep to the deltoid muscle
to join the caudal circumflex humeral vein (see p 21)
jugular vein (22) runs along the dorsolateral border of the trachea and gives
off branches for the brain, thyroid gland, larynx and pharynx The left and
right common carotid arteries originate at the level of the thoracic inlet from
the arterial brachiocephalic trunk (see p 49) The common carotid artery
(24) courses cranially on the dorsolateral border of the trachea and
dis-patches branches to the thyroid gland, larynx and pharynx The
vagosym-pathetic trunk (23) is a large nerve that lies dorsal to the common carotid
artery It conducts sympathetic fibers from the thoracolumbar sympathetic
trunk to the head (see p 49) Parasympathetic constituents of the vagus
nerve (tenth cranial nerve) reach from the head predominantly to the body
cavities After its separation from the sympathetic trunk, the vagus nerve
gives off the recurrent laryngeal nerve (see p 49) within the thoracic cavity
and after this contains parasympathetic and sensory nerve fibers, and
per-haps skeletal motor fibers for the esophagus The recurrent laryngeal nerve
(26) with its skeletal motor, autonomic and sensory fibers turns and passes
cranially in the neck It lies within the connective tissue laterlly on the trachea
that, like the esophagus, receives branches from it The recurrent laryngeal
nerve is easily found as it passes dorsal to the thyroid gland; its terminal part
are considered here The tracheal (jugular) lymphatic trunk is the large paired lymphatic trunk of the neck It begins as the efferent drainage of the medial retropharyngeal lymph node, receives afferent vessels from the super-ficial and deep cervical lymph nodes and empties at the venous angle formed
by the confluence of external and internal jugular veins At its termination,
the left tracheal lymphatic trunk (28) joins the thoracic duct (29), which ducts the lymph from the body cavities The medial retropharyngeal lymph
con-node (1) lies at the cranial attachment of the sternothyroid muscle It receives
its lymph from the head The superficial cervical lymph node (27) lies deep to
the omotransversarius muscle, between it and the serratus ventralis Its ent vessels pass from the superficial cervical area, and also from the trunk, head, and thoracic limb The deep cervical lymph nodes lie close to the tra-chea and consist of an inconstant cranial, middle and caudal group Their afferents are from their immediate surroundings in the neck
and parathyroid glands The cervical part of the esophagus (25) lies dorsal
to the trachea in the middle of the neck and dorsolateral (to the left) at the thoracic inlet Its reddish color is due to its external coat of striated mus-cle This striated muscle of the visceral type is innervated by the vagus
nerve The trachea (6) consists of C-shaped incomplete cartilaginous rings
that are closed off by a membranous part that contains transverse bundles
of trachealis (smooth) muscle The incomplete cartilaginous rings and their complementary membranous parts are connected to each other by anular ligaments The tracheal lumen is kept open by the incomplete cartilaginous rings that are braced by fibroelastic tissue The tension thus created makes possible the changes in tracheal length with respiration and swallowing and is responsible for the typical round cross-section of the trachea, which
can be narrowed by contraction of the trachealis muscle The thyroid gland
(21) lies at the cranial end of the trachea with left and right lobes that
some-times may be connected by a slight ventral isthmus The bilateral pairs of
parathyroid glands (20) lie on the thyroid gland as pale, rounded glands
with a diameter of about three millimeters They lie on the lateral and
3 Ventral Extrinsic Limb Muscles
In the course of the dissection, the superficial and deep pectoral muscles are transected a fingerbreadth lateral to the ventral midline In this way, their innervation by cranial and caudal pectoral nerves can be observed
The function of the trunk-limb muscles consists in the movement of the head,
vertebral column and thoracic limb, and in the suspension of the trunk by the
thoracic limbs The more ventral muscles act more in the suspension of the
trunk and therefore are rich in tendinous intersections; whereas, the more
dorsal muscles are more functional in limb movement and the suspension of
the thoracic limb is an accessory function
With the clavicular part of the deltoid muscle (cleidobrachialis), the
super-ficial pectoral muscles form the lateral pectoral groove In the dog, the
cephalic vein occupies only the most medial part of the groove as, at this
level, it does not pass in the main part of the groove, but medially upon the
superficial pectoral, deep to the cleidobrachialis The broad transverse
pec-toral muscle (14) takes linear origin from the manubrium and cranial part
of the body of the sternum The more superficial descending pectoral
mus-cle (15) arises only from the manubrium The two parts of the superficial
pectoral end on the crest of the major tubercle of the humerus
The principal portion of the deep pectoral muscle (17) forms the base for
the narrow, laterally located accessory portion (16) The deep pectoral
muscle has its origin from the manubrium and body of the sternum and
ter-minates at the major and minor tubercles The accessory portion inserts on
the brachial fascia The nerves that supply the deep pectoral can be seen on
its cut surface
The serratus ventralis muscle (31) is subdivided into the cervical serratus
ven-tralis muscle (nCvm) and the thoracic serratus venven-tralis muscle (long thoracic
nerve —30) The two fuse with each other in the area of the thoracic inlet
They originate from the transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae or,
respectively, the ribs and insert jointly on the facies serrata of the scapula
The sternocleidomastoid muscle (ventral branch of the accessory nerve)
consists of three individual muscles: The cleidomastoid (5) and
sternomas-toid (3) muscles fuse cranially; the sternomassternomas-toid muscle and
sterno-occip-ital muscle (4) fuse caudally The lateral surface of the sternocleidomastoid
muscle forms the jugular furrow for the external jugular vein The
inner-vation by the ventral branch of the accessory nerve is to the deep face of the
sternomastoid and sterno-occipital muscles caudal to the mandibular
gland Here, the ventral branch (see p 13) lies between the sternomastoid
and sterno-occipital muscles, which form a continuous muscle and can
only be separated artificially The accessory nerve divides into the ously identified dorsal ramus, which communicates with nC 2, and into the short ventral ramus whose three branches end after a short course in the
previ-individual muscles that together comprise the sternocleidomastoideus
The deltoid muscle has scapular, acromial, and clavicular parts; the clavicular
part is also designated the cleidobrachialis muscle (13) because it extends from
the clavicular intersection to the humerus, the bone of the brachium The
scapu-lar and acromial parts of the deltoid muscle are supplied by the axilscapu-lary nerve, a
branch of the brachial plexus The cleidobrachialis muscle is innervated by the
accessory axillary or brachiocephalic nerve (nC 6 – 12), the most cranial branch
of the brachial plexus It enters the deep surface of the cleidobrachialis two
fin-gerbreadths distal to the clavicular intersection The term brachiocephalicus
muscle is a collective term for a continuous muscle that, in domestic mammals,
is formed by parts of the deltoid and sternocleidomastoideus muscles, and by the cleidocervicalis Its three parts have an attachment to the clavicular intersection
and are the cleidobrachialis, cleidomastoideus, and cleidocervicalis The brachialis extends from the humerus to the clavicular intersection The clavicu-
cleido-lar intersection is a thin layer of connective tissue that crosses the
brachio-cephalicus muscle cranial to the shoulder; at its medial end, it contains a small cartilage and often a small bone that is visible radiographically The intersection attaches the fibers of the cleidobrachialis on its distal side; the fibers of the clei-docervicalis and cleidomastoideus on its proximal side, and is a complete parti-tion between the attaching muscle fibers The cleidomastoideus arises from the clavicular intersection and joins the sternomastoideus (see above) to insert on the mastoid process of the temporal bone The cleidocervicalis arises from the clavicular intersection superficial to the cleidomastoid From the intersection, the cleidocervicalis extends craniodorsally to the median fibrous seam of the
neck that attaches right and left muscles dorsally The term cleidocephalicus
muscle is applied to the cleidomastoid and cleidocervical muscles together and
the brachiocephalicus may therefore be described as consisting of the brachialis and cleidocephalicus
cleido-The sternohyoid muscle (nC 1vm – 7) and the sternothyroid muscle (nC 1vm
– 2) do not belong to the trunk-limb musculature, but to the long hyoid cles The right and left sternohyoid muscles contact each other at the ventral midline of the neck The sternothyroideus muscle is adjacent laterally
mus-4 Nerves, Vessels, and Visceral Organs of the Neck
The jugular furrow and external jugular vein have been dissected To demonstrate structures of the ventral neck, the sternohyoid muscles are separated
in the midline and transected jointly with the sternothyroideus muscles
Trang 22c
d
e
fg
l37
Trang 23notch (49), forms the distal articulation with the articular circumference of
the ulna The distal radius ends medially with the medial styloid process
(50).
