Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com www.ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Processing Perspectives on Task Performance Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Task-Based Language Teaching: Issues, Research and Practice (TBLT) Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) is an educational framework for the theory and practice of teaching second or foreign languages The TBLT book series is devoted to the dissemination of TBLT issues and practices, and to fostering improved understanding and communication across the various clines of TBLT work For an overview of all books published in this series, please see http://benjamins.com/catalog/tblt Editors Martin Bygate University of Lancaster John M Norris University of Hawaii at Manoa Kris Van den Branden KU Leuven Volume Processing Perspectives on Task Performance Edited by Peter Skehan www.ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Processing Perspectives on Task Performance Edited by Peter Skehan St Mary’s University, Twickenham John Benjamins Publishing Company Amsterdam / Philadelphia Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com TM The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences – Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ansi z39.48-1984 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Processing perspectives on task performance / Edited by Peter Skehan p cm (Task-Based Language Teaching, issn 1877-346X ; v 5) Includes bibliographical references and index Language and languages Study and teaching Task analysis in education Competence and performance (Linguistics) Second language acquisition Second language acquisition Methodology Task analysis in education Cognitive learning Psycholinguistics I Skehan, Peter P53.82.P84 2014 418.0071 dc23 2013050660 isbn 978 90 272 0725 (Hb ; alk paper) isbn 978 90 272 0726 (Pb ; alk paper) isbn 978 90 272 7041 (Eb) © 2014 – John Benjamins B.V No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm, or any other means, without written permission from the publisher John Benjamins Publishing Co · P.O Box 36224 · 1020 me Amsterdam · The Netherlands John Benjamins North America · P.O Box 27519 · Philadelphia pa 19118-0519 · usa www.ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com For Daniel Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com www.ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Table of contents Series editors’ preface to Volume 5 ix Preface xi chapter The context for researching a processing perspective on task performance Peter Skehan chapter On-line time pressure manipulations: L2 speaking performance under five types of planning and repetition conditions Zhan Wang chapter Task readiness: Theoretical framework and empirical evidence from topic familiarity, strategic planning, and proficiency levels Bui Hiu Yuet Gavin chapter Self-reported planning behaviour and second language performance in narrative retelling Francine Pang & Peter Skehan chapter Get it right in the end: The effects of post-task transcribing on learners’ oral performance Li Qian 27 63 95 129 chapter Structure, lexis, and time perspective: Influences on task performance Zhan Wang & Peter Skehan 155 chapter Structure and processing condition in video-based narrative retelling Peter Skehan & Sabrina Shum 187 viii Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Investigating a Processing Perspective on Task Performance chapter Limited attentional capacity, second language performance, and task-based pedagogy Peter Skehan 211 Author Biodata 261 Index 263 www.ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Series editors’ preface to Volume It is our pleasure to introduce the fifth volume in this series, a collection edited by Peter Skehan and entitled Investigating a Processing Perspective on Task Performance This book is in many ways a culmination of work initiated by Skehan some two decades ago, as it builds upon the theoretical perspectives of his Tradeoff Hypothesis and extends from the considerable associated research into task types, characteristics, and implementation conditions Of primary interest in this volume is the relationship between task design variables and their effect on how language learners produce speech for communicative purposes Tasks here are generally brief spoken narratives of the sort that have grown in popularity as primary pedagogic tools of task-based instruction that seeks to provide a focus-on-form and – meaning simultaneously Beyond their apparent face value as opportunities for practicing L2 speech and developing fluency, such tasks offer the intriguing possibility of drawing learners’ attention to form-meaning connections, initiating learner analysis and restructuring of their interlanguage, improving their control of the language, and ultimately pushing the development of language knowledge and proficiency The main goal here is for learners to be able to produce complex, accurate, and fluent L2 speech, with tasks being employed to integrate the various learning processes; and the key question then is “how?” Beginning in the early 1990s, and presented first in an influential article “A framework for the implementation of task-based instruction” followed by the highly cited book A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning, Peter Skehan proposed that learner performance on these kinds of tasks was determined in part by the fundamentally limited cognitive resources that a person has available during speech Telling a story, describing a picture, explaining a process – these tasks consume the attention that learners have at their disposal, and which, as a consequence, needs to be divided between fluency, accuracy and complexity of their performance In this respect, certain tasks have been claimed to make greater or lesser demands on cognition; in a similar vein the conditions under which learners are asked to perform tasks may influence what they focus on in their production For example, providing learners with the opportunity to plan prior to telling a story may free up attentional resources, resulting in spoken narratives that are lexically more diverse, syntactically more complex, grammatically more accurate, and so on Building from these observations into pedagogic implications, Skehan advocated for cycles of tasks that were