REDD+ and Other Sectors: Climate Change Mitigation Through Integration and LowEmission Development

REDD+ and Other Sectors: Climate Change Mitigation Through Integration and Low-Emission Development Matthew Ogonowski November 2012 Table of Contents Page Foreword i Introduction REDD+ and Agriculture 2.1 Drivers and mitigation opportunities 2.2 MRV for forestry and agriculture 3 REDD+ Energy and GHG Mitigation 3.1 Primary fuels 3.2 Electricity 3.3 Transportation 3.4 Industry 3.5 Mining 7 11 11 REDD+ and Adaptation 4.1 The impact of global climate change on forests 4.2 REDD+ and adaptation policies and measures 13 13 14 REDD+ and Low-Emission Development Plans 5.1 General principles and objectives of low-emission development plan designs 5.2 Comprehensive low-emission development planning based on forestry/REDD+ 16 16 Conclusion 23 SNV REDD + 18 www.snvworld.org/redd Foreword Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) is facing many challenges, not least the slow and uncertain rate of progress in reducing actual greenhouse gas emissions from the forestry sector For many of us with experience working in this sector, these difficulties are not unexpected Critical issues pertinent to forestry and land use remain, including the need for further technical and institutional capacity building at both the national and local levels, development of effective financing and benefitsharing arrangements, addressing tenure rights and governance issues, and the need for more integrated land-use planning On an optimistic note, REDD+ has helped shift the debate forward, bringing greater attention to the forestry sector’s role in global climate change and helping to spur debate in some countries on the role of local communities in forest management It has also fostered real advances in transparency of forest data and the means to measure forest cover changes and estimate emissions It is important that the international community continues to build on these developments and to provide the necessary investment in REDD+ over the long term SNV has identified a number of critical areas in which we believe further thinking is needed in order to advance application of REDD+, namely: (i) how to better link the sectors driving deforestation and forest degradation through low-emission development planning; (ii) near-term options for measurement, reporting and verification (MRV) for REDD+; and (iii) REDD+ financing SNV hired Matthew Ogonowski, an independent consultant based in Washington, DC who has been closely involved in the development of REDD+, to provide further insights on each of these topics Mr Ogonowski is now employed at the US Agency for International Development (USAID) Global Climate Change Office; the opinions and views expressed in this paper are those of the author and not necessarily those of USAID and SNV This first paper is examining ‘REDD+ and Other Sectors: Climate Change Mitigation through Integration and Low-Emission Development’ Richard McNally SNV Global REDD+ Coordinator i SNV REDD + www.snvworld.org/redd Introduction In the international discussions regarding actions to address global climate change, the design and implementation of low-emission development plans (LEDPs) has become a central focus of efforts to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in developing countries The draft decision of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action agreed at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) COP 17 meeting in Durban, South Africa, for example, “encourages developing country Parties to develop low-emission development strategies, recognizing the need for financial and technical support by developed country Parties for the formulation of these strategies, and invites interested developing country Parties to share experience on the formulation of low-emission development strategies…” [emphasis in the original].1 LEDPs are intended as country-driven, economy-wide blueprints to enable developing countries to attain a high standard of living by implementing low-emission activities in specific sectors, and by achieving emissionreducing synergies across sectors The goal is to set these countries on a path to sustainable livelihoods and development, without the fossil fuel- and resource-intensive production and consumption patterns that have characterized growth in developed countries Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) has been another key element of climate change activities over the past few years Most prominently, the negotiations on REDD+ in the UNFCCC culminated in 2010 in the decision reached at COP 16 in Cancun, Mexico A number of multilateral and bilateral REDD+ support programs have been implemented as well, and efforts undertaken by tropical forest countries include small- to medium-scale REDD+ pilot projects, development of national REDD+ plans, and other capacity building activities (e.g., reference level analysis, design of systems for measurement, reporting and verification (MRV) and institutional development) REDD+ has also become recognized as an important tool that can be used to reduce GHG emissions and at the same time encourage alternative rural livelihoods and boost incomes As a result the potential role played by REDD+ in low-emission development (LED) in tropical forest countries has become increasingly appreciated, and is a component of a number of bilateral and international efforts to craft and implement effective LEDPs.2 Agricultural, forestry and other land-use activities will - and indeed must - be a central focus of successful LEDPs Agriculture and forestry are important sources of national income and provide livelihoods for the vast majority of the world’s poor They also account for the majority of emissions in most developing countries, and some 30% of global GHG emissions.3 The role of agriculture as a driver of deforestation is widely known and being addressed through REDD+ projects in many countries; however, the broader linkages and synergies between See Paragraph 38 Available at http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2011/cop17/eng/09a01_02cp17.pdf See for example the US government strategy on REDD+ (December 2010) and its relationship to low emission development strategies (LEDS), available at http://transition.usaid.gov/our_work/environment/climate/docs/UnitedStatesREDD+Brochure.pdf SNV REDD + www.snvworld.org/redd forestry and agriculture in the context of GHG emissions mitigation have yet to be addressed in a comprehensive manner On a broader scale, little effort has been made to explore the full extent of opportunities and risks associated with the links between forestry/REDD+ and other sectors (energy supply, transportation, industry and mining) In part this is the result of the continuation of the historical “sector-by-sector” approach to climate change policy in the context of LEDPs, as well as the fact that LED is a very recent project still in the process of being elaborated With a complex and intricate web of interactions between forestry and many other sectors, the potential benefits from incorporating forestry/REDD+ into an integrated, cross-sectoral LEDP policy framework are substantial, as are the potential risks from ignoring them This paper is intended as a contribution to the design of such an integrated framework By detailing the linkages between these sectors and presenting policy options for achieving synergies and minimizing risks, this analysis aims to contribute to the development of effective LEDPs that can achieve the promise of effective, economy-wide lowemission planning The paper begins with a discussion of the role of agriculture as a driver of deforestation and potential mitigation opportunities, followed by a presentation of recent efforts to integrate the methodologies for GHG emissions accounting in these sectors Part III discusses the role played by activities in other sectors (energy, transportation, etc.) in deforestation, and details opportunities for GHG mitigation and achieving potential synergies with forest conservation Part IV discusses the connection between REDD+ and adaptation The paper then builds upon the sectoral analysis to develop key principles for LEDPs It concludes with a presentation of a proposed framework for effective LEDP design for forest conservation that goes beyond protection of natural forest areas for REDD+ See http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/figure-spm-3.html