II The ulna projects beyond the head of the radius with its olecranon (51),
which is enlarged proximally to form the tuber olecrani (52) The
semilu-nar trochlear notch (54) begins at the pointed anconeal process (53) from
which it curves distally, medially and laterally, to reach the medial coronoid
process (55) or, respectively, lateral coronoid process (56) The radial notch (57) lies at the transition to the body of the ulna (58) The head of the ulna (59) forms the distal (!) end of the bone It possesses the articular circum- ference (60) medially and ends distally with the lateral styloid process (61)
The interosseous space of the antebrachium (62) is especially wide in the
distal third of the antebrachium
d) The C ARPAL B ONES are laid down in the embryo in three rows and are
reduced postnatally to two rows The medial radial carpal bone (63)
con-tains the intermediate carpal bone of the proximal row as well as the tral carpal bone of the middle row and is also called the intermedioradial
cen-carpal bone The ulnar cen-carpal bone (64), which is distal to the ulna, and the laterally projecting accessory carpal bone (65) complete the proximal row
Carpal bones I – IV (66) form the distal row and articulate with the
metacarpal bones
Synonyms for the carpal bones:
Radial carpal bone Os scaphoideum
Ulnar carpal bone Os triquetrumAccessory carpal bone Os pisiformis Carpal bone I Os trapeziumCarpal bone II Os trapezoideumCarpal bone III Os capitatum
e) The M ETACARPAL B ONES I–V have a basis (67) with an articular surface
proximally, a long body (68) and finally a distal (!) head (69) Metacarpal
I may be absent or divided into two bones in which case the proximal part
is fused with the first carpal bone
f) The B ONES OF THE D IGIT are the proximal, middle and distal phalanges
On digit I, the thumb (pollex), the middle phalanx is usu ally absent The
proximal phalanx (70) and the middle phalanx (71) have a basis (72)
prox-imally, a body (73) and a distal head (74) The indistinct flexor tuberosity
(75) is proximopalmar on the middle phalanx; it serves for the termination
of the superficial flexor tendon The distal phalanx or unguicular bone (76) has an articular surface (77) proximodorsally, an indistinct extensor
process (78) for the insertion of the extensor tendon and proximopalmarly
an indistinct flexor tubercle (79) for the attachment of the deep flexor don The sharp-edged unguicular crest (80) overlies the unguicular sulcus
ten-(81) and the basis of the unguicular process (82), which bears the claw g) The S ESAMOID B ONES of the manus are the sesamoid bone of the abduc-
tor digiti I muscle (83), which articulates with a small mediopalmar facet
of the radial carpal bone, and proximal sesamoid bones (84), which are
palmar at the metacarpophalangeal joints On the palmar side of the distal
interphalangeal joint there is a distal sesamoid (85) Dorsally on the imal interphalangeal joint there is a dorsal sesamoid (86) that is always car-
prox-tilaginous (sesamoid cartilage), and the sesamoid that is dorsal at the metacarpophalangeal joint is occasionally cartilaginous
Chapter 3: Thoracic Limb
1 The Skeleton of the Thoracic Limb
The pectoral (shoulder) girdle consists of scapula, coracoid bone and clavi
-cle, which are completely developed as individual bones in many
verte-brates below the mammals (e.g., birds) In the domestic mammals there is
a considerable reduction of the coracoid to a coracoid process of the
scapu-la and of the cscapu-lavicle to the cscapu-lavicuscapu-lar intersection, a connective tissue strip
within the brachiocephalicus muscle (see p 14) There often remains as
well a small bony remnant of the clavicle, which may be observed radio
-graphically at the medial end of the clavicular intersection It appears as a
lamina of bone and cartilage ca 10 x 5 mm
a) The S CAPULA is the main constituent of the shoulder girdle The costal
surface (1) of the scapula is subdivided into a dorsally situated facies
serrata (2), the area of insertion of the serratus ventralis muscle, and a
ven-trally located subscapular fossa (3), the area of attachment of the
sub-scapularis muscle The lateral surface (4) is subdivided by the spine of the
scapula (5) into a supraspinous fossa (6, –origin of the supraspinatus
mus-cle) and an infraspinous fossa (7, –origin of the infraspinatus musmus-cle) At
the ventral end of the spine of the scapula is the acromion (8) with a distal
hamate process (9) The caudal margin (10) of the scapula is nearly
straight; the cranial margin (11) has a scapular notch (12) distally , and the
dorsal margin (13) bears a narrow scapular cartilage (14) Of its three
angles (caudal (15), cranial (16) and ventral (17) angles), the ventral one
has a shallow oval glenoid cavity (18) Caudodistal to the slight neck of the
scapula (19) is the infraglenoid tubercle (20) and craniodistally from the
neck, the supraglenoid tubercle (21) with the craniomedial coracoid
process (22).
b) The H UMERUS bears the head of the humerus (23) as an articular
promi-nence for the shoulder joint The head is separated distinctly from the neck
of the humerus (24) only caudally The crest of the greater tubercle (26)
passes distally from the cranial margin of the greater tubercle (25), and the
line of the triceps muscle (27) passes proximocaudally from the deltoid
tuberosity; it passes caudal to the greater tubercle The intertubercular
groove (28) seats the tendon of origin of the biceps brachii muscle and
forms the deep furrow that defines the lesser tubercle (29) medially From
the lesser tubercle, the crest of the lesser tubercle (30) extends distally
where it passes over into the lateral supracondylar crest The body of the
humerus (31) bears the deltoid tuberosity (32) laterally at the junction of
its proximal and middle thirds The deltoid tuberosity serves for the
inser-tion of the deltoid muscle From the deltoid tuberosity, the humeral crest
(33) continues distally to the medial epicondyle The crest bounds
cranial-ly the spiralcranial-ly coursing groove of the brachialis muscle (34), which is
occu-pied by the brachialis muscle The humeral condyle (35) consists of a large
medial trochlea (36) for articulation with the ulna and the small lateral
capitulum humeri, which articulates with the radius The humeral condyle
bears an epicondyle on either side From the lateral epicondyle (38,
bear-ing roughnesses for the origin of the lateral collateral ligament and lateral
digital extensor, and a caudal facet for the origin of the ulnaris lateralis
muscle), the distinct lateral supracondylar crest (38') extends proximally
The medial epicondyle (39) is the process for attachment of the medial
col-lateral ligament and, caudally, the digital and carpal flexors The deep,
cau-dal olecranon fossa (40) and the shallow radial fossa (41) communicate by
the supratrochlear foramen (42), which is closed off in life by membrane
c) The B ONES OF THE A NTEBRACHIUM are the radius and ulna
I On the radius, the head of the radius (43) has a caudomedial condylar
articular circumference (44) for the proximal articulation with the ulna at
its radial notch The neck of the radius (45) is indistinct and bears
caudo-medially a small prominence, the radial tuberosity (46), for the termination
of the radial insertion of the biceps brachii muscle The body of the radius
(47) is continued distally by the trochlea of the radius (48), which
articu-lates distally with the carpal bones, and laterally, by means of the ulnar
1
2
3 4 5 6
Trang 242
31
16
13
15
1011
12
192023
40
35 3936
43
53 52
5154554546
5847
48 605950
63 656466
83 I IIIII IV 67
68
84
7672
7374
758579
6247
41 4038'
33
3426
3227
25 24
2018
23
21 17
1298
10
76
45
11
15141316
7778
7682
7181
86
6968
67
66 63III IV
64 65
615949
II
7071
Bones of thoracic limb
Scapula
Costal surface (1) Facies serrata (2) Subscapular fossa (3) Lateral surface (4) Spine of scapula (5) Supraspinous fossa (6) Infraspinous fossa (7) Acromion (8)
Hamate process (9) Caudal margin (10) Cranial margin (11) Scapular notch (12) Dorsal margin (13) Scapular cartilage (14) Caudal angle (15) Cranial angle (16) Ventral angle (17) Glenoid cavity (18) Neck of scapula (19) Infraglenoid tubercle (20) Supraglenoid tubercle (21) Coracoid process (22)
Intertubercular groove (28) Lesser tubercle (29) Crest of lesser tubercle (30) Body of humerus (31) Deltoid tuberosity (32) Humeral crest (33) Sulcus for brachialis muscle (34) Humeral condyle (35)
Trochlea humeri (36) Capitulum humeri (37) Lateral epicondyle (38) Lateral supracondylar crest (38') Medial epicondyle (39)
Olecranon fossa (40) Radial fossa (41) Supratrochlear foramen (42)
Head of radius (43) Articular circumference (44) Neck of radius (45)
Radial tuberosity (46) Body of radius (47) Trochlea of radius (48) Ulnar notch (49) Medial styloid process (50)
Olecranon (51) Tuber olecrani (52) Anconeal process (53) Trochlear notch (54) Medial coronoid process (55) Lateral coronoid process (56) Radial notch (57)
Body of ulna (58) Head of ulna (59) Articular circumference (60) Lateral styloid process (61) Interosseous space of antebrachium (62)
Radial carpal bone (63) Ulnar carpal bone (64) Accessory carpal bone (65) Carpal bones I-IV (66)
Basis (67) Body (68) Head (69)
Proximal phalanx (70) Middle phalanx (71) Basis (72) Body (73) Head (74) Flexor tuberosity (75) Distal phalanx (76) Articular surface (77) Extensor process (78) Flexor tubercle (79) Unguicular crest (80) Unguicular sulcus (81) Unguicular process (82)
(palmar view)
(dorsolateral view)(lateral view)
(medial view)
Trang 25a) The V EINS are identified on the basis of their area of drainage The
sequence of branches serves only as an auxiliary criterion because it varies
considerably in the venous system In the arterial and nervous systems, the
variations are less
The very short subclavian vein is continued at the level of the first rib by
the axillary vein (21), which releases first the (often doubly developed)
external thoracic vein (22) to the pectoral muscles A further venous
branch, the lateral thoracic vein (4), is given off and passes with the
same-named artery and nerve It runs along the lateral border of the deep
pec-toral muscle (see p 13) or, respectively, of the latissimus dorsi muscle At
its origin, it contacts the axillary lymph node (21) and, at the level of the
second intercostal space, the accessory axillary lymph node (3) From the
axillary vein then the subscapular vein (5) courses to the same-named
mus-cle and the thoracodorsal vein (2) to the medial aspect of the latissimus
dor-si muscle The subscapular vein releases the caudal circumflex humeral vein
(18), which passes deeply, coursing in an arciform manner laterally upon
the caudal aspect of the humeral joint capsule, and anastomosing laterally
with the cranial circumflex humeral vein (23) (see p 25) The latter is a
very slight vein that originates from the axillary vein and courses to the
hilus area of the biceps brachii muscle After branching off the
axillo-brachial vein (see p 25), which can also originate from the caudal
circum-flex humeral vein, the axillary vein is continued by the brachial vein (6) On
the flexor aspect of the elbow joint, the latter gives off the superficial
brachial vein (10), the continuation of which, the median cubital vein (27),
originates from the cephalic vein The brachial vein passes deep to the
pronator teres, gives off the common interosseous vein (12) and is
contin-ued by the median vein (13).