selected, designed, and sequenced to intentionally shift learners’ attention between a focus on fluent and efficient communication versus the opportunity to restructure and ‘push’ language production at the cusp of interlanguage development Skehan’s groundbreaking ideas, along with the competing theoretical position of Peter Robinson’s Cognition Hypothesis (see volume in the TBLT:IRP series), inspired Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com 252 Peter Skehan that much of the previous discussion on tasks is relevant We have seen (and this is captured in Table 2) that a whole range of influences enhance levels of accuracy and fluency In effect, these are the conditions which are needed to make the development of greater control a reality So, for example: –– –– –– –– opportunity for supported on-line planning familiar information opportunity to repeat tasks post-task activity, especially with revision are all very important here By choosing tasks which maximise accuracy and fluency, and task conditions likewise, the learner is being supported to achieve greater levels of control This can assist first stages in making the transition from halting speech production to the capacity to use language in real-time In effect we are dealing here, more generally, with either creating tasks and conditions for more attentional resources to be available for the speaker, so that greater accuracy, for example, can be achieved; or for tasks and conditions to push learners to higher performance in particular areas, again highlighting accuracy; or for a situation where attention is ‘nudged’ in particular directions So knowledge of research into second language production is relevant to helping learners to follow desirable pedagogic directions An important point needs restating here It is clear that the use of tasks in this way draws on the importance of implicit learning and even of practice, since the learner is being given (supportive) opportunities to gain control over language We are now beyond the stages where new language has been noticed, complexified, integrated, and instead are concerned with making this newly-acquired knowledge implicit A proponent of a presentation-practice-production (3Ps) approach might then claim that this view of tasks is no different from the role ascribed to them by task critics such as Swan (2005) or Bruton (2002), or even task sympathisers such as Littlewood (2004) The key point, though, is the issue of what language is being used, and that in turn connects with the issue of pre-selection A 3Ps approach is characterised by selections being made by the teacher/materials writer, and then the presentation phase is a phase working on something selected by someone other than the learner A task approach is one where the language which was earlier selected for treatment was selected by the learner or emerged from learner performance The use of task-informed criteria here to promote control is consistent with this view that the selection comes from the learner There is no pre-selection of forms for task performance – that is the learner’s choice The decisions linked to task selection and task implementation are intended to create conditions to support control of the language which is chosen by the learner In fact, developing this point, we can return to the usefulness of the post-task stage Where the language that is being focussed on has emerged from the learner, there is no reason, if a teacher deems this appropriate, for the post-task stage not to www.ebook777.com Limitedebooks attentional capacity, second www.ebook777.com language performance, and task-based pedagogy Free ==> include practice activities So far we have regarded this stage as one where noticing, hypothesising, complexifying, and restructuring generate a fairly cognitive view of language itself, of its patterns and of the emerging rule-governed system, but developing language skill, as we all know, involved more than insight and understanding It also involves performance, and if a teacher decides that some aspect of language is emerging, but could benefit from more traditional practice activities, then there is no reason not to use them at this later stage in a teaching sequence The point, a bit laboured by now, is only that what is being practised is a response to learner need, not syllabus prescription Continuing this analysis of tasks in terms of the development of control, the next two stages are essentially extensions of what we have already seen Automatising, following Anderson (2004), consists of speeding up performance while eliminating error Supported control, the previous stage, is likely to be characterised by slow performance, and the intrusion of errors Automatisation does not really involve much that is different but it does lead to a greater degree of confidence in performance, and even robustness in face of contextual difficulties With tasks, a similar analysis operates A range of influences are relevant in creating the conditions in which automatisation is more likely to occur, and in some ways, these are an extension of what was mentioned with supported control But another factor which is important is, in a sense, the reverse argument Choosing tasks and task conditions to nurture automatisation is one thing, but it does not serve learners if they only develop the capacity to use language in supportive conditions So another goal, where automatisation is concerned, is to choose tasks and task conditions to put pressure on learners so that they feel more comfortable functioning in the wider range of circumstances they will encounter in the real world So automatisation here is a speed factor, but also a generalisation challenge, which can only be attempted when some degree of automatisation has been achieved The final stage which is given here is lexicalisation This stage is proposed (Skehan 1998) to reflect a dual-mode system in which on the one hand we can use rule-based language produced quickly as highly automatised, or on the other, the products of such rule-based language can be lexicalised and then produced as exemplars or chunks Such a mode enables not simply speed of processing but also the advantage that there are not many computational demands, so that attention is, to some extent, is freed up while performance is ongoing (Skehan 2013) Clearly using