SNV REDD + www.snvworld.org/redd REDD+ and Agriculture In this section, we discuss the linkage between agriculture, forestry and REDD+, and the status of MRV related to these sectors 2.1 Drivers and mitigation opportunities The role played by agriculture in tropical deforestation is well-known, and therefore only a brief introduction will be provided here Over the past three decades agriculture has overtaken logging and other forest uses as the preeminent driver of tropical deforestation worldwide A recent study estimates that agricultural development currently accounts for about 80% of deforestation globally, with commercial agriculture accounting for around two-thirds of deforestation in Latin America and one-third in Africa and subtropical Asia.4 Production of crops such as rice, coffee, oil palm, and rubber, as well as livestock, have all contributed, and large-scale agriculture has been a driver in a number of countries with important forest ecosystems In Brazil, cattle ranching has been the preeminent driver of deforestation, with over 60% of the deforested area in the Brazilian Amazon through 2008 occupied by pasture.5 In Indonesia, palm oil production continues to be a significant factor in both the clearing of forests and the degradation of peat lands A recent study estimates that oil palm plantations in Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo) totaled 3.2 million in 2010, with 90% of this development from 1990 occurring in forest areas and nearly 50% in intact forests.6 In addition, small-scale agriculture by lower income farmers has led to clearing and degradation of forests and damage to protected areas across the globe The need for approaches that can satisfy demand for agricultural products - and maintain the livelihoods of the many individuals and economies that depend upon agriculture - in a manner that does not require the clearing of natural forests is thus one of the most important challenges for the success of REDD+ A large number of REDD+ policies and measures to address agricultural drivers of deforestation have been proposed and attempted.7 These include: • Direct payments to farmers and agricultural companies for conserving natural forests These include REDD+ projects on the voluntary market offering payments based on the carbon conserved, and payments for environmental/ecosystem services (PES) programs for forest conservation not based on carbon (e.g., Mexico’s Payment for Environmental Hydrological Services program, with payments per based on forest type; Costa Rica’s Payment for Environmental Services Program, with payments per based on specified land uses).8 Kissinger, G., Herold, M., and De Sy, V., August 2012, Drivers of Deforestation and Forest Degradation: A Synthesis Report for REDD+ Policymakers, Lexeme Consulting, Vancouver, Canada, p 11 Available at http://www.decc.gov.uk/assets/decc/11/tackling-climatechange/international-climate-change/6316-drivers-deforestation-report.pdf See Butler, R., “62% of deforested Amazon ends up as cattle pasture,” September 4, 2011 Available at http://news.mongabay com/2011/0904-amazon_deforestation_causes.html Brazil has made significant progress in reducing the rate of deforestation in the Amazon over the past decade Carlson, K., et al., October 7, 2012, “Carbon emissions from forest conversion by Kalimantan oil palm plantations,” Nature Climate Change Available at http://www.nature.com/nclimate/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nclimate1702.html For additional discussion of this topic see Graham, G., and Vignola, R., 2011, REDD+ and Agriculture: A Cross-sectoral Approach to REDD+ and Implications for the Poor, REDD-net, London Available at http://redd-net.org/files/REDD%20and%20agriculture%20 laid%20up.pdf For more on these programs see Karousakis, K., 2007, Incentives to Reduce GHG Emissions from Deforestation: Lessons Learned from Costa Rica and Mexico, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Paris, France Available at http:// unfccc.int/files/methods_science/redd/application/pdf/incentives_to_reduce_ghg_emissions_from_deforestation_lesson_learned_ from_costa_rica_and_mexico.pdf SNV REDD + www.snvworld.org/redd • Intensification programs to increase productivity • Re-location of agricultural operations to barren or degraded lands • Agroforestry and production of forest-friendly crops (e.g., shade-grown coffee, cocoa, perennials) • End-use certification schemes (e.g., sustainable palm oil, fair trade coffee) The record of success of such measures to date is mixed For example, a number of agroforestry projects have succeeded in protecting tropical forest areas While intensification programs could reduce pressures on forests in some cases, in others they may simply increase profits without slowing the expansion of agricultural operations as the increased revenues are invested in new areas REDD+ offers a path to providing an incentive for farmers to maintain, rather than clear, forests, but the voluntary market is still in its infancy and the initiation of a global compliance market under the UNFCCC still some way away Given that agriculture is a large and complex sector with a diverse number of players, activities and interactions, efforts to address deforestation and its associated GHG emissions will require a comprehensive and integrated approach that explores the linkages between such factors This would include estimation of emissions through an integrated approach to MRV, and embedding climate change policy for these sectors within a crosscutting, national LEDP framework Integration offers a number of potential advantages over separate treatment of forestry and agriculture for both emissions accounting and policy For example, development of combined emission inventories can improve accuracy, reduce the risk of double counting and lower costs of data collection and MRV By evaluating the net impacts of land-use activities and GHG mitigation actions across the sectors, an integrated approach can also identify new targets for mitigation beyond forest conservation (e.g., converting agricultural lands or settlements to forests), as well as potential negative feedbacks The next section explores MRV for the sectors LEDPs will be discussed later in the paper SNV REDD + www.snvworld.org/redd 2.2 MRV for forestry and agriculture Sector emissions and climate change background In emission inventories, GHG emissions from deforestation are included in the land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) sector, which includes emissions from forests and other land types (grasslands, wetlands and settlements) LULUCF emissions can include CO2 emissions from: deforestation; forest and soil degradation; drainage and degradation of peat lands and wetlands; fires; and development of lands for settlements and infrastructure Sources of CO2 removals from trees and forests include afforestation, reforestation, enrichment planting and assisted natural regeneration Agricultural emissions can include: CO2 emissions from soil tillage, lime and urea application and fossil fuel combustion in vehicles, equipment and buildings; methane emissions from enteric fermentation, rice cultivation, irrigation, manure management and flooded lands; and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from managed soils (e.g., fertilizer application) and manure management As noted previously, deforestation and agriculture together account for some 30% of global GHG emissions The proportion is much higher in most developing countries, and on an individual basis both sectors are prominent in their GHG inventories However, in international climate change negotiations and domestic GHG mitigation actions deforestation has received far more attention This includes the negotiations on REDD+ and the Cancun decision in 2010, the inclusion of afforestation and reforestation as options in the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), more recent discussions of the treatment of LULUCF under the Kyoto Protocol, and the many REDD+ projects already undertaken In contrast, agricultural emissions have been largely ignored This is in part the result of the prior attention given to forest conservation by NGOs and in multilateral forums (e.g., the campaign to “green” the World Bank in the 1980s, the negotiations on a forest treaty at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 and the UN Forum on Forests), the perceived range of cost-effective and feasible