b) The S PINAL N ERVES nCv 6 to nTv 2 form the roots of the brachial plexus
in which the ventral branches of these several spinal nerves intermesh with
an exchange of fibers The major nerves of the thoracic limb originate as
branches of the brachial plexus In the following identification of nerves
and muscles, the nerves serve as guiding structures in determining the
homologies of the muscles and, on the other hand, the nerves are identified
on the basis of their area of supply
The axillary nerve (nC 7 and 8, —17) sends a branch to the teres major
muscle (1), the muscle arising proximally at the caudal margin of the
scapula and terminating, with the latissimus dorsi, on the humerus The
axillary nerve innervates additionally the caudal part of the subscapular
muscle as well as the shoulder joint At the caudal border of the
subscapu-lar muscle, the nerve passes deeply, runs laterally ventral to the long head
of triceps and appears finally on the lateral surface of the shoulder (see p
21) The accessory axillary nerve (brachiocephalic nerve, nC 6 and 7, —1 5 )
is the most cranial branch of the brachial plexus (its origin as a branch of
the brachial plexus is disputed by some authors) It extends to the
clavicu-lar part of the deltoid, pro viding the motor supply to that muscle, and
pen-etrates the muscle with its sensory cutaneous branch The subscapular
nerve (nC 6 and 7, —1 6) enters the subscapular muscle (16) with two
branches The subscapular muscle originates in the subscapular fossa and
ends on the lesser tubercle of the humerus The suprascapular nerve (nC 6
and 7, —14) passes laterally, deeply between the subscapular and
supraspinatus muscles It crosses the cranial aspect of the neck of the
scapula and appears on the lateral surface of the scapula deep to the
supraspinatus and infraspinatus muscles (see p 21) The
musculocuta-neous nerve (nC 6 – nT 1, —2 5) lies upon the cranial face of the brachial
artery Its proximal muscular branch supplies the coracobrachialis and
biceps brachii muscles and, a fingerbreadth proximal to the elbow joint,
the musculocutaneous nerve communicates with the median nerve It then
proceeds craniomedially deep to the biceps brachii and ends in a distal
muscular branch for the brachialis (there may be an additional branch to
the biceps brachii muscle) and the medial cutaneous antebrachial nerve
(11) The latter nerve passes craniodistally between the biceps and
brachialis muscles, arriving subcutaneously and descending the
craniome-dial forearm The short, fusiform coracobrachialis muscle (20) originates
on the coracoid process and terminates at the level of the proximal third of
the humerus caudal to the lesser tubercle The tendon of origin of the long
biceps brachii muscle (26) arises from the supraglenoid tubercle of the
scapula and, enveloped by a cranial extension of the synovial joint capsule,
verse humeral ligament Its tendon of insertion (see text-illustration) splits Y-like distal to the flexor aspect of the elbow joint and inserts on the prox-
imal radius (radial tuberosity) and ulna The brachialis muscle (see
text-illustration) runs with its insertion tendon between the branching tendons
of the biceps brachii, reaching the proximal medial margin of the ulna and the radius The brachialis originates caudal to the head of the humerus, winds spirally in the groove of the brachialis muscle from caudal to latero-cranially around the humerus, then distomedially, and ends on the proxi-
mal ulna The radial nerve (nC 7 – nT 2, —1 9) passes deeply distal to the
strong insertion tendon of the teres major muscle, entering between the medial and long heads of the triceps brachii muscle, which it innervates
Before it enters the triceps, it gives off a small branch to the tensor fasciae
antebrachii muscle (7) The latter muscle originates from the insertion
ten-don of the latissimus dorsi muscle and terminates on the olecranon and the
medial antebrachial fascia The ulnar nerve (nC 8 – nT 2, —8) and median
nerve (nC 8 – nT 2, —2 4) originate jointly from the brachial plexus and
separate from each other in the distal arm region, the ulnar inclining dally Throughout their course in the proximal arm, the two nerves lie together caudal to the brachial artery and in association with the brachial vein The smaller median nerve is the more cranial At the distal third of
cau-the humerus, cau-the ulnar nerve dispatches cau-the caudal cutaneous antebrachial
nerve (9), which passes on the extensor aspect of the elbow joint and
dis-tally on the caudal forearm The cranial and caudal pectoral nerves, the
long thoracic nerve, the thoracodorsal nerve and the lateral thoracic nerve
are also accounted as nerves of the brachial plexus
2 Medial Veins of the Thoracic Limb; Medial Shoulder and Arm Muscles
and their Nerve Supply
For its further dissection, the thoracic limb is separated from the trunk To do this, the cleidocephalicus muscle (see p 14) is cut proximal to the clavicular intersection, and the other trunk-limb muscles are severed a few fingerbreadths proximal to their insertion on the thoracic limb The external jugular vein is transected cranially from the origin of the omobrachial vein, and the subclavian vein from the brachiocephalic vein shortly after the latter’s division into sub-clavian and external jugular The axillary artery is cut just lateral to the first rib The segmental nerve roots (nCv 6 to nTv 2) are sectioned a short distance before their confluence to form the brachial plexus, in which case the three roots of the phrenic nerve (nCv 5 through 7) should be cut near their origin from plexus nerves nCv 6 – 7, and preserved in their course to the thoracic inlet With the thoracic limb removed, the skin of the limb is reflected to the level of the metacarpophalangeal joints In doing this, observe the carpal pad at the carpus, the metacarpal pad at metacarpophalangeal joint level and the digital pads
at the level of the distal interphalangeal joints The distal end of the limb must be kept wrapped and moistened to avoid its drying out In reflecting the skin, especially on the flexor aspect of the elbow joint and on the cranial contour of the antebrachium, preserve for later dissection the superficial veins and the cutaneous nerves that accompany them Medially at the elbow joint, the pronator teres muscle (42) is cut in order to demonstrate the veins
26 Biceps brachii m (origin)
20 Coracobrachialis m.
Brachialis m.
26 Biceps brachii m (insertion)
Pronator quadratus m.
Trang 26mk
n o5247
394038
ed
5857sr41q534956
37 d
48
50 k
mknoh
4746
g3940
44i
p52
53
5149
41
545557
9 Caud cutaneous antebrachial n.
10 Superficial brachial vein
11 Medial cutaneous antebrachial n.
12 Common interosseous vein
13 Median vein and artery
14 Suprascapular a., v and n.
15 Accessory axillary n.
16 Subscapular n and m.
18 Caudal circumflex humeral vein
Transverse cubital a and v.
f Recurrent ulnar a and v.
g Ulnar a and v.
h Dors brr of ulnar a v and n.
i Caud interosseous a and v.
j Deep brachial a and v.
k Cephalic v.
l Medial br of supf cran antebrachial a.
and supf br of radial n (medial br.)
m Acc cephalic v.
n Radial a and v.
o Dors carpal br.
p Abaxial palmar digital n I
q Palm com digital aa and nn.
r Supf palmar arch
s Palm com digital vv.
Collateral ulnar a and v.
e
28 Serratus ventr thoracis m.
29 Serratus ventr cervicis m.
30 Latissimus dorsi m
31 Supraspinatus m.
32 Deep pectoral m (Section)
33 Pectoralis desc m (Section)
34 Pectoralis transv m (Section)
35 Clavicular part of m deltoideus Triceps brachii muscle:
50 Extensor carpi radialis m.
51 Palmar carpal ligament
52 Flexor retinaculum (Section)
53 Palmar anular ligament
Trang 27a) The L ATERAL S UPERFICIAL C UTANEOUS V EINS course in the scapular and
arm region unaccompanied by same-named arteries From the external
jugular, the cephalic vein (19) passes briefly laterally in the lateral pectoral
groove, then deeply between the cleidobrachialis and superficial pectoral
muscles to reach the lateral border of the cleidobrachialis Here it joins the
axillobrachial vein (7) Before the axillobrachial vein passes deep to the
scapular part of the deltoid muscle, it receives the omobrachial vein (6) At
the flexor aspect of the elbow joint, the cephalic vein gives off the median
cubital vein (20), the continuation of which, as the superficial brachial
vein, reaches the medially situated brachial vein The cephalic vein in its
course upon the cranial contour of the antebrachium is accompanied by
both branches of the superficial ramus of the radial nerve and by the distal
continuation (cranial superficial antebrachial artery) of the weak
superfi-cial antebrachial artery Three fingerbreadths proximal to the carpus, the
cephalic vein passes onto the medial side of the limb, then caudopalmarly
to reach the palmar surface of the manus Distal to this point, its straight
direct-distal course upon the cranial aspect of the limb is continued by the
accessory cephalic vein (21), which dispatches the dorsal common digital
veins on the dorsum of the manus
b) The N ERVES that supply the L ATERAL M USCLES of the shoulder and
brachium originate medially at the shoulder from the brachial plexus,
where their initial portions were previously identified (see p 19)
The axillary nerve gives off muscular branches to the medial aspect of the
scapular and acromial parts of the deltoid muscle and to the fusiform teres
minor muscle After this, the axillary nerve terminates with its cranial lateral
cutaneous brachial nerve (10) and its cranial cutaneous antebrachial nerve
(11) These nerves appear subcutaneously at the caudal border of the deltoid
muscle in the company of the axillobrachial vein The deltoid muscle
origi-nates from the scapular spine with its scapular part (3) and from the acromion
with its acromial part (4) Both parts end on a common tendon that inserts on
the deltoid tuberosity of the humerus The clavicular part of the deltoid (5,
cleidobrachial muscle), runs between the clavicular intersection and the
dis-tal end of the humeral crest It is supplied by the accessory axillary nerve
(bra-chiocephalic nerve, –nC 6) The teres minor muscle (see text-illustration) originates at the infraglenoid tubercle and the caudal margin of the scapula
and terminates at the teres minor tuberosity The suprascapular nerve (2),
previously identified, innervates the supra spi na tus muscle It crosses the neck
of the scapula cranially, and turns caudally on the lateral surface of the
scapu-la at the base of the acromion, finally entering the deep face of the
infra-spinatus muscle The suprainfra-spinatus muscle (1) originates in the supraspinous fossa and inserts cranially on the greater tubercle of the humerus The infra-
spinatus muscle (9) lies deep to the scapular part of the deltoid muscle Its
ori-gin is the infraspinatus fossa and spine and cartilage of the scapula It ends on the infraspinatus facet of the humerus, a little distal to the greater tubercle Where its tendon crosses over the cartilage-covered caudal part of the greater tubercle, it is underlain by a subtendinous bursa The insertion tendons of the infraspinatus and subscapularis have the function of lateral or, respectively, medial contractile ligaments at the shoulder joint, which lacks proper collat-eral ligaments Deep within the fibrous joint capsule there are lateral and medial fibrous reinforcements that are designated glenohumeral ligaments
(see p 26) The radial nerve (15), passing deep to the lateral head of the
tri-ceps, supplies with its proximal muscular branches the heads of the triceps brachii muscle and the anconeus muscle The continuing radial nerve passes
distally upon the brachialis muscle and divides into a deep branch (17) for the digital and carpal joint extensors (and the ulnaris lateralis) and a superficial
branch (16) that accompanies the cephalic vein on either side with lateral and
medial branches These branches continue on the distal limb alongside the accessory cephalic vein Their dorsal common digital nerves supply the dor-sum of the manus The triceps brachii muscle (see also the small illustration)
originates with its long head (12) on the caudal margin of the scapula, with its accessory head (14) caudally on the humerus, with its lateral head (13) from the line of triceps and, with its medial head (8), proximomedially from
the humerus Deep to their common termination at the olecranon, a tendinous bursa is present laterally Proximal to the olecranon there is an
sub-inconstant subcutaneous olecranon bursa The anconeus (18) originates at
the margins of the olecranon fossa and ends with a fleshy attachment
lateral-ly on the olecranon
3
4
3 Lateral Veins of the Thoracic Limb; Lateral Shoulder and Arm Muscles
and their Nerve Supply
To demonstate the anastomoses between the medial deep and the lateral superficial venous systems as well as the muscular branches of the axillary nerve, the scapular and acromial parts of the deltoid muscle are severed at their origin from the scapula (see text-illustration) To demonstrate the mus-cular branches of the radial nerve, the lateral head of the triceps brachii muscle is cut in its middle and the stumps reflected