tasks is compatible with fostering fluency on the basis of lexicalisation Using tasks which support Formulator operations, for example, will help in any process of lexicalisation that might occur But in all truth, it is likely that it is asking too much of tasks to expect them to contribute significantly to any such process Of course they will much more than many other teaching methodologies, but the amount of communication that is necessary for any process of lexicalisation to occur is probably too great for any task-based approach to deliver There simply is not enough 253 Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com 254 Peter Skehan time for things to develop in this way Lexicalisation is a desirable goal, but one that probably can only be achieved by long and extensive exposure to the target language in question Task-based syllabuses developed to cover several years may achieve this, although such a claim is currently speculative Shorter-term task use would struggle to achieve wide-ranging lexicalization The sequence which has just been described starts with the new, with something that is perhaps not understood completely and is used haltingly and sometimes incorrectly, to a point where the formerly new language is now well-integrated into a developing system and can be used, in real-time fluently and correctly, and even without undue processing effort But there is another aspect of the sequence which we have temporarily left out and now needs further consideration This is the issue of saliency or repertoire creation, what in French can be referred to as disponibilité The previous discussion has assumed there is some aspect of the language system and its choice for use is self-evident – if something is known, it will be used But such an approach misses a very important point about language learning – one may know a great deal of language that one does not use So in addition to trying to teach new things, a goal of teaching has to be to increase the access that the learner has to what is known, but whose relevance and usefulness may not be appreciated In other words, if learners have found methods of solving communicative problems which are not pretty, or helpful for development, but are nonetheless effective, they may learn new aspects of the target language, but not use them They may plateau at a certain, unnecessary level because they can get by using older methods of solving problems So the teaching challenge is not simply to introduce new forms effectively, but also to get those new forms to supplant older language or at least to become part of a communicative repertoire For this goal, a task-based approach is very well suited Tasks, especially tasks which are reflected upon afterwards, can support learners to develop such a repertoire, and for them to see how what has been learned has communicative utility In this case, the range of variables which have been shown to influence performance can be related to the promotion of accessibility The emphasis here will be on Formulator operations, rather than Conceptualisation, so that either attention is made more available when the surface structure of language is being put in place, or there is a focus on accuracy to some degree (e.g through post-task activities, or through monitoring) These can make it more likely that the newer forms will not be there for a rainy day, so to speak, but have sufficient salience that they can become usable even in more difficult circumstances Principles for using a task-based approach The last section has tried to clarify the pedagogic contributions that a task-based approach can uniquely make The section, though, was driven by the sequence of what www.ebook777.com Limitedebooks attentional capacity, second www.ebook777.com language performance, and task-based pedagogy Free ==> happens during acquisition In addition to such an account, it is also useful to have a set of principles for the use of tasks over a more extensive timescale, ranging over several lessons, or even a period as long as one term In Skehan (1998), I put forward five principles for a task based approach The five principles were: Choose a range of target language elements1 Choose tasks which meet Loschky and Bley Vroman’s (1993) utility criterion Select and sequence tasks to achieve balanced goal development Maximise the chances of a focus on form through attention manipulation Use cycles of accountability What this set of principles tried to address is the tension between two statements: Second language acquisition demonstrates that internal factors have a strong influence on patterns of development, such that learners not necessarily learn what teachers teach vs Some degree of system and completeness in what is being learned is preferable The principles tried to strike a balance between these two statements Unrestrained applications of a task-based approach based on relatively brief speaking tasks would risk over-valuing the first statement at the expense of the second Applications of traditional approaches would risk over-valuing the second at the expense of the first So, if one regards the first two principles above as somewhat preliminary, the third and the fourth attempt to nudge learners towards a focus-on-form, and the fifth, final, and very important principle suggests that teachers have an important role in monitoring the development of their students and designing pedagogic activities which deal with the lacunae in learning, and orient the input (e.g through pre-task work, task selection) towards areas which have not been developed But there is vagueness in these principles, and I would like to modify these proposals slightly First, I would now add to the third and fourth principles a set of subprinciples These are: –– –– –– –– –– complexifying pressuring easing focussing monitoring . This proposal is not driven by any precept based on learners’ functional needs (such as Long & Crookes 1992) It could accommodate such an approach, but in fact offers greater freedom to the teacher or course-designer regarding the basis for task choice 255 Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com 256 Peter Skehan In other words, to make the general principles more accessible, I would suggest using the sorts of outcomes captured in Table 2, based as this table is on a range of empirical results, to