opportunities available for GHG emissions mitigation in forestry and lack thereof in agriculture, concerns over potential impacts on food supplies and prices, and perhaps a relatively greater level of risk adversity in agriculture Emissions from forestry and agriculture are also reported separately in National Communications submitted to the UNFCCC With respect to climate change policy and emissions accounting, LULUCF and agriculture have thus proceeded on separate tracks Integration of MRV methodologies Until recently, the guidance developed by the IPCC included separate frameworks for reporting GHG emissions from agriculture and LULUCF A step toward an integrated approach to forest and agriculture emissions accounting came with the release of the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories This document for the first time provided an integrated framework combining agriculture and LULUCF into one sector called Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU).9 The 2006 Guidelines also include extended and improved default values, more detailed accounting methods (e.g., for emissions from wetlands), and addition of new categories of emission sources (e.g., For an overview of this integration process see http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/presentation/LULUCF-AFOLU.pdf The 2006 IPCC Guidelines are available at http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/2006gl/index.html SNV REDD + www.snvworld.org/redd indirect N2O emissions from nitrogen deposition, urea application and treatment of harvested wood products) The IPCC’s stated goals for this integration work were to resolve data inconsistencies, avoid double counting and reduce the potential for omissions The 2006 Guidelines stipulate that only GHG emissions from managed lands are included in emissions inventories The presentation of an integrated set of guidelines for emissions accounting from agriculture and LULUCF is a useful step forward toward the goal of an integrated approach to climate change policy in these sectors The 2006 Guidelines will likely be most helpful to new countries that have yet to develop detailed procedures for GHG inventories and departments dedicated to them Since they are starting earlier, the new Guidelines could help encourage a combined framework for managing the sectors more broadly By itself however the new framework will likely have only minimal impact One major problem is that in most countries multiple institutions are responsible for managing the two sectors These institutions (government ministries or agencies) often employ different procedures for data collection and estimation of land-use changes and emissions for forests and agricultural lands In some countries, the situation is further complicated by the existence of the same pattern among sub-divisions or offices within institutions as well Vietnam provides an illustrative example The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD) is responsible for management of the country’s forests and agricultural operations MARD is the focal point for REDD+ policy, and its Forest Inventory and Planning Institute (FIPI) conducts a national survey of Vietnam’s forests every five years to develop the National Forest Inventory In addition, other institutions within MARD, such as the Forest Protection Department (FPD) and the Department of Forestry (DOF), have been involved in forest assessments, but each agency uses different methods to collect and analyze data The General Department of Land Administration of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE) develops land use and zoning plans for a range of land types, approves plans developed by MARD, and is the lead agency on climate change policy The procedures used by MONRE to classify and track changes in forest areas are different from those used by MARD, and these inconsistencies, along with overlapping mandates have hampered institutional coordination.10 This pattern is repeated in many countries As this example shows, the coordination of government institutions for managing forests and agricultural activities will be a crucial hurdle for climate change policy to overcome In the following section, we expand the analysis to explore the linkages between LULUCF and other energy-related activities in the context of REDD+ and forest management 10 See Scheyvens, H., ed., 2010, Developing National REDD-Plus Systems: Progress Challenges and Ways Forward – Indonesia and Viet Nam Country Studies, Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES), Japan, pp 62-64, available at http:// enviroscope.iges.or.jp/modules/envirolib/view.php?docid=3051, and Socialist Republic of Vietnam, 2008, Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF) Readiness Plan Idea Note (R-PIN) Template, p 2, available at http://www.forestcarbonpartnership.org/fcp/sites/ forestcarbonpartnership.org/files/Documents/PDF/Vietnam_FCPF_R-PIN_0.pdf SNV REDD + www.snvworld.org/redd REDD+, Energy and GHG Mitigation 3.1 Primary Fuels Fuel wood Wood continues to be one of the main energy sources for some two billion people around the world Fuel wood collection and charcoal production is the main driver of forest degradation in Africa, but is less important in Latin America and Asia.11 While the reliance on fuel wood typically declines as populations become more urbanized and per capita income increases, it is nonetheless projected that by 2030 fuel wood consumption will increase by 17% above 2005 levels in Sub-Saharan Africa and South America.12 Addressing emissions from this source presents significant challenges, especially given that individuals and communities utilizing wood for fuel tend to be poor and located in rural areas Adopting REDD+ measures that close off forests could in turn reduce access to needed wood supplies and increase the cost of other fuels Much of the unsustainable harvesting of wood is also done illegally, making enforcement of logging restrictions more difficult In addition, the transaction costs of measures to address degradation from fuel wood collection can be high, as harvesting is often conducted by large numbers of individual smallholders REDD+ actions in this area must therefore provide communities with alternative fuel sources, and should be designed and implemented with the active participation of the local community A number of mitigation options exist to address this driver Afforestation and reforestation with fast-growing wood species is an attractive option, provided that the cost of plantations is not prohibitively high and that wood supplies can be adequately matched to demand From a climate change perspective, a significant advantage is that this measure can lead to a substantial net sequestration of carbon when implemented on a broad scale The use of higher efficiency cookstoves to reduce the amount of wood or charcoal needed is another option, along with development of biogas and biodigester units for heat Educating local communities in the use of sustainable forest management techniques can also be beneficial Restricting harvesting to levels adequate for natural regeneration is often difficult to achieve in practice, however, and will in any case cause some level of damage and degradation to forests This option should therefore be considered only after efforts to meet supply with plantations and reduced demand are undertaken and deemed insufficient Fossil fuels and renewables In addition to the use of wood as a fuel source, limitations on access to and use of forests can also have impacts on primary energy supplies For example, in countries such as Indonesia substantial quantities of coal are located within tropical forests With coal being the most carbon-intensive of fossil fuels, restricting access to forest-based coal deposits as part of REDD+ could increase prices and make supplies more difficult to obtain, which in theory will encourage energy efficiency and make renewables more competitive On the other hand, failure to account for these potential impacts to prevent bottlenecks and price shocks could adversely affect the economy and harm lower income individuals A related concern is that REDD+ activities could also inhibit the development of some low-emission energy sources This is a particular concern in Indonesia, a country with some 28 gigawatts of geothermal potential, mostly located within forest areas 11 Kissinger, G., Herold, M., and De Sy, V., Drivers of Deforestation and