9 Infraspinatus m.
1 Supraspinatus m.
Trang 2829 30
h i
g
34 19
j
35k36
lm
24a
20 Median cubital vein
11 Cranial cutaneous antebrachial nerve Triceps brachii muscle:
17 Deep br and collateral radial a and v.
10 Cranial lateral cutaneous brachial nerve
(craniolateral view)
21 Accessory cephalic vein
8 Medial head of triceps brachii m.
a Cutaneous brr of thoracodorsal a and v.
b Accessory axillary n (C )
c Supf brachial a and v.
d Cran supf antebrachial a
e Medial branch
f Lateral branch
g Lat cutaneous antebrachial n of radial n.
h Medial br of radial n (supf br.)
i Lateral br of radial n (supf br.)
j Dors com digital I a., v and n.
k Dors br of ulnar a and n.
l Abaxial dors dig a., v and n.
6
22 Cervical part of trapezius m (section)
23 Thoracic part of trapezius m (section)
30 Extensor carpi radialis m.
31 Extensor dig com m.
32 Extensor dig lat m.
33 Extensor carpi ulnaris m.
34 Abductor pollicis longus m.
35 Extensor pollicis m
Trang 29a) The C AUDOMEDIAL F OREARM M USCLES are the two digital flexors, the two
flexors of the carpal joint and the two pronators of the radioulnar joints
The origin of all of these muscles except one (pronator quadratus) is from the
medial epicondyle of the humerus; additional to its origin from the medial
epi-condyle, the deep digital flexor has radial and ulnar heads The pronator
quad-ratus muscle is composed of horizontal fibers that occupy the antebrachial
interosseous space Two of the muscles have, in addition to their origin from the
medial epicondyle, an origin from the ulna (flexor carpi ulnaris muscle) and an
origin from the ulna and radius (deep digital flexor muscle) Thus, the flexor
carpi ulnaris has two heads of origin, the deep digital flexor, three
The insertion of the two digital flexors is on the digital bones; of the two
carpal joint flexors, at the carpus or proximal metacarpus; of the two
pronators on the radius and ulna (these are things to consider in
identify-ing the different muscles)
I Of the two digital flexor muscles, the superficial digital flexor (10) is
con-tinued at the distal third of the antebrachium by its tendon, which divides in
the proximal metacarpus into four branches, each inserting on a digit (II – V)
Proximal to their termination on the flexor tuberosity of the middle phalanx
the tendon is modified to form a tunnel or sleeve-like manica flexoria (20) for
the corresponding tendon-branch of the deep digital flexor The deep digital
flexor muscle has a strong humeral head (8) and weak ulnar (7) and radial (6)
heads that join in the distal third of the antebrachium to form the deep flexor
tendon The deep flexor tendon then divides at the distal carpus and proximal
metacarpus into five tendons of insertion (I – V), four of which pass through
the sleeve of the corresponding manica flexoria and end on the flexor tubercle
of the distal phalanx of digits II – V The branch of the deep flexor to the distal
phalanx of digit I is unaccompanied by a tendon of the superficial flexor
II Of the two carpal joint flexors, the two heads of the flexor carpi ulnaris
muscle (15) remain separate up to their insertion on the accessory carpal
bone The ulnar head is mainly tendinous, the humeral head
predominant-ly fleshy The flexor carpi radialis muscle (2) has a divided terminal tendon
and inserts on the proximopalmar aspect of metacarpal bones II and III
III Of the two pronator muscles of the radioulnar joints, the pronator teres
muscle (see text-illustration) inserts craniomedially on the proximal radius
The pronator quadratus muscle (4) occupies the antebrachial interosseous
space palmarly, and extends between the radius and ulna
The nerve supply is by the median (5) and ulnar nerves (9), in which case
the more medially located muscles (pronator teres, pronator quadratus and
flexor carpi radialis muscles as well as the radial head of the deep digital
flexor muscle) are supplied alone by the median nerve The median nerve
also supplies the superficial digital flexor, the most caudal of the medial
muscles The more caudally located muscles (flexor carpi ulnaris muscle
and ulnar head of the deep digital flexor muscle) are supplied only by the
ulnar nerve The humeral head of the deep digital flexor muscle, consisting
of three bellies and found in the middle of both areas of supply is
inner-vated by both the ulnar and median nerves The ulnar nerve divides in the
proximal antebrachial third into the palmar branch and the dorsal branch
The dorsal branch of the ulnar nerve (14) runs distally along the
caudolat-eral border of the ulnaris latcaudolat-eralis muscle (extensor carpi ulnaris muscle),
crosses the accessory carpal bone laterally, and ends as abaxial dorsal
dig-ital nerve V on the dorsum of the manus The palmar branch of the ulnar
nerve (17) courses deeply, within the carpal canal medial to the accessory
carpal bone and between the accessorometacarpal ligaments (ligaments
that extend from the accessory carpal bone to metacarpal bones IV and V;
see illustration on p 27), to reach the lateral palmar surface of the manus
b) The C RANIOLATERAL F OREARM M USCLES are the digital extensors, two
muscles of the pollex (digit I, homologous to the thumb of human beings),
two carpal extensors and two supinators of the radioulnar joints (see
text-illustration)
The origin of the craniolateral forearm muscles is predominantly from the
lat-eral supracondylar crest (brachioradialis, extensor carpi radialis, common
digital extensor), the lateral epicondyle of the humerus and the lateral
collat-eral ligament of the elbow joint (supinator, latcollat-eral digital extensor, extensor
carpi ulnaris or ulnaris lateralis) The long abductor of digit I (m abductor
pollicis longus) and the extensor of digit I (m extensor pollicis) arise from the
cranial surface of the ulna and radius and the interosseous ligament that joins
the two bones
The insertion of these muscles is brought into play in distinguishing the
dif-ferent muscles of the craniolateral group Of the four muscle groups, each
consisting of two individual muscles, the digital extensors insert distally on
the extensor process of the distal phalanx, the pollex muscles between the metacarpus and the distal phalanx of digit I, the carpal extensors directly distally to the carpus and the metacarpus, and the supinators on the radius
I Of the two digital extensors, the common digital extensor muscle (13)
ends on digits II – V and the lateral digital extensor muscle (16) on digits
III – V
II Of the two pollex (digit I) muscles, the long abductor of digit I (11)
inserts proximally on the first metacarpal bone, and the extensor of digit I
(12) ends with two very weak tendons on the first and second digits III Of the two extensors of the carpal joint (both are named ‘extensors’;
only the extensor carpi radialis functions as an extensor of the joint), the
extensor carpi radialis muscle (3) ends by dividing into two tendons that
insert proximally on metacarpal bones II and III The extensor carpi ulnaris
(ulnaris lateralis, —18), which acts chiefly as an abductor of the paw and
partial flexor of the carpus ends on the proximal lateral prominence of metacarpal V and with a transverse branch that attaches to the accessory carpal bone
IV Of the two supinators (see text-illustration), the supinator muscle lies
deep to the origins of the digital extensors and terminates
proximocranial-ly on the radius The brachioradialis muscle passes superficialproximocranial-ly on the
flex-or aspect of the elbow joint and inserts on the craniomedial margin of the radius at the junction of its middle and distal thirds
The nerve supply of these muscles is by the radial nerve, which, by its deep
branch (1), supplies all of the craniolateral forearm muscles The superficial
branch (see p 21) lies on both sides of the cephalic vein with its medial and lateral branches, and gives off the lateral cutaneous antebrachial nerve as the several branches that extend caudally from the lateral branch onto the cran-iolateral antebrachium In the company of the accessory cephalic vein, both the medial and lateral branches continue distally onto the dorsum of the
manus and branch here into the dorsal common digital nerves (19), each of
which ends by dividing proximal to the metacarpophalangeal joints into sal proper digital nerves that extend toward the ends of neighboring digits
dor-1
2
4 Antebrachial (Forearm) Muscles and their Nerve Supply
To clearly differentiate between the individual carpal and digital flexor muscles, the termination of their tendinous insertions has to be identified To do this, the carpal canal, passage for the two digital flexor tendons and associated structures on the palmar carpus, must be opened First, the superficial lamina
of the flexor retinaculum extending between the accessory carpal bone and the medial styloid process is cut The superficial flexor tendon is lifted up from the carpal canal Then the deep lamina of the flexor retinaculum, which lies between the flexor tendons, is cut After lifing up the deep flexor tendon, the palmar carpal ligament, which forms the deep boundary of the canal, can be seen To see the insertions of the extensor and flexor tendons, the skin of the second digit will be completely reflected The manica flexoria of the superficial flexor tendon is incised laterally and the passage of the deep flexor tendon through the manica can then be more easily observed