make more specific the sorts of things that could promote balanced goal development, and a strong focus on form We have learned quite a lot from research as to how a general focus on form can be promoted So the principles are not quite so abstract now as they were when first proposed in 1998, and the claims follow from a range of research results Second, I would also like to add a new principle, and ideally place it as a new fifth principle (pushing the old last principle, use cycles of accountability) down to sixth position The new principle would be: Use the post-task phase to nurture language made salient by the task, through: –– –– –– –– explanation extension integration practice and consolidation As we have seen in earlier discussion, the post-task phase is vital as the place to capitalise on the language which has been made salient by the task The language which emerges in the task is the language which is relevant to learners But the operations on that language orchestrated by the teacher can enable the sixth principle, the use of cycles of accountability, to function more effectively Because it is here that the teacher can select from the range of language made salient that particular language which it is most propitious to work on, safe in the knowledge that it will be learner-led language This may be developmental language, or it may be language which needs further consolidation and practice It could even be new language, in the sense that a task may have created a need to mean, and then the teacher can supply that need in a focussed manner This is quite a challenge for the teacher Learners differ; experiences differ As a result, there may be a range of candidate language elements to pick up on at the post-task stage, not all of which can receive focus It is reliant on the teacher’s professionalism and training which of these to work with, which to defer until possibly later, and which to ignore We can now represent the set of principles in a more complete, comprehensive form: Choose a range of target structures Choose tasks which meet Loschky and Bley Vroman’s utility criterion Select and sequence tasks to achieve balanced goal development through –– complexifying –– pressuring www.ebook777.com Limitedebooks attentional capacity, second www.ebook777.com language performance, and task-based pedagogy Free ==> –– easing –– focussing –– monitoring Maximise the chances of a focus on form through attention manipulation through –– complexifying –– pressuring –– easing –– focussing –– monitoring Use the post-task phase to nurture language made salient by the task, through: explanation extension integration practice and consolidation Use cycles of accountability So far, we have taken what could be considered to be a micro stance towards pedagogy Sub-principles for and concern relatively small-scale tasks, and the task cycle that is envisaged here would be completed with one or two lessons (and could be broadly similar to the methodology proposed by Willis & Willis 2007) But teaching extends over more than just a short time span, obviously, and so, if pedagogic planning is to be effective, it needs to have means of organising these longer stretches of time Project work is one such method of linking a series of tasks in ways that retains the focus on meaning that tasks provide, but at the same time is susceptible to longer stretches of planned teaching Projects, and series of projects, can be designed to occupy long stretches of teaching But if that is done, the post-task work which has been described so far needs to be conceptualised slightly differently, since it is here that the sixth principle becomes important ‘Micro’ post-task work takes what has emerged from a task or group of tasks, and responds to the needs and opportunities which emerge (Principle 5) In a sense, the teacher’s decision is to examine what is available, what has become salient through the task, and from the range of possibilities, choose those which would sensibly be worked on If, though, one has more extensive task based performances to work with, which extend over time, then there is the need to keep records, explore what has been achieved over longer timespans by particular learners, and make decisions accordingly, decisions which can be collaboratively negotiated and made with students In other words, the notion of using cycles of accountability, where responsibility is shared between learners and teachers, becomes more important It can become clearer, with reflective post-task work of this sort, where there are still gaps and what needs to be focussed on in the future The broad parameters of learners not necessarily learning what teachers teach still apply, but the reflection can 257 Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com 258 Peter Skehan give insights as to what tasks might best be chosen and how they might be exploited In this way, the need to ensure some degree of systematicity is enhanced very considerably, and we have a bridge between micro and macro perspectives on tasks References Anderson, J.R (2004) Cognitive psychology and its implications (6th ed.) New York, NY: Worth Bruton, A (2002) From tasking purposes to purposing tasks English Language Teaching Journal, 56, 280–288 Bygate, M (2001) Effects of task repetition on the structure and control of oral language In M Bygate, P Skehan, & M Swain (Eds.), Researching pedagogic tasks (pp 23–48) London: Longman Bygate, M (2006) Areas of research that influence L2 speaking instruction In E Uso-Juan & A. Martinez-Flor (Eds.), Current trends in the development and teaching of the four language skills (pp 159–186) Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter Bygate M., & Samuda V (2009) Creating pressure in task pedagogy: The joint roles of field, purpose, and engagement within the interactional approach In A Mackey & C Polio (Eds.), Multiple perspectives on interaction (pp 90–116) New York, NY: Routledge Bygate, M., Skehan, P., & Swain, M (Eds.) (2001) Researching pedagogic tasks London: Longman Corder, S Pit (1981) Error analysis and interlanguage Oxford: OUP Crookes, G (1989) Planning and interlanguage variation Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 11, 367–383 Dornyei, Z (2005) The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Ellis, R (1987) Interlanguage variability in narrative