Forest Degradation: A Synthesis Report for REDD+ Policymakers, p 11 12 Mead, D.J., 2005, “Forests for Energy and the Role of Planted Trees,” Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 24(5): 407–421, cited in Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2010, What Woodfuels can to Mitigate Climate Change, FAO Forestry Paper 162, FAO, Rome, p 31 Available at http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1756e/i1756e00.pdf SNV REDD + www.snvworld.org/redd 3.4 Industry Development and expansion of the pulp and paper industry is another economic activity which has had significant impact on tropical forests In Indonesia, unsustainable logging of natural forests and insufficient supply from plantations for pulp feedstock has historically been a contributor to forest loss, although the country has made some progress in recent years (including an accelerated growth in plantations and a target for full plantation sourcing by 2014).18 In countries with substantial pulp and paper production, LEDPs should work with the industry to meet demand through dedicated plantations with fast-growing species The replacement of small and older mills should also be explored In the iron and steel industry, in Brazil, renewable charcoal is an important fuel source The Plantar project in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, developed as a CDM project under the World Bank Prototype Carbon Fund is a prominent example Charcoal is produced from local eucalyptus plantations and used as fuel in place of coal coke, reducing GHG emissions from this source.19 This process can be technically challenging to implement, but LED planners may wish to explore its applicability in their own iron and steel industries 3.5 Mining Large-scale industrial mining has become recognized as an emerging driver of deforestation In many countries significant deposits of valuable minerals such as coal, copper, gold, silver, nickel, tin, iron and natural gas have been identified within tropical forest areas Mining can produce many of the same impacts associated with road construction; the difference is that while forests and lands converted to roads can sometimes be reclaimed, the impact of large-scale mining on forest landscapes will in most cases be permanent and irreversible Mining represents a formidable challenge for forest conservation and LEDPs: unlike many agricultural drivers the scale of the profits to be made will place most mining concessions well beyond the practical range of revenues from carbon payments and PES programs, and the strategic importance of many minerals provides another powerful incentive for governments to move ahead with their extraction As such, while the status of protected areas and parks may prevent mining from going forward, LED planners should understand that many mining operations in forest areas will inevitably proceed LEDPs should begin by ensuring that detailed analysis accurately identifies the mineral types and quantities located in forest areas In forests where mining will proceed, LEDPs should expand and enhance the practice of conducting environmental impact assessments, with consideration of multiple options to minimize the impact on forests (analogous to the procedure discussed for road building) This should include the likely impact on local communities and indigenous peoples from the permanent loss of forest Concession owners could also be required to protect or rehabilitate degraded forests located in other areas as a condition of their using the forest This could be done by having the firms directly invest in REDD+ or afforestation/reforestation projects, or by implementing a national tax related to the forest area, carbon stocks and/or ecosystem services that will be lost This revenue 18 See Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), 2010, The Impact of Research on Policy and Practice in Indonesia’s Pulp and Paper Sector, UK Department for International Development, London Available at http://www.dfid.gov.uk/What-we-do/Research-andevidence/case-studies/research-case-studies/2011/Indonesias-pulp-and-paper-sector 19 For more information see http://wbcarbonfinance.org/Router.cfm?Page=Projport&ProjID=9600#DocsList 11 SNV REDD + www.snvworld.org/redd could then be invested to support REDD+ projects and policies An alternative would be an incentive program in which international or national funds are used to reward companies that agree to limit operations in primary forest areas, and instead focus on areas outside of forests or degraded areas with lower carbon density and/or ecosystem services 12 SNV REDD + www.snvworld.org/redd REDD+ and Adaptation The discussion above demonstrates the substantial overlap between forest conservation and activities in other sectors in the context of GHG emissions mitigation There are also analogous and important linkages with adaptation Tropical forest landscapes are highly vulnerable to changes in climate, and their maintenance also serves to protect and maintain vital livelihood activities and ecosystem services This section provides a short overview of the role in forests in adaptation, and explores policy options for REDD+ which also provide adaptation benefits 4.1 The impact of global climate change on forests As is well known, tropical forests provide a range of valuable benefits and services Globally, these include carbon sequestration and biodiversity protection Benefits at the local, national and regional levels include fuel wood, timber, non-timber forest products (NTFPs), food, fish and game, biodiversity protection, and a range of other ecosystem services (water quality maintenance and purification, erosion/flooding control, temperature and weather regulation) Global climate change will put many of these benefits at risk from increased temperatures, droughts, fires and changes and declines in rainfall The impacts of global climate change on tropical forests will be very site-dependent While the vulnerability of forests depends on a range of factors, some forests will be particularly at risk For example, cloud forests are typically located in higher altitude areas with steep gradients, while tropical dry forests are particularly vulnerable to changes in rainfall, increased fires, land degradation and other factors.20 In addition, forests that have experienced significant deforestation, degradation or fires will become even more vulnerable to climate change In general, many forests will experience increased tree mortality, more frequent insect attacks, greater intensity and frequency of fires, genetic variation in tree species, expanded rates of species mortality and changes in wildlife migration patterns In coastal areas, mangrove forests will experience increased saline intrusion and erosion Some studies indicate the potential for an increase in net ecosystem productivity in some forests (due to CO2 fertilization, temperature increases and other factors).21 The net result in many tropical forests, however, will be a substantial release of carbon into the atmosphere, along with a decline in the many benefits and services upon which local communities, indigenous peoples and national economies all rely 20 See REDD-net, 2010, REDD+ and Adaptation to Climate Change, REDD-net, London Available at http://redd-net.org/files/REDD%20 and%20adaptation.pdf 21 For discussion of the impacts see Parry, M.L., Canziani, O.F., Palutikof, J.P., van der Linden, P.J., and Hanson, C.E., eds., 2007, Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, pp 227-230, 329 Available at http://www.ipcc-wg2.gov/publications/AR4/index.html 13 SNV REDD + www.snvworld.org/redd 4.2 REDD+ and adaptation policies and measures As a climate change policy tool intended to protect and reduce impacts on tropical forests, REDD+ can mitigate GHG emissions and at the same time help forest-dependent communities to adapt to the impacts of climate change Furthermore, well-designed REDD+ projects and programs tailored to the specific adaptation needs of individual forest areas can provide more “bang for the buck” to LEDP planners in several ways First, they can achieve multiple near- and medium-term climate change goals with the same level of funding Second, by enhancing the resilience of forests over the long term they prevent future releases of carbon from die-off of forest stands, in turn providing a higher level of emission reductions than would be achieved from measures that focus solely on addressing