11 Abductor pollicis longus m.
16 Lateral digital extensor m.
13 Common digital extensor m.
18 Extensor carpi ulnaris m Supinator m.
Lat epicondyle of humerus
Trang 3021 23
22
292520
24
30
31 2726
1 Deep branch of radial n.
2 Flexor carpi radialis m (section)
3 Extensor carpi radialis m.
10 Superficial digital flexor m
11 Abductor pollicis longus m
12 Extensor of digit I m.
13 Common digital extensor m.
14 Dorsal branch of ulnar nerve
15 Flexor carpi ulnaris m.
16 Lateral digital extensor m.
17 Palmar branch of ulnar nerve
18 Extensor carpi ulnaris m.
19 Dorsal common digital aa., vv and nn I-IV
20 Manica flexoria
21 Tendon of supf digital flexor
22 Tendon of deep digital flexor
23 Interosseus m.
24 Tendon of com dig ext m.
25 Palmar anular ligament
26 Prox and dist digital anular ligg.
27 Collateral lig of prox interphalangeal joint
28 Dorsal ligament
29 Prox sesamoid bone
30 Dorsal sesamoid bone
31 Dorsal sesamoid cartilage
32 Distal palmar sesamoid cartilage
Trang 31a) S HOULDER , B RACHIUM (A RM ) AND A NTEBRACHIUM ( FOREARM ) are supplied
by blood vessels and nerves that run mainly medially and cranially on the
limb At the joints they are generally found on the protected, flexor, aspect
of the joint The blood supply of the thoracic limb is by a single artery, the
axillary artery The venous drainage is by several veins: the medially
situ-ated axillary vein, the craniolaterally locsitu-ated cephalic and the
axillo-brachial and omoaxillo-brachial veins
The axillary artery and vein (15) lie at the bend of the shoulder joint,
super-ficial to the axillary nerve At the level of the first rib, they continue the
long subclavian artery or, respectively, the very short subclavian vein and
give off the external thoracic and lateral thoracic vessels before ending by
dividing into the subscapular artery and vein and the brachial artery and
vein The cranial circumflex humeral vessels usually arise at the terminal
division of the axillary vessels or from the brachial artery and vein With
the cranial pectoral nerve, the external thoracic artery and vein (16) enter
the superficial pectoral muscle The lateral thoracic artery and vein (3) pass
with the same-named nerve on the lateral border of the deep pectoral
mus-cle; they supply the axillary lymph node and the inconstant accessory
axil-lary lymph node and the thoracic mammae Branches of the lateral thoracic
vessels, joined by caudal pectoral nerves, pass to the deep face of the deep
pectoral muscle The subscapular artery and vein (1) course at the caudal
border of the subscapular muscle The subscapular artery gives off
caudal-ly the thoracodorsal artery (2); whereas, the thoracodorsal vein (2)
usual-ly arises from the axillary vein With the same-named nerve, both vessels
enter the medial aspect of the latissimus dorsi muscle Additional branches
of the subscapular artery and vein are the caudal circumflex humeral artery
and vein (4), which run deeply, passing laterally caudal to the shoulder
joint, ventral to the long head of triceps, and anastomose with the weak
cranial circumflex humeral vessels The cranial circumflex humeral artery
and vein (17) pass cranially from the axillary or brachial vessels and enter
the biceps brachii muscle at its hilus The brachial artery and vein (5),
which proceed as end-branches of the axillary vessels, give off the deep
brachial, bicipital, collateral ulnar, superficial brachial and transverse
cubital arteries and veins After passing deep to the pronator teres muscle,
the brachial vessels end at the level of the proximal interosseous space by
dividing into common interosseous and median vessels About the middle
of the brachium, accompanied by the radial nerve, the deep brachial artery
and vein (6) pass deeply between the medial and long heads of the triceps,
which they supply In the distal brachium, the bicipital artery and vein (18)
pass cranially to supply the biceps brachii muscle The collateral ulnar
artery and vein (7) accompany the ulnar nerve to the extensor aspect of the
elbow joint and anastomose distally with the recurrent ulnar vessels that
proceed from the ulnar artery and vein The superficial brachial artery (8)
originates in the distal third of the brachium; the same-named vein closer
to the level of the elbow joint The artery and vein pass first superficially
and transversely across the flexor aspect of the elbow joint The superficial
brachial artery passes over distally into the superficial antebrachial artery,
whose branches initially join the cephalic vein and, continuing, pass onto
the dorsum of the manus, with the accessory cephalic vein On the flexor
aspect of the elbow joint, the very short superficial brachial vein (8) is
con-tinued by the median cubital vein The arrangement of the veins here is like
the letter ‘H’ The superficial brachial and median cubital veins form the
bar of the H The longitudinal branches of the ‘H’ are formed medially by
the brachial vein, laterally by the cephalic vein The transverse cubital
artery and vein (9) pass deep to the terminal part of the biceps brachii
mus-cle at the level of the flexor aspect of the elbow joint The common
interosseous artery and vein (10) give off the ulnar artery and vein (11),
which pass distally with the ulnar nerve The common interosseous vessels
end by dividing into cranial and caudal interosseous vessels The caudal
interosseous vessels run distally deep to the pronator quadratus muscle
The cranial interosseous vessels emerge cranially from the proximal
interosseous space and supply the craniolateral forearm muscles The
medi-an artery medi-and vein (12) arise as end-brmedi-anches of the brachial vessels In the
proximal third of the antebrachium, they give off caudally the deep
ante-brachial vessels (13) for the caudomedial forearm muscles and, a
finger-breadth distal, the small radial artery and vein (14) that pass along the
medial margin of the radius After this, the median artery (the satellite veins become very small) passes in the carpal canal and reaches the palmar sur-face of the deep digital flexor tendon
b) The V ESSEL AND N ERVE S UPPLY OF THE M ANUS is by deep and superficiaI arteries, veins and nerves On the dorsal and palmar surfaces of the manus,
the deeply located vessels and nerves are designated metacarpal arteries,
veins, and nerves; dorsal or palmar according to the surface of the manus
supplied The superficially located vessels and nerves are designated
com-mon digital arteries, veins, and nerves; again, dorsal or palmar according
to the surface of the manus The common digital vessels and nerves divide distally into proper digital vessels and nerves
I On the dorsum of the manus, the dorsal common digital arteries I – IV
proceed from the two branches of the superficial antebrachial artery sal common digital veins I – IV are from the accessory cephalic vein Dor-sal common digital nerves I – IV are from the medial and lateral branches (rami) of the superficial ramus of the radial nerve The dorsal branch of the ulnar nerve ends on the dorsum of the manus as the dorsal abaxial digital nerve of digit V The deeply located dorsal metacarpal arteries and veins I
Dor-– IV originate from the respective arterial and venous rete carpi dorsale
The venous carpal rete (carpal network) is formed by dorsal carpal
branch-es of the accbranch-essory cephalic and radial veins The arterial carpal rete is formed by dorsal carpal branches of the caudal interosseous, ulnar and radial arteries
II On the palmar surface of the manus, the palmar common digital
arter-ies and veins I – IV arise from the respective arterial and venous superficial palmar arches The arterial superficial palmar arch is formed in the proxi-mal metacarpus The medial arm of the arch is from the median and radi-
al arteries; its lateral arm proceeds from the union of the ulnar artery and palmar carpal branch of the caudal interosseous artery The venous super-ficial palmar arch lies farther distally, at the proximal margin of the metacarpal pad It is formed by a confluence of the cephalic and radial veins medially, by the ulnar and caudal interosseous veins laterally The palmar metacarpal arteries and veins I – IV originate in the proximal metacarpus from the respective arterial and venous deep palmar arches The arterial arch is formed medially by the radial artery and laterally by a confluence of the ulnar and caudal interosseous arteries The venous arch
is formed by the cephalic and radial veins medially and laterally by a fluence of the ulnar and caudal interosseous veins The palmar common digital nerves I – III arise from the median nerve, palmar common digital nerve IV from the superficial branch of the palmar branch of the ulnar nerve Palmar metacarpal nerves I – IV originate from the deep branch of the palmar branch of the ulnar nerve
con-c) The L YMPH D RAINAGEof the thoracic limb (see pp 15 and 19) is by ficially and deeply located lymph vessels The superficial lymph vessels pre-dominantly accompany the superficial lateral cutaneous veins and pass to
super-the superficial cervical lymph nodes from which super-the lymph drains to super-the
venous angle at the junction of internal and external jugular veins The deep lymph vessels accompany the deep blood vessels and pass to the axil-lary and accessory axillary lymph nodes, which also drain the lymph from
the thoracic wall and the three cranial mammae The disc-shaped axillary
lymph node, about 2 cm in diameter, can be palpated in the caudal angle
between the lateral thoracic and axillary vessels The accessory axillary
lymph node is located one intercostal space farther caudal on the course of
the lateral thoracic artery and vein The lymph passes from the axillary and accessory axillary lymph nodes to the venous angle also
5 Vessels and Nerves of the Thoracic Limb
Legend (see figure on opposite page)
19 Circumflex scapular a and v
28 Palmar abaxial a and n of digit V
29 Superficial palmar arch
30 Dorsal common digital aa., vv and nn (dorsal view)
Palmar common digital aa., vv and nn (palmar view)
31 Dorsal proper digital aa., vv and nn (dorsal view)
Palmar proper digital aa., vv and nn (palmar view)
32 Phrenic nerve
33 Axillobrachial v
34 Median n
35 Recurrent ulnar a and v
36 Cranial interosseous a and v
37 Caudal interosseous a and v
38 Interosseous branch
39 Dorsal branch of the ulnar a and n
40 Deep palmar arch
41 Musculocutaneous n
42 Medial cutaneous antebrachial n
43 Radial n
44 Superficial ramus
45 Lateral branch (ramus)
46 Medial branch (ramus)
47 Deep branch
48 Cranial superficial antebrachial a
49 Lateral branch (ramus)
50 Medial branch (ramus)
60 Palmar metacarpal aa., vv and nn I – IV
61 Dorsal abaxial n of digit I (dorsal view)Palmar abaxial n of digit I (palmar view)
62 Dorsal carpal branch of the radial a and v
63 Dorsal carpal branch of the caudal seous a
interos-64 Dorsal carpal branch of the accessory cephalic v
65 Dorsal carpal branch of the ulnar a
66 Rete carpi dorsale
67 Dorsal metacarpal aa and vv I – IV
68 Abaxial dorsal digital a., v and n of digit V
Trang 325243
444546
47
57
48
49 50
42
35
36
37 3839
58 5625
40
6226
27
606128
2930
31
61
306867
66656462
58
633938
36494556
5046
31
Arteries, Veins, Nerves of thoracic limb
(Basset Artésien - Normand)