discourse: Style shifting in the use of the past tense Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 9, 12–20 Ellis, R (2005) Planning and task-based performance: Theory and research In R Ellis (Ed.), Planning and task performance in a second language (pp 3–34) Amsterdam: John Benjamins Ellis, R (2009) The differential effects of three types of task planning on the fluency, complexity, and accuracy in L2 oral production Applied Linguistics, 30(4), 474–509 Foster, P., & Skehan, P (1996) The influence of planning on performance in task-based learning Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 18, 299–324 Hoey, M (1983) On the surface of discourse London: George Allen and Unwin Kintsch, W (1994) The psychology of discourse processing In M.A Gernsbacher (Ed.), Handbook of psycholinguistics (pp 721–740) San Diego CA: Academic Press Kormos, J (1999) Monitoring and self-repair Language Learning, 49, 303–342 Kormos, J (2006) Speech production and second language acquisition Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Levelt, W.J (1989) Speaking: From intention to articulation Cambridge: CUP Levelt, W.J (1999) Language production: A blueprint of the speaker In C Brown & P Hagoort (Eds.), Neurocognition of language (pp 83–122) Oxford: OUP Li, Q (2010) Focus on form in task based language teaching: exploring the effects of post-task activities and task practice on learners’ oral performance Unpublished Ph.D thesis Chinese University of Hong Kong Littlewood, W (2004) The task-based approach: Some problems and suggestions English Language Teaching Journal, 58(4), 319–326 www.ebook777.com Limitedebooks attentional capacity, second www.ebook777.com language performance, and task-based pedagogy Free ==> Long, M.H., & Crookes, G (1992) Three approaches to task-based syllabus design TESOL Quarterly, 26, 27–55 Loschky, L., & Bley-Vroman, R (1993) Grammar and task-based methodology In G Crookes & S. Gass (Eds.), Tasks and language learning: Integrating theory and practice Clevedon: Multilingual Matters McDonough, K., & Trofimovich, P (2009) Using priming methods in second language research London: Routledge Norris, J (2009) Task-based teaching and testing In M.H.Long & C.Doughty (Eds.), Handbook of language teaching (pp 578–594) Oxford: Blackwell O'Malley, J.M & Chamot, A.U (1990) Learning strategies in second language acquisition Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Ortega, L (2005) What learners plan? Learner-driven attention to form during pre-task planning In R Ellis (Ed.), Planning and task performance in a second language (pp 77–109) Amsterdam: John Benjamins Pienemann, M (2003) Language processing capacity In C Doughty & M H Long (Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp 679–714) Oxford: Blackwell Pinter, A (2005) Task repetition with a 10-year-old In C Edwards & J Willis (Eds.), Teachers exploring tasks in English language teaching (pp 113–126) Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan Robinson, P (2001) Task complexity, cognitive resources, and syllabus design: A triadic framework for examining task influences on SLA In P Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp 287–318) Cambridge: CUP Robinson, P (2011) Second language task complexity, the Cognition Hypothesis, language learning, and performance In P Robinson P (Ed.), Second language task complexity: Researching the Cognition Hypothesis of language learning and performance (pp 3–38) Amsterdam: John Benjamins Robinson, P., & Gilabert, R (2007) Task complexity, the Cognition Hypothesis, and second language learning and performance International Review of Applied Linguistics, 45, 161–176 Schmidt, R (1990) The role of consciousness in second language learning Applied Linguistics, 11, 17–46 Skehan, P (1986) Cluster analysis and the identification of learner types In V Cook (Ed.), Experimental approaches to second language acquisition (pp 81–94) Oxford: Pergamon Skehan, P (1989) Individual differences in second language learning London: Edward Arnold Skehan, P (1998) A cognitive approach to language learning Oxford: OUP Skehan, P (2001) Tasks and language performance In M Bygate, P Skehan, & Swain M (Eds.), Researching pedagogic tasks: Second language learning, teaching, and testing (pp 167–185) London: Longman Skehan, P (2007) Task research and language teaching: Reciprocal relationships In S Fotos & H. Nassaji (Eds.), Form-focused instruction and teacher education: Studies in honour of Rod Ellis (pp 55–69) Oxford: OUP Skehan, P (2009a) Modelling second language performance: Integrating complexity, accuracy, fluency and lexis Applied Linguistics, 30(4), 510–532 Skehan, P (2009b) Models of speaking and the assessment of second language proficiency In A. Benati (Ed.), Issues in second language proficiency (pp 202–215) London: Continuum Skehan, P (2013) Nurturing noticing In J Bergleitner & S Fotos (Eds.), Festschrift in honour of Richard Schmidt Honolulu, HI: National Foreign Language Resource Center Skehan, P., Bei, X., Li, Q., & Wang Z (2012) The task is not enough: Processing approaches to taskbased performance Language Teaching Research, 16(2), 170–187 259 Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com 260 Peter Skehan Skehan, P.,& Foster, P (1997) Task type and task processing conditions as influences on foreign language performance Language Teaching Research, 1(3), 185–211 Skehan, P., & Foster, P (1999) The influence of task structure and processing conditions on narrative retellings Language Learning, 49(1), 93–120 Swain, M (1985) Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development In S Gass & C Madden (Eds.), Input in second language acquisition Rowley, MA: Newbury House Swain, M (1995) Three functions of output in second language learning In G Cook & B Seidlhofer (Eds.), Principle and practice in applied linguistics (pp 245–256) Oxford: OUP Swan, M (2005) Legislating by hypothesis: The case of task-based instruction Applied Linguistics, 26, 376–401 Tannen, D (1989) Talking voices: Repetition, dialogue, and imagery in conversational discourse Cambridge: CUP Tavakoli, P., & Skehan, P (2005) Strategic planning, task structure, and performance testing In R. Ellis (Ed.), Planning and task performance in a second language (pp 239–276) Amsterdam: John Benjamins Wang, Z (2009) Modelling speech production and performance: Evidence from five types of planning and two task structures Unpublished Ph.D thesis Chinese University of Hong Kong Willis, J (1996) A framework for task-based learning London: Longman Willis, D., & Willis, J (2007) Doing task-based teaching Oxford: OUP Winter, E (1976) Fundamentals of information structure: A pilot manual for further development according to student need Hatfield, Herts: The Hatfield Polytechnic Linguistics Group, School of Humanities www.ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Author Biodata BUI Hiu Yuet, Gavin obtained his Ph.D in applied linguistics from The Chinese University of Hong Kong Currently he is Assistant Professor at the English Department of Hang Seng Management College in Hong Kong where he teaches linguistics and applied linguistics courses with some occasional addition of EAP/ESP classes Dr. Bui’s research interests include task-based language teaching, psycholinguistics, and second language acquisition LI Qian, Christina, obtained her Ph.D in applied linguistics from the Chinese University of Hong Kong Currently, she is an assistant research professor in English at Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, China Her interests include task-based language teaching and research, the acquisition of formulaic sequences by L2 speakers and bilingual lexicography Her most recent articles appeared on Language Teaching Research (2012) (coauthored with Skehan, Bei, Wang) and Foreign Language Teaching and Research (2013) PANG Soi Meng, Francine, obtained her Ph.D in applied linguistics from the Chinese University of Hong Kong She is currently Associate Professor at Macao Polytechnic Institute, and before that she was Assistant Professor and Postdoctoral Fellow at the Chinese University of Hong Kong and the University of Macao Dr Pang has lectured in applied linguistics, psycholinguistics and Business English Dr Pang’s research interests include second language acquisition, second language reading, and second language task planning behaviour SHUM Sabrina obtained her MA in applied linguistics at South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China She worked as a research assistant for Professor Skehan in a research project which is the basis for one of the chapters in this volume She is currently an Assistant Lecturer in Cantonese at the Yale-China Chinese Language Centre, The Chinese University of Hong Kong Her current research interests include Chinese grammar and teaching Chinese as Foreign Language Peter SKEHAN is a Professorial Research Fellow at St Mary’s University College, Twickenham He received his Ph.D from Birkbeck College, University of London His major interests are in second language acquisition, especially task-based performance, and language aptitude He supervised the Ph.Ds of contributors to this book, as well as directed the Hong Kong RGC research projects that are the basis for three of the chapters He has also been a Visiting Professor at the University of Auckland Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com 262 Investigating a Processing Perspective on Task Performance WANG Zhan (Jan) is a postdoctoral researcher in the Learning Research and Development Center (LRDC), University of Pittsburgh She works on projects related to fostering second language fluency and first language reading development, funded by the NSF at the Pittsburgh Science of Learning Center (PSLC) She received her Ph.D in Applied Linguistics from the Chinese University of Hong Kong www.ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Index A accuracy ix, 2–4, 7, 10, 12–18, 34–37, 41–42, 44–53, 63–65, 68, 71–72, 76–80, 82–90, 99–100, 102, 107–111, 116–121, 131–133, 138, 140–150, 155–163, 166–178, 187–194, 197–207, 213–223, 227–228, 231–244, 252, 254 accuracy clause length 76–77, 83 accuracy versus complexity effects 96 analysis-oriented learners 236 anticipating post-task transcription 238 articulation 10, 27–29, 36–38, 47–49, 79, 221–223, 229, 244 articulator 5, 28–30, 34, 218, 244–245 AS-unit 16, 138, 142–143, 147, 168–169, 198–199, 221 assessment 1, 237 attention xi, 3, 10, 34–35, 48–53, 82, 96, 126–127, 129–132, 145–150, 178–179, 189–191, 203–204, 206–207, 211–212, 214, 221–223, 228–231, 236–244, 252–255, 257 attentional limitations 3, 13, 156–157, 176 authenticity 218 automatic processing 29, 31 automatisation 21, 175, 181, 253 automatising 253 avoiding error 206, 215, 241–242, 248 B background information 156, 190 beginning-middle-end structure 196, 227 breakdown 19–20, 41, 71, 73–76, 80, 83, 85–87, 132, 167–168, 172, 175, 192, 197, 205, 229–230 breakdown fluency 19, 71, 73–76, 80, 83, 85–87, 167, 175, 192, 197 British National Corpus 22 C causal structure 195 CHAT 15–16, 21, 42, 101, 138, 166, 196–197 CHILDES 15, 72 Chinese University xi, x, xii, 9–10, 211, 261–262 chunks 22, 79, 81–82, 161, 253 CLAN 15, 21, 41–42, 138, 166–167, 197 clause boundary pausing 19, 113, 118 clause-end pauses 71, 74, 75 cloze test 135 coding scheme 11, 95, 97–99, 102–104, 116, 125, 215–216 Cognition Hypothesis ix, xii, 3–4, 7–9, 13, 68, 96, 120–121, 155–161, 163, 174–177, 191, 231–232, 234–236, 241 Cognition-Tradeoff debate 212, 231 cognitive comparison 31, 145, 148 Cohen’s d 42, 72–77, 83, 86, 141–144 collaborative dialogue 130 collaborative transcribing 133–134 communicative language teaching (CLT) 1, 32, 130 complexity ix, x, 2–7, 9–10, 12–16, 32–37, 41–42, 44–50, 63–65, 68, 71–72, 77–78, 80–88, 90, 96, 102–103, 111, 116–121, 131–132, 140–144, 146–150, 155–163, 166–179, 181, 189–194, 197–199, 201–208, 211–223, 227–228, 230–232, 234–244, 246 complexifying 9, 14, 157, 178, 208, 248, 251, 253, 255–257 conceptualisation 10, 99, 107, 157, 179–180, 189, 213, 221, 223, 228, 244, 254 Conceptualiser 5, 79, 95, 107, 175–176, 178–179, 190, 206–208, 215, 217, 220–222, 224, 226, 229–230, 242–245 conjoint influence 13, 235 content-based instruction 89 content familiarity 212, 237 control ix, 2–3, 33–35, 37–40, 101, 147, 181, 202, 248, 251–253 controlled processing 49 critical period 32 cycles of accountability 255–257 D declarative memory 29, 32 default view of attention 238 disponibilité 254 dual-mode system 253 easing 13–14, 35, 52, 157, 178–180, 190, 208, 235, 237, 255, 257 effect size 42–43, 45, 73–74, 76–77, 139, 142–143, 201 emerging rule-governed system 253 encapsulated 221 encoding specificity principle 79 end-of-clause pausing 