immediate human-caused deforestation and degradation Such REDD+ designs can also enhance the appeal to potential funders and investors, providing additional resources for combined forest mitigation and adaptation projects To take advantage of the adaptation opportunities offered by REDD+, LED planners in tropical forest countries should begin by utilizing existing information (e.g., National Adaptation Programmes of Action, or NAPAs) and new analyses and data to identify forest areas likely to be vulnerable to climate change This should include evaluation of the potential impacts on areas adjacent to forests and biodiversity migration patterns as well This information can then be used to design integrated REDD+ and forest adaptation plans Examples of the many potential measures include: • Agroforestry with multiple crops, which allows for switching between crops based on climatic changes over time • Education of local community forestry managers on climate change impact monitoring and design and implementation of adaptation measures • Improved management and design of Protected Areas For existing Protected Areas this can include increased connectivity and development of biodiversity corridors, while new reserves can be designed to account for climate-induced changes in wildlife migration patterns (e.g., siting along North-South routes, include areas with higher elevations).22 22 In general, the same conditions that enhance the protection of biodiversity in reserves and protected areas (i.e those that are larger, less fragmented, interconnected with other nearby ecosystems through corridors, harbor more diverse habitats, and are rounder in shape with fewer edge effects will be more effective) will also make forests more climate resilient For a basic overview of these factors in the design of nature reserves see Primack, R.B., 2010, Essentials of Conservation Biology, Fifth Edition, Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Massachusetts, USA 14 SNV REDD + www.snvworld.org/redd • Integration of adaptation into the “Plus” elements (conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks) For example: MRV for conservation actions can include monitoring of changes in tree mortality, and incorporate tree-planting and enhancement actions to account for any long-term increases; sustainable management can be conducted to minimize fragmentation and edge effects; enhancement activities can account for variations in carbon density based on projected increases in fire risk; etc • Mangrove forests offer a major opportunity for integrating mitigation and adaptation Mangroves in countries such as Indonesia, Mexico, Papua New Guinea and Vietnam provide livelihoods for local communities through fishing and NTFPs, play a significant role in reducing flooding and controlling erosion and saltwater intrusion, and store large amounts of carbon A 2011 study of 25 mangrove forests estimated the average carbon content to be over 1,000 metric tons per hectare – much higher than that found in tropical forests.23 These areas have, however, declined significantly in many countries; a study by the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) found that Asia alone lost over 60,000 hectares from 2000-2005, most of it in Indonesia, and the annual rate of loss accelerated after 2000 Some countries, such as Vietnam, have, however, succeeded in slowing the rate of loss through reforestation and other actions.24 Protecting mangrove forests therefore represents a true “win-win” REDD+ option that can reduce emissions and provide substantial adaptation benefits With respect to financing, it is important to note that in the decision reached at the UNFCCC COP 17 meeting in Durban, South Africa in 2011, the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention noted that measures “such as joint mitigation and adaptation approaches for the integral and sustainable management of forests as a nonmarket alternative that supports and strengthens governance, the application of safeguards … and the multiple functions of forests, could be developed.” In addition, the Green Climate Fund established under the UNFCCC at COP 16 the previous year explicitly mentioned REDD+ as a potential activity included under mitigation, while the Report of the Transitional Committee for the Design of the Green Climate Fund submitted at COP 17 further notes that “an integrated approach to funding mitigation and adaptation will be used to allow for cross-cutting projects and programmes.”25 This recognition of the importance of integrated mitigation and adaptation approaches could offer a promising pathway for well-crafted REDD+ proposals to obtain funding 23 Donato, D., et al., April 3, 2011, Mangroves among the most Carbon-rich Forests in the Tropics,” Nature Geoscience 4, 293–297 (2011), http://www.nature.com/ngeo/journal/v4/n5/full/ngeo1123.html 24 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2007, The World’s Mangroves: 1980-2005, FAO Forestry Paper 153, FAO, Rome, p 24 Available at ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/a1427e/a1427e00.pdf The rate of loss in Vietnam declined from 3% annually from 1900-2000 to just 0.1% annually in the five years following 25 Available at http://unfccc.int/files/cancun_agreements/green_climate_fund/application/pdf/advance_version_fccc_cp_2011_6_report_ of_the_tc_to_the_cop.pdf 15 SNV REDD + www.snvworld.org/redd REDD+ and Low-Emission Development Plans As detailed here, a cross-cutting approach to GHG emissions mitigation and national climate change policy offers a number of advantages and opportunities that are often missed in the “sector-by-sector” approach that has been employed to date, particularly with respect to forests and other land use As developing countries expand and diversify their economies the network of interactions between activities, sectors and GHG emission sources will increase and become even more complex, and both the opportunities and risks associated with climate change policy will multiply in turn The sector-by-sector approach to climate policymaking is thus inadequate; an integrated climate change approach embedded within a broader lowemission development framework is needed In this section we build on the discussion to suggest some general principles that should guide the design and implementation of LEDPs We then apply this to develop a proposal for an integrated approach to forest management and REDD+ as a primary component of a successful LEDP 5.1 General principles and objectives of low-emission development plan design A number of initiatives are currently underway to train and work with governments and other actors in developing countries to undertake LED planning While helpful, it appears that to date most have begun with a sectorby-sector approach to GHG mitigation as a basis for LEDP design The principles presented here are intended to complement existing efforts, fill in gaps identified in this paper, and promote a broader and more comprehensive approach to low-emission development In general, LEDPs should include and be guided by the following:26 • Detailed evaluation of development objectives and needs, both current and future, for each sector and for the country as a whole • Sector-by-sector plans for achieving production goals and meeting projected demand with the least-cost, lowest-emission options that are available and feasible This should incorporate a mix of supply (e.g., forest plantations, relocation of agricultural operations, renewable energy sources) and demand (e.g., reductions in fuel wood consumption, end-use energy efficiency) measures, as appropriate • Cross-sectoral measures that address interactive impacts between sectors and harness opportunities for GHG reductions through such interactions This should include an estimation of the net GHG emission impacts that includes the full range of Kyoto gases and their associated GWPs • Measures to estimate and minimize domestic leakage, both within and between sectors 26 Funding needs and financing sources will also be a fundamental component of LEDPs, but this is not addressed here 16 SNV REDD + www.snvworld.org/redd • Horizontal coordination of the activities of ministries and agencies (environment, energy, forestry, agriculture, industry, transportation, mining, rural development, finance, etc.) involved in climate change and development policy, to achieve synergies, reduce duplication and encourage collaboration To include harmonization