10 Common interosseous a and v.
9 Transverse cubital a and v.
8 Superficial brachial a and v.
7 Collateral ulnar a and v.
6 Deep brachial a and v.
5 Brachial a and v.
4 Caudal circumflex humeral a and v.
3 Lateral thoracic a., v and n.
2 Thoracodorsal a., v and n.
1 Subscapular a., v and n.
18 Bicipital a and v.
17 Cranial circumflex humeral a and v.
16 External thoracic
a and v.
15 Axillary a and v.
Trang 336 Synovial Structures of the Thoracic Limb
a) J OINTS OF THE T HORACIC L IMB
Composition
I Shoulder (humeral) joint Glenoid cavity of the scapula, Spheroid joint/ Movement in all A capsular synovial sheath invests the
head of the humerus Simple joint directions, chiefly tendon of origin of the biceps brachii
a hinge joint muscle, which is kept in position by the (ginglymus) transverse retinaculum that bridges the
intertubercular groove
II Elbow (cubital) joint
trochlear notch Ginglymus joint digital extensor muscle; 2 Craniomedial
of the ulna recess deep to the biceps brachii muscle;
3 Caudal recess between the lateral
of the radius
III Distal radioulnar joint Ulnar notch of the radius, Trochoid joint/ Rotation of the The joint cavity communicates with the
be cut
Joints of the Manus
IV Carpal joint
radial carpal bone, compound joint hinge joint with communicate with each other Proximal
adduction the radioulnar joint Distal part: b) and c)
rein-forcement, the extensor retinaculum,
retinaculum bridges the carpal canal The
only the antebrachiocarpal joint
d) Intercarpal joints Joints between the carpal Plane joint/
bones of a row Compound joint (perpendicular joints)
e) Joints of the accessory Accessory carpal bone, Plane joint/ Amphiarthrosis
e) carpal bone ulnar carpal bone, ulna Compound joint (little movement)
V Metacarpophalangeal Proximal phalanges; Compound joint Mainly a hinge Metacarpophalangeal and interphalangeal joints proximal sesamoid bones; joint with slight joints have each in their joint capsules a
dorsal sesamoid bones; abduction and dorsal and a palmar outpouching The metacarpal bones adduction as well joint capsule attaches at the margin of the
as axial rotation articular surfaces of the participating
sesamoids At the metacarpophalangeal joint there are proximal sesamoids palmarly and a single dorsal sesamoid
VI Proximal interphalangeal Proximal and middle Saddle joint/ Dorsal sesamoid is present.
joints of the manus phalanges Simple joint VII Distal interphalangeal Middle phalanges and Saddle joint/ Distal sesamoid is present.
joints of the manus distal phalanges Simple joint
The shoulder joint lacks typical ligaments external to the joint capsule
Their function is taken over by contractile tension-bands, the tendons of
the infraspinatus and subscapular muscles The lateral and medial
gleno-humeral ligaments are ‘internal’ capsular reinforcements
At the elbow joint the collateral ligaments bifurcate, forming radial and
ulnar attachments The anular ligament of the radius grips around the head
of the radius and extends from the medial coronoid process of the ulna to
the lateral collateral ligament
b) S YNOVIAL B URSAE
The subtendinous bursa of the infraspinatus muscle is located between its
terminal tendon and the cartilage-covered lateral surface of the greater
tubercle
The subtendinous bursa of the subscapularis muscle lies between the
inser-tional tendon of its muscle and the shoulder joint capsule
The subtendinous bursa of the triceps brachii muscle is expanded between
the olecranon and the insertion of the triceps brachii muscle
The subcutaneous olecranon bursa is an acquired synovial bursa.
The bicipitoradial bursa lies between the tendon of the biceps and the
radius and is frequently fused with the subtendinous bursa of the brachialis muscle
The subtendinous bursa of the brachialis muscle is located between the
end-tendon of the brachialis and the radius
c) S YNOVIAL S HEATHS
Synovial sheaths protect the tendon of origin of the coracobrachial muscle
(Vagina synovialis m coracobrachialis), and of the biceps brachii muscle in
the intertubercular groove (Vagina synovialis intertubercularis) The latter
is an extension of the shoulder joint capsule with which it communicates The end-tendons of the carpal joint extensors are protected by a synovial sheath (long abductor of digit I) or by synovial sheaths and bursae (exten-sor carpi radialis) The ulnaris lateralis end-tendon and its caudal extension
to the accessory carpal are protected by a synovial bursa The radial carpal flexor end-tendon is protected by a synovial sheath; the ulnar carpal flex-
or by a bursa The digital extensors are protected by synovial sheaths at the carpus, the digital flexors on the digits The deep flexor usually has a syn-ovial sheath at the carpus
Trang 34131211
9108
9
8 9
1114
12
D
CC19DEE
46
4464
Joints, synovial bursae and sheaths
(dorsal view)
6 Brachialis m
7 Anconeus m.
8 Ext carpi radialis m.
Subtendinous bursa of infraspinatus m.
Articular capsule Synovial bursa
Intertubercular synovial sheath Transverse retinaculum Articular capsule subscapular m.
Subtendinous bursa of Med glenohumeral lig.
Articular capsule
Subcutaneous
bursa olecranon
Subtendinous bursa
of triceps brachii m.
brachialis m.
subtendinous bursa of Bicipito-radial bursa and elbow
collateral lig of Lat and med.
9 Extensor digitalis com m.
16 Supf digital flexor m.
17 Deep digital flexor m.
18 Flexor carpi radialis m
19 Interflexor mm.
Synovial bursae Articular capsules Synovial sheaths
abductor pollicis longus m.
Sesamoid bone of Flexor retinaculum Collateral lig of med carpus Synovial sheath
Articular capsules
A Anular lig of radius
B Dorsal ligg.
C Accessoro-metacarpal ligg.
D Deep palmar carpal lig.
E Palm carpometacarpal ligg.
F Dors carpometacarpal lig.