21, 175, 187, 201, 227, 233 error correction 148 error free clauses 41, 46, 107–108, 110, 142, 166, 168, 171, 192, 198, 201 error gravity 18, 193, 197 errors per 100 words 17–18, 76–77, 138, 141, 192–193 exemplars 253 exemplar-based system 79 extended pedagogic sequences 246 F factor analysis 167, 169 false starts 20, 71, 73, 76, 168–170, 172–176 familiarity 5–7, 14, 51, 63, 65–71, 73–90, 104, 212, 214, 217–218, 222, 237, 243, 245 feedback 2, 7, 14, 40, 130, 132, 137, 147–148 filled pauses 19–21, 71, 197 flow 2, 18, 20, 28, 160, 197, 204, 224, 229, 232, 235 264 Index Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com flow in performance 224 fluency ix, 3–4, 10, 18–21, 27, 32–37, 41, 44–50, 52–53, 63–65, 68, 71–76, 78–81, 83–90, 96, 102, 107–109, 111–112, 114, 117–121, 131–132, 156–162, 166–169, 173–176, 178, 192, 194, 197–199, 201–202, 204, 206–207, 213–219, 222–223, 227–228, 233, 235–236, 243, 252–253, 262 focus-on-form ix, 3, 8, 51, 146, 150–151, 238, 255 focussing 14, 157, 178, 208, 242, 255, 257 foreground information 189 formality 82 form-focussed instruction Formulator 5, 10, 28–30, 34, 37–38, 78–79, 81, 107, 159, 161, 175–176, 178, 180, 189, 192, 203–204, 207–208, 214–215, 217, 220, 222, 226, 228–230, 242–245, 253–254 formulation 10, 29–38, 45–53, 65, 78–80, 189, 221–223, 230, 244 fragility of the accuracy effects 219 G guided planning 51 guided planners 51 H here-and-now 8–9, 13, 40, 157, 159–163, 165–166, 169–170, 173–181, 184, 190–191, 226, 228, 232, 235, 246 Hong Kong Research Grants Council hypothesising 248–250, 253 I implicit learning 252 inauthenticity 218 incomplete lemma access 218 individual transcription 134, 240 information integration 157, 181, 236 information organisation 189–190 inner speech plan 28, 52 input domination input-handling 232 instructed L2 learning intake 248 interactional processes interactive peer revision 134 integrating 248, 250 integration 87, 156–157, 181, 236, 250–251, 256–257 interlanguage structure 249 interaction x, 1–2, 75, 78, 83–84, 89, 129, 144, 146–148, 155, 172–176, 181, 205, 242, 249 intermediate difficulty 237 L L2 mental lexicon 31 L2 proficiency 31, 78, 84 Lambda 22, 46, 102, 107–108, 115, 138, 160–161, 165, 168–169, 171 lemma retrieval 178, 180, 189 length accuracy 18, 193, 200–201 length of run 20, 73–75, 79, 107–109, 132, 175 less frequent vocabulary 165, 171–172 levels of proficiency 16, 107, 225, 245 Levelt model 5–6, 9–10, 14, 48, 99, 107, 116, 157, 178, 180, 187, 208, 215, 220, 223, 229, 235, 241, 244 Levelt speech production model 33 lexical complexity 68, 82, 150, 214, 239 lexical density 21–23, 37 lexical difficulty 13, 116, 163, 172, 174–176 lexical diversity 21–23, 41–42, 44, 46, 138, 140–142, 171 lexical and grammar planning 104–105, 107, 116, 126 lexicalisation 253–254 lexical planning codes 216 lexical retrieval 97, 107, 120, 176, 192 lexical sophistication 21–23, 37, 46, 82, 102, 108, 115–116, 119–120, 142, 144, 149, 168–169, 171, 173, 214, 217, 243 limited attentional capacity 7, 211 M macro planning 103–107, 125, 245 macrostructure 81, 159, 175, 178–179, 189–190, 192, 203–204, 208, 228, 230, 234, 245 meaning priority 27, 53 mediated narration 194 memory demands 3, 159–160, 162, 175, 177, 191, 235 memory-oriented learners 236 mental lexicon 4, 9, 23, 28, 31–32, 79, 99, 119, 157, 161, 178, 214, 217, 225, 229–230, 232–233, 244–245 metacognitive planning 104, 106–107, 117, 127 metacognitive strategies 116 metatalk 147 microplanning mid-clause pausing 19, 21, 111–112, 114–115, 117, 119, 169–170, 172, 174–176 mid-clause pause 74 models of speaking 13, 99 modified output 148 modular 5, 10, 180, 221, 244 monitoring 27–28, 46, 48–53, 65, 80, 82–83, 97, 99, 107, 116, 189, 207–208, 215–216, 228, 238, 241, 254–255, 257 monitoring strategies 97 Mor 196–197 multivariate analysis of variance N narrative 11–12, 15, 36, 38–39, 51, 95, 97–102, 108–109, 111, 135–144, 149, 156–157, 164–165, 173, 179, 187, 189–190, 194, 203, 206, 215, 225–228, 230, 232–235, 241–242 native speakers 7, 19, 81, 108, 114, 165, 192, 197, 204 naturalistic L2 learning 129 negotiation of meaning 2, 130 nominal phrases 192 non-negotiable 234–235 non-negotiability 234 non-native speakers 19, 81, 165, 192, 197, 204 www.ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com Index 265 notice the gap 32 noticing 129, 132, 145–146, 248–250, 253 noticing the hole 146 noun phrase complexity 82–84 nudged 236, 252 O on-line planning 8, 10–11, 14, 27, 33, 35–37, 39–40, 42, 45–48, 50–53, 63, 65, 79–80, 87, 96, 118, 159, 176, 191, 219–220, 222, 231, 238, 242–244, 252 operating principles 121 opportunity to negotiate 246 organisational structure 204, 221 over-ambition 95, 111, 219, 224 overt speech plan 28, 52 P pair-based transcription 239–240 pair transcription 134 pair transcribing 137–138, 140, 142–144, 146–147, 149–150 parallel (mode of) processing partial lemma access pausing 18–21, 73, 102, 107, 109, 111–115, 117–119, 168–172, 174–176, 187, 189, 196–197, 201, 204, 207, 227, 233 pause location 192 pedagogic norms 244 pedagogic principles 14 pedagogy x, 1, 4, 13–14, 27, 52, 88, 129, 131–132, 149, 151, 155, 206, 208, 211, 218, 246–247, 257 phonation time 20, 73, 180 phonological plans 215 pickup points 221 planning xi, x, 3, 5, 7–14, 27, 33–40, 42–53, 60–61, 63–71, 73–90, 95–107, 109, 111, 114–122, 124–127, 130, 136, 156, 158–159, 176, 178, 189, 191–192, 205–206, 211–224, 228, 231–233, 237–240, 242–247, 249, 252, 257, 261 planning efficiency 220 planning time 11, 34–36, 39–40, 45, 50, 65, 73, 75, 81, 83–85, 87, 89, 98, 100–101, 111, 118–120, 124, 127, 158–159, 214–215, 219–221, 223, 228, 231, 242 planning-as-familiarity 214 planning-as-organisation 221 planning-as-time 214 planning-while-speaking 191 PLex 22, 165 post xi, 3, 5, 8–9, 12, 51, 96, 129, 131–134, 136–139, 141–148, 150–151, 156, 238–244, 247, 249–252, 254, 256–257 post-task activities 5, 8, 51, 84, 129, 131–133, 137, 150, 156, 239, 247, 254 post-task focus stage post-task manipulation 12 post-task phase 3, 9, 14, 132, 250, 256–257 post-task stage 129, 131, 136, 144–146, 151, 249–252, 256 post-task transcribing condition 129, 138 post-task transcription 12, 133–134, 138, 144, 148, 150, 238–239 practice 32, 66, 136, 146, 165, 252–253, 256–257 practice activities 253 prefabricated expressions 81 preparedness 5, 7–8, 11, 14, 65, 89, 191, 212–213, 217–218, 220, 223, 245–246 pre-selection 