of standards and formats for emissions accounting and other elements of MRV • Vertical coordination between national programs and sub-national climate change activities (individual projects, broader sub-national and sector-wide programs), including reference levels, with a process for eventual integration into the national LEDP • Evaluation of environmental impacts not directly related to climate change including both synergies and adverse effects • Measures to ensure permanence of GHG emission reductions and low-emission development over time, including staging and step-wise implementation and accounting for changes in drivers, technologies, etc In international discussions of climate change, policy permanence has been discussed primarily in the context of forest conservation Over the short-term this may be justifiable given that many energy-related measures (e.g., efficiency improvements in electric power generation and industrial manufacturing) will also reduce costs and increase profits, providing an incentive to maintain such measures even in the absence of GHG regulation It should be emphasized, however, that over the long term permanence is an issue in all sectors, and that successfully combating global climate change will require lowemission policies and lifestyles to be maintained across the board For example, while energy efficiency measures are a crucial tool in GHG mitigation, they slow but not stop the combustion of fossil fuels They are therefore best employed as shortand medium-term measures only • Incorporation of adaptation programs, as appropriate This should include, to the extent possible, the use of joint mitigation and adaptation measures and the integration of NAPAs and LEDPs into a combined national climate change framework • Evaluation of the sectoral, geographic and economy-wide impacts on prices, production, investment, wages, employment, etc This broad-based LEDP framework would offer many benefits; however, at the moment its achievement remains an ideal that will face significant hurdles Many of the above principles are being followed and processes explored in current climate change and LEDP efforts, but some have yet to be addressed in detail For example, as noted above, the treatment of sectors on an individual basis has largely continued despite the significant cross-sectoral interactions, risks and opportunities detailed here This is understandable given that lowemission development planning is still in the early stages, and that cross-sectoral impacts can be difficult to predict Addressing them will in any case require additional capacity building and increases in financial and technical resources Policies to address permanence have been explored for REDD+ projects and programs, but these have largely been limited to the near term Detailed proposals to ensure the maintenance of LED frameworks for both forests and energy over much a longer time period have yet to be developed 17 SNV REDD + www.snvworld.org/redd With respect to institutions, coordination of implementing agencies has been frequently discussed and efforts in this area are being undertaken in some countries Their success remains uncertain, however, as such actions often challenge ingrained patterns of institutional behavior and can lead to competition and conflicts over authority and responsibility Encouraging ministries, agencies and individuals which have hitherto managed sectors in isolation to work cooperatively and share information, will be one of the greatest hurdles to be overcome The design and implementation of comprehensive LEDPs along lines presented here will need to be adapted to country-specific conditions, but many of them will be essential for long-term success Integrated and cross-sectoral LEDP design will benefit from having robust models that can offer useful lessons Forestry and REDD+ offer an ideal opportunity to craft such a model: the cross-sectoral impacts are significant, and REDD+ policies and pilots have proceeded faster and farther than analogous mechanisms for energy-related GHG mitigation (i.e Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions, or NAMAs) A proposal for the key elements of an LEDP design based on the above framework is presented below 5.2 Comprehensive low-emission development planning based on forestry/REDD+ We now look more specifically at each of the principles listed above with respect to forestry and REDD+ The intention of this discussion is to present an LEDP proposal that can serve as the starting point for designing a full-blown, integrated LEDP and climate change policy network that expands from forestry to cover all sectors • Policies and plans for achieving low-emission development in the forestry sector have been well-developed through afforestation/reforestation and REDD+ programs Significant progress has been made in capacity building and project and policy development • Cross-sectoral measures: LED programs in the forestry sector should pay close attention to the interactions with agriculture and energy as discussed earlier In addition, a cross-sectoral approach offers opportunities for expanding GHG mitigation opportunities that go beyond the protection of carbon stocks in natural forests (the basis for compensation under REDD+ schemes) With this in mind, LEDPs should explore the full net emissions impact of forestry measures, an approach that accounts for changes in emissions of the different GHG types in all sectors affected For example, REDD+ actions that also prevent emissions of CO2 from farming vehicles or higher GWP gases such as methane and N2O from avoided agricultural operations (e.g., rice fields, livestock) can have a significantly larger net emissions reduction benefit overall.27 At present, only the reductions resulting from protecting or enhancing forest carbon stocks are eligible to receive REDD+ payments, but reductions in other sectors catalyzed by forestry actions can present attractive opportunities for mitigation that may be comparatively less expensive 27 Debate exists as to whether REDD+ measures that preserve forests intended for development of livestock or food crops such as rice actually reduce non-forest emissions overall In the climate change literature it is often assumed that demand for beef, rice etc is fixed, and that the reductions in methane achieved will therefore be offset by emission increases elsewhere This will however depend on a number of factors, such as whether the food is consumed directly or sold for cash on domestic or international markets, whether feedback effects from forest conservation affect prices, the extent to which consumers are likely to substitute other food sources and their relative emissions profile, and the emissions intensity of farming methods in areas that experience increased production after leakage Additional country-specific and global analysis would help LEDP planners to address these issues 18 SNV REDD + www.snvworld.org/redd Another option to be considered is the potential conversion of existing agricultural lands or settlements that have been abandoned or are otherwise no longer needed into forest plantations The potential net GHG benefit (including reductions in methane or other gases) from converting such areas to forests can be significant Similarly, agroforestry options should account for potential changes in emissions of CO2 from fossil fuels and other gases as well as the carbon stocks from avoided deforestation In cases where these and other REDD+ measures are projected to increase net GHG emissions, this analysis will enable LED planners who elect to go ahead with a REDD+ project to estimate the magnitude of reductions that would be required in other sectors to offset the increase • Measures to address domestic leakage in forestry currently focus on accounting for geographic leakage, the potential relocation of logging, agricultural operations and other activities from forests covered by sub-national REDD+ programs to other vulnerable forest areas LEDPs should endeavor to identify, track and prevent other forms of leakage as well Inter-activity leakage could occur as specific REDD+ activities change the behavior of players involved in forest-damaging actions For example, bans on clear-cutting or creation of new protected areas could lead actors formally engaged in deforestation to shift to illegal logging, with a corresponding increase in forest degradation Enhanced monitoring coupled with measures to