(see pp 18, 23, 143)
Trang 35I The m splenius (1), previously transected in its middle, extends from the
spinous processes of the first three thoracic vertebrae to the nuchal crest of
the skull II The m iliocostalis arises from the wing of the ilium and inserts
onto the lumbar transverse process (m iliocostalis lumborum, —24), the
angles of the ribs, and the transverse processes of the last two cervical
ver-tebrae (m iliocostalis thoracis, —17) III Also extending caudally to the
wing of the ilium, the m longissimus is divided along its length into the mm
longissimus lumborum (23), thoracis (16), cervicis (12) and capitis (2)
Cor-responding to their region, these muscles insert onto lumbar transverse
processes, tubercles of the ribs, cervical transverse processes and the
mas-toid process of the cranium respectively IV The m semispinalis capitis lies
in the neck region dorsal to the m longissimus and consists of a dorsal m
biventer cervicis (4), characterized by tendinous intersections directed
trans-versely, and a ventral m complexus (3) Both muscles extend from the
cer-vico-thoracic boundary to the cranium V The m spinalis et semispinalis
thoracis et cervicis (15) lies medial and adjacent to the m longissimus and
courses between the second cervical and eleventh thoracic vertebrae VI
The multipennate mm multifidi extend from the axis to the sacrum In the
caudal half of the neck, the m multifidus cervicis (10) lies deep to the m
complexus and is traversed by dorsal branches of cervical nerves on its
ven-trolateral aspect The m multifidus thoracis is situated deeply, and the m
multifidus lumborum (26) lies deep to the thoracolumbar fascia, adjacent to
lumbar vertebrae and their spinous processes VII At the level of the seventh
lumbar vertebra the m sacrococcygeus (-caud.) dorsalis medialis (27)
con-tinues the oblique pennate m multifidus by means of an approximating
fiber-flow directed caudally VIII The m sacrococcygeus (-caud.) dorsalis
lateralis (25) begins acutely at the fourth lumbar vertebra and, as the
cau-domedial continuation of the m longissimus, proceeds to the tail by a strong
terminal tendon IX The mm interspinales lie deeply between the spinous
processes X The mm intertransversarii (8) are superficial in the neck;
whereas, in the thoracolumbar region they are situated deeply along the
ver-tebral column The mm intertransversarii cervicis are located ventral to the
line of insertion of the m longissimus cervicis XI The mm scaleni extend
from the fourth or fifth cervical vertebra to the eighth rib (m scalenus
dor-salis, —14) and the first rib (m scalenus ventralis, m scalenus medius, —13)
XII The m longus capitis (9) lying adjacent and ventromedial to the mm
scaleni is situated ventrolateral to the cervical vertebrae Arising from the
sixth cervical vertebra it inserts on the muscular tubercle of the occipital
bone XIII The m longus colli (see text-illustration), which appears
plait-ed, is situated ventromedially on the cervical and thoracic parts of the
ver-tebral column Arising on the first cervical vertebra it extends to the sixth
thoracic XIV The m rectus capitis dorsalis major (6) continues cranially
from the spinous process of the axis Between the spinous process of the axis
and the occipital bone it overlies the deeper m rectus capitis dorsalis minor
(XV.) XVI The m obliquus capitis caudalis (7) extends from the lateral
sur-face of the spinous process of the axis to the dorsal sursur-face of the wing of the
atlas XVII The m obliquus capitis cranialis (5) runs from the wing of the
atlas to the occipital bone
b) The N UCHAL L IGAMENT (11), which is paired, lies dorsomedian above the
processes of the second cervical and first thoracic vertebrae Caudally it passes over into the supraspinous ligament The yellow color of the nuchal ligament indicates a predominance of elastic fibers
c) The L UMBAR C UTANEOUS N ERVES form a dorsal, a lateral and a ventral series of cutaneous nerves by means of their serial passage through the stra-
ta of skeletal muscles
I The series of dorsal lumbar cutaneous nerves is formed from nL1 to 4 dl
(dorsal clunial nn.) and becomes subcutaneous approximately 8 cm from the dorsal midline As a rule the nL5 to 7 dl do not reach the cutaneous field of innervation
II The series of lateral lumbar cutaneous nerves arises from branches of the
cranial iliohypogastric (nL1 vl), caudal iliohypogastric (nL2 vl), ilioinguinal (nL2 and 3 vl) and lateral cutaneous femoral (nL3 and 4 vl) nn These nerves pass through the abdominal muscles on a line directed caudodorsally from
the ventral end of the last rib to the tuber coxae The cranial iliohypogastric
n (18, –with accompanying blood vessels), and the caudal iliohypogastric n (19) pierce the m obliquus externus abdominis The ilioinguinal n (20,
–sometimes absent) and the lateral cutaneous femoral n (21, –with
accom-panying blood vessels) become subcutaneous over the dorsal border of the
m obliquus externus abdominis
Chapter 4: Thoracic and Abdominal Wall
1 Muscles of the Vertebral Column, Nuchal Ligament, and Lumbar Cutaneous Nerves
a) The M USCLES OF THE V ERTEBRAL C OLUMN are subdivided into a dorsal
and a ventral group, and a specific epaxial group that moves the head All
the dorsal vertebral muscles (Nos I to X) function in the extension and
lat-eral movement or inclination of the vertebral column The innervation of
all dorsal vertebral muscles and the dorsal muscles that act on the
atlanto-occipital and atlanto-axial joints (‘head movers’, —Nos XIV to XVII) is by
the dorsal rami of the spinal nerves
The ventral vertebral muscles (Nos XI to XIII) flex the vertebral column
and incline it laterally The innervation of all ventral vertebral muscles is by
ventral rami of the segmental spinal nerves The muscles situated ventral to the lumbar part of the vertebral column, namely the mm quadratus lum-borum, psoas major and psoas minor, belong to the sublumbar or inner loin muscles and are dealt with on p 60
M USCLES OF THE V ERTEBRAL C OLUMN
Dorsal muscles of the vertebral column Ventral muscles of the Dorsal muscles moving the head
vertebral column
I m splenius VI mm multifidi XI mm scaleni XIV m rectus capitis dors major
II m iliocostalis VII m sacrococcygeus (-caud.) dors med XII m longus capitis XV m rectus capitis dors minorIII m longissimus VIII m sacrococcygeus (-caud.) dors lat XIII m longus colli XVI m obliquus capitis caud
IV m semispinalis capitis IX mm interspinales XVII m obliquus capitis cran
cervicis et thoracis
1
To demonstrate the muscles of the vertebral column, the skin is removed from the lateral body wall, the dorsum, and the sacral region as far as the dal end of the sacrum Then one removes the remnants of the extrinsic muscles of the thoracic limb The m serratus dorsalis cranialis (33) is detached from its rib insertions and reflected dorsally The thoracolumbar fascia (22, see also text-illustration p 30) is incised longitudinally along a line parallel to and 2 cm from the dorsal midline In the lumbosacral area, the underlying lumbodorsal tendon (39) is incised longitudinally at the same level as the fascia, and a transverse incision is made at the caudal end of the parent cut Then the tendon is detached from the underlying musculature The lumbodorsal ten-don divides at the lateral border of the m longissimus lumborum The deep lamina is directed between the mm iliocostalis and longissimus lumborum as
cau-an intermuscular septum (see text-illustration p 30) cau-and the superficial lamina runs over the m iliocostalis In the neck, the m splenius cau-and m semispinalis are transected after being exposed The sequence to be followed in the dissection of the muscles corresponds to the numeration in the table below
Muscles of the vertebral column
(Cervical and thoracic part)
Trang 3636 34
36 34 41
41
4139
7 Obliquus capitis cran m.
6 Rectus capitis dors major m.
5 Obliqus capitis cran m.
18 Cranial iliohypogastric n.
19 Caudal iliohypogastric n
20 Ilioinguinal n.
21 Lateral cutaneous femoral n.
22 Thoracolumbar fascia (section)
38 Ext abdominal oblique m.
39 Int abdominal oblique m.
40 Lumbodorsal tendon (section)
41 Cranial clunial nn.
Trang 37a) The E XPIRATORY M USCLES run to the caudal borders of the ribs, their
fibers being directed cranioventrally They draw the ribs caudomedially
and in so doing narrow the thorax
I The m serratus dorsalis caudalis (2) takes origin from the
thoracolum-bar fascia (see text-illustration) and its fibers course cranioventrally to
insert on the caudal borders of the last three ribs
II The mm intercostales interni (5) lie dorsal to the costochondral
articu-lations and deep to the mm intercostales externi They also appear deep to
the m rectus abdominis in the spaces between the costal cartilages The
mm subcostales and the m retractor costae (34) belong to the system of
internal intercostal muscles As a longer muscle portion, each of the mm
subcostales passes over the medial surface of a rib to insert onto the next
or the next but one The m retractor costae extends from the transverse
processes of the first three lumbar vertebrae to the caudal border of the last
rib
III The m transversus thoracis (13), situated cranial to the diaphragm, is
the cranial continuation of the m transversus abdominis It arises on the
internal surface of the sternum and inserts in a crenate manner onto the
medial surface of each genu costae (bend of the costal cartilage).
b) The I NSPIRATORY M USCLES run to the cranial borders of the ribs, the fiber
bundles being directed caudoventrally They draw the ribs craniolaterally
and widen the thorax
IV The m serratus dorsalis cranialis (3) takes origin from the supraspinous
ligament dorsal to the first eight thoracic spinous processes and terminates
by seven to nine fleshy insertions onto the cranial borders of ribs three to
ten
V At the level of the fourth costal cartilage, the m rectus thoracis (6)
con-tinues the m rectus abdominis cranially It runs obliquely over the
aponeu-rotic origin of the latter as far as the first rib
VI The mm intercostales externi (4) are situated mainly between the
osseous ribs, and extend ventrally as far as the costochondral articulations
at the approximate level of the lateral border of the m rectus abdominis
Only sparse muscle bundles lie further ventrally As the vertebral portions
of the mm intercostals externi, the mm levatores costarum (1) can also be
classified with the system of external intercostal muscles Each of the mm
levatores costarum runs in approximately the same direction from the
transverse process of one thoracic vertebra over the angle of the rib to the
cranial border of the subsequent caudal rib The mm levatores are largely
covered by the mm iliocostalis and serratus dorsalis caudalis
VII The diaphragm is a musculotendinous septum between the thoracic
and abdominal cavities Its tendinous cupola situated ventrally projects a
considerable way into the thoracic cavity The diaphragm functions as the
main respiratory muscle, the contraction of which flattens the cupola
lat-erally The crown of the cupola is fixed at the caval foramen and during
res-piration, its position remains largely constant
The diaphragm is divided into a peripheral muscular portion and a
cen-trally placed tendinous portion, the central tendon The muscular portion
consists of a sternal part (15) inserting onto the sternum, a costal part (13) inserting onto ribs nine to thirteen inclusive, and a lumbar part, the crura
of which insert onto the third and fourth lumbar vertebrae The free
medi-al border of the weak left crus (8) and that of the stronger right crus (7) bound the aortic hiatus (9) This affords passage to the aorta, thoracic duct
and right azygos v The free dorsolateral borders of the crura form the bocostal arches, which are crossed dorsally by the sympathetic trunk and
lum-the ramifying greater splanchnic n The slit-like esophageal hiatus (10)
pro-vides a transit for the esophagus and the accompanying dorsal and ventral vagal trunks It lies in the muscular part of the diaphragm bordering the
central tendon The central tendon (14) is V-shaped and exhibits the
fora-men venae cavae (11) to the right, in the region of the cupola The forafora-men
gives passage to the caudal vena cava
Innervation is by the phrenic n (12), which arises by three roots from the
fifth to seventh cervical nerves The nerve passes over the pericardium and heart at the level of the coronary groove The right phrenic n accompanies
the caudal vena cava, both lying within the plica venae cavae that extends
between the heart and the diaphragm The left phrenic n reaches the diaphragm in a short fold of the mediastinal pleura of the left pleural sac
tran-The respiratory muscles lie upon the thorax and are known therefore as
muscles of the thorax From the functional viewpoint they are divided into
an expiratory and an inspiratory group
The main respiratory muscle, the diaphragm, and the other obligatory
res-piratory muscles, are supported functionally by auxiliary resres-piratory
mus-cles, which have been discussed in connection with other muscle groups,
for example the muscles of the vertebral column The mm scalenus and
serratus ventralis are auxiliary inspiratory muscles and the m iliocostalis and abdominal muscles are auxiliary expiratory muscles, although some authors consider the mm scalenus to be obligatory Keeping in mind their positional relationship to the thorax, the obligatory respiratory muscles are also divided into external, middle and internal respiratory muscles
The innervation of the diaphragm is provided by the phrenic n of its
respec-tive side and that of the remaining respiratory muscles by intercostal nn
R ESPIRATORY M USCLES
II mm intercostales interni incl mm middle respiratory muscles VI mm intercostales externi incl
subcostales and retractor costae mm levatores costarum
hg
c Ext abdom oblique m.
d Serratus dors caud.
e Int abdom oblique m.