252 presentation-practiceproduction 252 pre-task influence 212 pre-task planning 3, 7, 10, 33, 35–36, 49–51, 64–65, 70, 75–76, 80–82, 130, 191, 214, 221–222, 238, 243 pre-verbal message 28, 49, 52, 78–79, 107, 157, 230, 244–245 pre-watching 33–36, 39–40, 47, 49–50 pressuring 14, 157, 178, 180, 208, 220, 255–257 prime 223 primed 78, 222 priming 217, 223 problem of new language 251 problem-solution structure 164, 187–190, 196, 200, 203, 207, 225, 227, 236 procedural memory 29, 32 processing ix, x, xi, xii, 1–3, 5, 8, 10, 13–14, 27–32, 37, 39, 48–49, 51–52, 64, 68, 79–82, 107, 119, 145, 155, 157, 160–163, 171, 175, 177–180, 187, 190, 195–196, 198–202, 205–208, 211–212, 215, 217–218, 220–237, 242–243, 245–246, 248, 253–254 processing approach xi, 68, 242 processing capacity 64, 79, 82 processing conditions 8, 10, 13, 32, 162, 175, 178, 187, 190, 195, 199–200, 202, 205, 207–208, 215, 223, 226, 231–232 processing limitations processing pressure(s) proficiency range 224 project work 246, 257 propositional demands 234 pruned words 72–73, 168 pseudo-filled pauses 20–21 pseudo-filled pausing psycholinguistic processes 4–5, 21, 157, 176, 180 R readiness 11, 63–68, 80–82, 84–90, 212–213, 217, 220, 222, 248–250 reasoning demands 157–158, 231 re-entry points 230 reformulation 41, 44–45, 71, 73, 101, 133, 166, 168, 197–198, 201, 203–205 rehearsal 33, 36, 52, 63–68, 86, 89, 97, 107, 116–117, 120, 127, 159, 212, 216–218, 221, 223, 240, 242–243, 245 rehearsal strategies 97 repair 51, 71 repair fluency 20, 73, 76, 78, 83, 85–86, 166–167, 175, 192, 197–198 repertoire creation 248, 254 repetition 5, 7, 10–11, 20, 27, 34, 36–40, 42–44, 46–48, 50, 52–53, 61, 65–67, 73, 84, 86, 89, 101, 156, 166–168, 203, 214–215, 217–218, 222–223, 240, 243, 245–246 replacement 20, 73, 167–168 resource deficits 30–31 266 Index Free ebooks ==> www.ebook777.com resource directedness 7, 231 resource directing 7, 231 resource-dispersing 7, 8, 157–159, 177, 231, 232 response deadline 39 restructuring ix, 147, 248, 250, 253 retrieval depth 218 retrieval strategies 97 retrospective interviews 11, 95, 97–99, 101–104, 215 Revised Hierarchical Model 31 revising 133–134, 137–138, 140, 148 revision after transcribing 129, 144, 148–149 risk-taking 2, 147 role of the teacher 247, 249 rule-based language 253 rule-based system 2, 79 S scale of structure 188, 227 schema 66–68, 188, 213 schematic familiarity 66–67, 86, 89, 212 script 188 second language pedagogy 52, 129, 132 selective attention 31, 51, 211–212, 236, 238, 244 self-monitoring 28, 80 self-repair 51 self-reported planning behaviours 95, 106, 109, 120 self-revision sequences of development 248 serial processing 221, 224, 229, 233–234, 237, 243, 245–246 silent pauses 19 sociocultural 242 speech fluency 35–36, 44–47, 49–50, 52 speech monitoring 27, 48, 50–53 speech production x, 10, 27–29, 31–34, 36–39, 47–52, 68, 88, 95, 107, 161, 178, 189–190, 206, 221–222, 229–230, 242, 244, 252 speech rate 20, 35–36, 48, 51, 71, 73–75, 79, 168 speed fluency 166–167, 169 speed of input 234, 246 strategic planning 27, 33, 35–36, 38–40, 42–47, 50, 52–53, 61, 63–70, 73–78, 80–89, 96, 192, 212–215, 217–219, 221–222, 238, 240, 242 structural complexity 68, 81, 109, 155, 159, 167, 169, 175–176, 189, 213, 236, 242–244 structural priming structured narratives 177, 187, 201, 203 student-initiated transcribing 133 subordination 16, 41–42, 44–46, 77, 102, 107–108, 111–112, 117, 119–120, 143, 168–169, 171, 173, 175, 178–179, 189–190, 192, 198, 201, 203–204, 206–208, 228 supported on-line planning 176, 220, 242–244, 252 supported processing conditions syllables per minute 20 syllabus 4, 6, 251, 253 syntactic encoding 157 T task-based syllabuses 254 task characteristics xi, 2, 6–7, 9, 12, 84, 155–156, 236 task complexity x, 3–7, 9, 13, 121, 155, 157–158, 160, 163, 176–177, 191, 212, 228, 230–232, 236, 241 task conditions 1–3, 5, 7, 23, 36, 38, 40, 64–65, 84, 96, 132, 155–157, 176, 181, 205, 236–237, 252–253 task cycle 131, 137, 247, 257 task difficulty 5–6, 96, 157, 237 task external readiness 66, 89 task familiarity 66–67, 86, 212 task input 234, 249 task internal readiness 63 task phases 250 task processing 5, 8, 231 TaskProfile 16–18, 21, 42, 101, 166–167, 197 task readiness 63–64, 66, 87 task repetition 27, 36–37, 52, 65–67, 84, 86, 89 task sequencing 88, 246 task structure x, 6, 9, 13, 111, 118, 155, 157, 159, 161–163, 165, 167, 177, 187, 200–201, 212, 223, 227–228, 231–232, 245 task types ix, 5–6, 66, 135–136, 142–144, 156 teacher behaviour 248 teacher-initiated transcribing 133 tempo-naming 39 temporal aspects of speaking 79 test fairness 68, 88 test-task 240 there-and-then 8–9, 13, 155, 157–166, 169–170, 173–179, 181, 184, 190–191, 194, 202, 207, 226–228, 232–235, 243, 245 time perspective 8–9, 13, 96, 155, 157, 159–163, 167, 169–170, 172–173, 175–176, 179, 181, 190–191, 231–233, 235, 237, 245 time pressure 5, 8, 27, 30–38, 40, 44–48, 51, 53, 67, 176, 179, 191, 194, 203, 206–207, 227 topic familiarity 63, 65–71, 73–87, 89–90 total silence 73 trade-off 39, 53, 82, 84, 120, 149, 156–160, 162, 175–178 Trade-off Hypothesis 156–158, 160, 162, 175, 177 transcribing 51, 129, 132–134, 136–150 transcribing-and-revising 134 triadic componential framework 157 type-token ratio 21, 46 U unfamiliar tasks 70, 73, 75, 82, 88 unguided planners 51–52 unguided planning 51 unmediated narration 194 unpressured performance conditions 245 utility criterion 255–256 V vocabulary difficulty 155, 165, 167, 172–174, 233 VocD 21, 42, 138 W within-task planning 33, 64–67, 80, 212 words per AS unit 72, 77–78, 81–83, 85, 138, 141–143, 168 words per clause 72, 77, 81–82, 192, 198, 201–202, 206–208 words per minute 41, 68, 71, 168 working memory 3–4, 30, 33, 80–81, 156, 160, 177, 189, 211, 230–231, 236, 241 www.ebook777.com ... comparison to the control condition (Condition 1)? Does the ‘Repetition’ condition (Condition 6), which targets time pressure reduction at the complete process of speech production (i.e conceptualization,... speech in comparison to the control condition (Condition 1)? Does the ‘Watched On- line Planning’ condition (Condition 4), which targets time pressure reduction at both the Conceptualizer and... by comparing the result of this condition with that of the ‘Watched Online Planning’ Condition (Condition 4) The ‘Watched Online Planning’ condition (Condition 4) provides the opportunity for