provide alternative income/revenue sources will be helpful in such cases Inter-sectoral leakage could take two forms One possibility is that forest conservation and REDD+ measures could cause individuals or companies formerly utilizing the forest to initiate other economic activities that have a higher emissions profile (e.g., illegal loggers develop new agricultural activities to make a livelihood, with a corresponding increase in methane and/or N2O emissions) A different risk is that REDD+ actions could reduce the availability of certain inputs, increasing production of other higher-emission ones The example of geothermal power located within Indonesia’s forests and the potential impact on coal-fired electricity generation has already been discussed Another possibility is that a reduction in the supply of wood from natural forests leads to an increase in the use of fossil fuels for heat or cement or metal as construction materials In countries where inter-sectoral leakage appears likely to occur on a significant scale, LED planners should conduct detailed analysis with CGE modeling and other tools before undertaking REDD+ measures to evaluate the net emissions and economic impacts • 19 SNV REDD + Horizontal coordination should begin with efforts to coordinate the policies and programs of the institutions directly responsible for forest management and REDD+ One factor complicating the development of integrated national REDD+ programs is that the management of national forests is often divided between different agencies; in particular, in some countries (e.g., Cambodia) separate institutions are responsible for management of state-owned and private forests (e.g., estate forest, production forest) on the one hand, and protected areas and parks on the other In addition, general climate change policy and development of UNFCCC National Communications are typically the responsibility of the environment ministry and other bodies which may or may not be directly involved in forest management In the short term, horizontal coordination should begin with regular communication and sharing of www.snvworld.org/redd information to develop common policies, MRV standards and reporting formats This could be conducted through meetings of the agencies themselves, or through a new agency or task force designed specifically for this purpose Ideally responsibilities for low-emission management of forests and REDD+ would eventually pass from the individual agencies into a single body, though this will take time While such efforts have begun in a number of countries it is too soon to draw definitive conclusions on this process However, it appears likely that coordination efforts between national ministries and agencies will be challenging, and are likely to encounter significant resistance in some cases Looking beyond forestry, a higher-level institution for low-emission development should be set up to coordinate the activities and policies undertaken by agencies responsible for agriculture and other sectors involved in decisions on land use In cases where major decisions are sometimes undertaken by sub-national governments, similar coordinating bodies can be set up at the provincial, state or district level.28 In large countries this type of comprehensive framework for crosssectoral land-use management will take some time, and may require significant resources In the near-term countries should at a minimum be able to develop a process for holding regular multi-agency meetings to share information, which will assist LED planners with predicting and addressing the types of impacts discussed in Part II and Part III Development of common reporting formats for key activities and land-use data should also be achievable in the immediate future, providing a sound basis upon which to build an eventual integrated MRV system for AFOLU and other sectors • Vertical coordination: REDD+ pilot projects on the voluntary market, sub-national programs and demonstration activities should be coordinated with the national REDD+ plan and LEDP Most existing sub-national REDD+ activities have been undertaken independently of emerging national strategies and institutions As a result, a number of different standards for MRV and other basic components of REDD+ have been used at the sub-national level This inconsistency presents risks of double counting, lack of cooperation and conflict between national and local institutions, and increased costs related to integration of such efforts into national plans later on To the extent possible, sub-national REDD+ projects and programs should therefore adopt MRV and other standards that are consistent with those used in national REDD+ plans and emerging standards under the UNFCCC They should also include detailed and transparent methodologies for estimating, minimizing and monitoring leakage At the national level, REDD+ plans should include procedures for coordination and eventual integration of sub-national actions Coordination between national and local institutions for forest governance (including cross-sectoral provincial, state or district level bodies for REDD+ management) are an equally important component, particularly in countries like Indonesia where policymaking is significantly decentralized 28 For an example of an effort to set up such a body in Indonesia see CER Indonesia and Center for Clean Air Policy (CCAP), 2011, Establishing Integrated Forest Policies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation at the District Level: The District of Musi Rawas, South Sumatra, Center for Clean Air Policy (CCAP), Washington, DC Available at http:// www.ccap.org/docs/resources/1008/CCAP_CER_Indonesia_Report.pdf 20 SNV REDD + www.snvworld.org/redd In the technical area, one element that should be given particular attention is the integration of sub-national REDD+ reference levels and crediting baselines Developing procedures to match sub-national with national baselines and assisting local REDD+ managers with such procedures can help to avoid future complications and reduce the costs of integration It will also be useful for LEDP managers to conduct local training sessions and discussions in other areas important to rural lowemission development Such knowledge-sharing sessions could be of great benefit to the process of adapting the national LEDP to local areas • Other environmental impacts include biodiversity protection, maintenance of ecosystem services, and air and water pollution To ensure the maximum protection of biodiversity, forestry and REDD+ components of LEDPs should include development and maintenance of wildlife migration corridors based on sound biological analysis, as well as incorporation of procedures to track biodiversity populations, migration patterns, etc into REDD+ forest monitoring as an integral component This will be particularly needed in cases where the REDD+ activity involves ongoing human involvement in or utilization of natural forests (sustainable harvesting, reduced impact logging, enhancement of forest carbon stocks) LED planners should also include the value of ecosystem services and the impact of their potential loss in all evaluations conducted Where such services cannot be quantified they should nonetheless be explicitly detailed and considered in some manner when evaluating different options As noted in the adaptation discussion, forests play an important role in maintaining water quality; some forest protection actions, however, could lead to increases in water and air pollution LEDPs should pay particular attention to the effect of cross-sectoral impacts on pollution - for example, if agroforestry actions lead to increased run-off, or activities to sustainably manage or enhance carbon stocks in natural forests lead to an increase in criteria pollutants from vehicles Again a detailed analysis of the net environmental impacts considering both forestry and all other affected sectors should be conducted • Long-term permanence: Ensuring the protection of forests over the long term is a vital component of successful LEDPs and national environmental protection programs in general This can be done through a two-stage approach REDD+ payments will be crucial for providing incentives for countries and landholders to conserve forests in the near and medium terms Over the long term, however, carbon payments from developed countries and private sector entities cannot be expected to continue indefinitely; it will therefore