Trang 3818
2122
242319
3734
33
38a
b
c ed
f
gh
i
209
29
10
30
1431
(left lateral view)
f Dorsal vagal trunk
g Ventral vagal trunk
h Esophagus
i Caudal vena cava
Trang 39a) The P REPUCE (P REPUTIUM ) covers the glans penis The caudal part, which
passes over into the haired skin in the region of the body of the penis, is
attached to the ventral body wall The cranial part reaches nearly to the
umbilicus and ends freely, ring-like, passing over at the preputial orifice
into the internal lamina that lines the preputial cavity The prepuce consists
of a haired external lamina (7), which is continuous at the preputial ostium
(1) with the hairless cutaneous mucous membrane of the internal lamina
(8) At the preputial fundus (10), at the level of the greatest circumference
of the bulbus glandis, the internal lamina is reflected onto the glans penis
as the penile lamina (9), which clothes the glans In the fundus region, the
internal lamina and the penile lamina exhibit numerous lymph nodules
With erection of the penis, the penis lengthens, emerging from the prepuce
The internal lamina is drawn cranially onto the lengthened penis, and the
fundus and preputial cavity are then no longer present
b) The M AMMAE lie on both sides of the median intermammary groove and
as a rule consist of five mammary gland complexes per side; namely, a
cra-nial and caudal thoracic mammary gland complex, a cracra-nial and caudal
abdominal mammary gland complex, and an inguinal mammary gland
complex The mammae of the male are characterized by insignificant
mam-mary papillae or teats A mammam-mary gland complex consists of the body of
the mamma with about eight to twenty mammary glands (usually about 12
glands are developed) and a teat (Papilla mammae).
Before birth, from the tip of each teat-anlage, at first several solid
epider-mal buds sprout deeply into the subcutaneous tissue, a process which takes
place in the male sex without recognizable differences At the time of birth,
the epithelial buds contain a lumen
A sex-specific difference becomes distinct only with sexual maturity and
the first estrus Especially under the effect of estrogen, the epithelial sprouts
divide and form a partial lumen Moreover, estrogen brings about the
deposition of fat within the mammary gland This is transitory and later
the fat tissue is replaced by the further development of the epithelial
sprouts into well developed glands In the non-lactating bitch the
glandu-lar and adipose tissue are so slightly developed that the bodies of the glands
exhibit no swelling and can scarcely be separated from one another
With pregnancy, sprouting, ramification and lumen-formation in crease.
This is induced by an elevated blood-estrogen level In the second half of
pregnancy alveoli develop at the ends of these mammary gland canals; this
is brought about especially by the effect of progesterone
During the lactation period, about thirty days in length, the alveoli
guar-antee the secretion of milk Thus, from an individual epidermal sprout a
large gland with alveoli, lactiferous ducts, lactiferous sinus and papillary
duct develops From the alveoli the milk reaches the lactiferous sinus (4)
first by smaller and then by larger lactiferous ducts (3) The sinus is
with-out subdivision by a transverse fold as is typical for larger animals Its
pre-dominant part is in the papilla (Pars papillaris) and extends only with its
initial part, which receives the lactiferous ducts, into the body of the gland
(Pars glandularis) The lactiferous sinus reaches the surface of the body as
a more narrow papillary duct (5) The duct is located in the distal third of
the teat and, usually independent of neighboring glands, opens by a
papil-lary ostium (6) on the end of the teat (Papilla mammae, —2) Erectile blood
vessels of the teat with typical thick-walled (muscular) veins are less
devel-oped in the bitch Smooth muscle cell bundles surround the individual
pap-illary ducts circularly as sphincters
After the lactation period a large part of the duct system, and especially the
glandular alveoli, undergoes involution
The fascial and muscular suspensory apparatus as well as the vascular and
nerve supply of the mammae and prepuce are alike in many ways and, for
that reason, are studied together
I The suspensory ligament of the mammae or, respectively, of the penis
(20) as the continuation of the deep fascia of the trunk splits off at the
lev-el of the linea alba and passes around the mammary complex or into the
prepuce and around the penis as the fascia penis The cranial
supramam-mary muscle (female) or cranial preputial muscle (18, —male) arises from
the linea alba at the level of the xiphoid cartilage and extends onto the basis
of the abdominal mammae or, respectively, into the prepuce The caudal
muscles of the same name are inapparent
With respect to the blood and lymph vascular and nerve supply, there is a
cranial field of supply for the two thoracic mammae and the cranial abdominal mamma as well as a caudal supply field for the caudal abdom-inal and inguinal mammae, or, respectively, for the prepuce, the skin in the region of the penis, and the scrotum Anastomoses occur between the two fields of supply at the level of the umbilicus
II For the cranial thoracic mammae, the blood vessels of the cranial
sup-ply field arise from the lateral thoracic artery and vein (13) and from the
internal thoracic artery and vein Perforating branches of the latter vessels
emerge near the linea alba to supply the two thoracic mammae and end
with the cranial superficial epigastric artery and vein (17) The cranial
superficial epigastric vessels perforate the thoracic wall at the level of the costal arch and, after supplying the cranial abdominal mammae, anasto-mose with the like-named caudal vessels at the level of the umbilicus The
blood vessels of the caudal supply field arise from the external pudendal
artery and vein (26), which, after traversing the inguinal rings and canal,
divide at the level of the inguinal teat into the ventral labial or,
respective-ly, ventral scrotal artery and vein (27) and the caudal superficial epigastric
artery and vein (23) These vessels give off mammary or, respectively,
preputial branches The cranial and caudal superficial epigastric vessels are the main vessels and also take over the supply of the teats Additional con-tributing vessels are the intercostal arteries and veins, the cranial abdomi-nal vessels and the deep circumflex iliac vessels Individual vessel-branches
(predominantly veins) can cross the midline (Linea alba) and take part in
the supply of the contralateral mammae
III The lymph vessels of the cranial supply field run to the axillary (11) and
accessory axillary (12) lymph nodes The lymph vessels of the caudal ply field drain both caudal mammae and the prepuce, the external skin cov-
sup-ering the penis and the scrotum They run to the superficial inguinal lymph
nodes situated at the base of the inguinal mamma where the external
pudendal artery and vein divide into ventral labial or scrotal branches and the caudal superficial epigastric artery and vein
IV The sensory nerve supply is derived from the intercostal nerves
cranial-ly and the cranial and caudal iliohypogastric nerves caudalcranial-ly These approach the mammae by means of lateral cutaneous branches (15 and 21
of the lateral series of thoracic and lumbar cutaneous nerves) and by
ven-tral cutaneous branches (14 and 22) near the linea alba Caudal to the 10th intercostal nerve, no ventral cutaneous branch is dispatched by the thoracic
or cranial lumbar spinal nerves, the ventral skin being supplied by the tral extension of the lateral cutaneous branch and, the inguinal mamma
ven-caudally, by the genitofemoral nerve (24), which traverses the inguinal
canal in the company of the external pudendal artery and vein
c) Before commencing the dissection, details should be provided on the
R ELATIONSHIP OF THE F ASCIAE (see also pp 36 and 146)
I The superficial and deep fasciae of the trunk are classified as the
exter-nal fasciae of the trunk The superficial trunk fascia is closely united to the
skin and ensheathes the cutaneous muscles of the abdomen by means of
two laminae The deep trunk fascia (19) is intimately united to the surface
of the external abdominal muscle Dorsally, in the lumbar region, it is
known as the thoracolumbar fascia (see p 30), which courses over the
muscles of the vertebral column between spinous and transverse processes
In the midline ventrally, the deep fascia fuses with the linea alba, and there the suspensory ligament of the mammae separates off from it In the inguinal region the external fascia of the trunk (comprising the superficial
and deep fasciae of the trunk) continues as the external spermatic fascia
This envelops the vaginal tunic of the peritoneum externally, and at the
inguinal groove passes onto the thigh as the fascia lata (28).
II By and large, the internal fascia of the trunk is adherent to the serosa
and is known by different terms depending on its location In the thoracic
cavity it is known as the endothoracic fascia, in the abdominal cavity as
transversalis fascia, on the ventral surface of the sublumbar muscles as the iliac fascia, and within the pelvic cavity as the pelvic fascia The internal
fascia of the trunk, or more particularly the transversalis fascia, continues
as the internal spermatic fascia that invests the vaginal tunic of the
peri-toneum
3 Body Wall, Prepuce and Mammary Glands (Mammae)
The remaining skin of the abdomen is removed from both sides of the body, keeping intact the mammae or the penis as the case may be In the bitch, the mammae of the left side are preserved by incising the skin abound the base of each teat Beginning laterally, the mammae of the right side are removed after cutting through the right m supramammarius and the suspensory ligament of the mammae In the male one removes the hairy outer skin adjacent
to the penis and its cranial continuation, the external lamina of the prepuce, while keeping intact the m preputialis cranialis and the suspensory ligament
of the penis The preputial laminae will be cut as shown in the accompanying figure
1
2
Trang 403037
34
35
3132
38
3933
40
30
34
3529
38 Ext spermatic fascia
39 Intern spermatic fascia and vaginal process of peritoneum
31 Ext abdominal oblique m
32 Ext (supf.) inguinal ring
33 Caud supramammary m or preputialis