be necessary to gradually phase out such payments with measures that integrate forest conservation into human development and not depend upon carbon revenues These include agroforestry, alternative livelihoods, ecotourism, sustainable NTFP production and programs that harness other ecosystem services.29 As part of this two-stage process LEDPs should include detailed studies to identify and assess the values of NTFPs and forest ecosystem services Building on this, LED managers can develop local programs to educate forest-dependent communities on the non-carbon benefits of conserving forests 29 While beyond the scope of this paper, it should be noted that a similar step-wise process can be used for low-emission development in the energy sector While energy-efficiency and fuel-switching measures only slow the rate of emissions from fossil fuels, they can be utilized in the short term to buy time for the development and deployment of measures and technologies that prevent the emission of CO2 into the atmosphere, such as zero-emission renewable energy, end-of-pipe CO2 scrubbers, and geologic carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) 21 SNV REDD + www.snvworld.org/redd and train them in the implementation of new, forest-friendly economic activities This effort can learn from existing community-based efforts that have already succeeded in conserving tropical forest areas outside of a formal REDD+ framework, such as the Conservation International shade-grown coffee project in the state of Chiapas, Mexico, and the integrated coconut utilization and ecotourism projects in Musi Rawas district, South Sumatra province, Indonesia.30 • Incorporation of adaptation programs: As discussed in Part IV, LEDPs should endeavor to design and adopt REDD+ measures that can also enhance the climate resilience of forests, and should account for adaptation benefits when evaluating alternative REDD+ proposals They should also explore synergies with NAPAs with respect to policies, costs and institutions, where appropriate • Evaluation of the sectoral and economy-wide impacts: This analysis should include the impacts of REDD+ measures on production, employment, incomes and supplies of wood and agricultural commodities, as well as domestic leakage This list is by no means intended as exhaustive, but aims to capture some key principles to guide development of successful, integrated LEDPs for forestry and REDD+ This integrated design offers a number of advantages By achieving synergies between sectors, expanding the range of mitigation measures, emission sources and gases considered, and planning ahead for coordination of REDD+ projects and institutions, the integrated approach can reduce transaction and implementation costs and achieve more emissions reduction “bang for the buck.” Consideration of cross-sectoral, non-climate environmental and adaptation benefits can increase the appeal of forest conservation and REDD+ to the public It can also make it easier to “bundle” smaller or dissimilar projects to obtain financing, encourage private sector investment by reducing risk, and enable better access to global climate funds (e.g., through access to joint mitigation and adaptation funding under the Green Climate Fund) Perhaps most importantly, this LEDP proposal is based on the reality that carbon payments will not continue forever, and therefore cannot ensure permanence By taking a much longerterm perspective and incorporating procedures for using REDD+ as a temporary tool to embed forest conservation into development, it can achieve the long-term preservation of tropical forests in a way that REDD+, by itself, cannot Despite the advantages, the difficulties facing such an approach are indeed substantial One fundamental problem is that this will require a whole new framework of cooperation and harmonization across diverse institutions, sectors and geographic regions involved in forest and land management and use In general, it would be expected that countries with relatively larger forest areas or older or more complicated governance institutions will face a greater challenge In addition, this integrated framework will require changes in the relationship between international donors and countries The current donor framework is in most cases, based on agreements with specific sector agencies (e.g., forestry, agriculture or energy ministries) This would need to expand to align donor-funded programs with multiple domestic institutions and coordinating bodies effectively 30 For more on the project in Chiapas see http://www.conservation.org/FMG/Articles/Pages/the_future_of_coffee_chiapas_mexico aspx The Indonesia project is discussed in CER Indonesia and Center for Clean Air Policy (CCAP), Establishing Integrated Forest Policies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation at the District Level: The District of Musi Rawas, South Sumatra 22 SNV REDD + www.snvworld.org/redd 23 SNV REDD + www.snvworld.org/redd Conclusion This paper has explored the complex web of links and interactions between forestry/REDD+ on the one hand, and agriculture, energy and climate change adaptation on the other The role of agriculture as a key driver in tropical deforestation is well-known, and many of the REDD+ efforts underway aim to address this The full range of synergies and opportunities offered and challenges posed by the close linkage between the forestry and agriculture sectors has yet to be fully explored, however Efforts to date have focused on protecting carbon in natural forests and the potential incentives provided through REDD+ programs, but other opportunities exist An expanded focus that looks at a broader range of activities and the impacts on other emission sources and GHG types could in turn increase the mitigation opportunities available The development of a combined IPCC methodology for MRV of agriculture, forestry and other land uses is a necessary step toward an integrated approach to GHG mitigation in the sectors However, a corresponding integration of mitigation policy is still needed In the energy sector, efforts to address forest degradation caused by fuel wood harvesting have been undertaken, but the potential positive and negative consequences of REDD+ actions on fossil and other energy supplies still need to be evaluated in most countries, and globally as well New hydroelectric dams are an important emerging driver of deforestation in parts of the Amazon and Southeast Asia that REDD+ plans and LEDPs should consider.The protection of forests near large existing dams is also needed to avoid creating perverse incentives for increasing fossil-fired electric power generation In addition, the development of the transportation, industry and mining sectors all pose potential risks to tropical forests that LEDPs should endeavor to prevent At the same time, the linkages between forestry and these sectors offer opportunities to meet demand for fuel and other inputs sustainably that have yet to be fully tapped Wood plantations, biomass-fired power generation and biofuels for transportation can reduce emissions from fossil fuels and at the same time increase terrestrial carbon sequestration As one of the ecosystem types most vulnerable to climate change, tropical forests also play an important role in adaptation Well-designed REDD+ programs can improve the long-term climate resilience of forests and achieve other community adaptation objectives, as well as protecting carbon stocks Building on these cross-sectoral linkages to develop a more integrated LEDP model will offer climate change managers a wider range of options for GHG mitigation, and can reduce costs, enhance financing prospects and help to ensure long-term permanence It will, however, require a far greater degree of coordination than has typically been attempted or achieved previously, in both technical areas (harmonization of MRV and other standards) and governance (collaboration and sharing of responsibility between institutions and regions) Development of the type of LEDP framework suggested here will by no means be an easy or quick task Absent such an approach however, international and national REDD+ efforts at best will miss opportunities to reduce GHG emissions more broadly and enhance the development benefits achieved At worst, they may be doomed to failure over the long term 24 SNV REDD + www.snvworld.org/redd SNV - Netherlands Development Organisation REDD+ Programme 6th floor, Building B, La Thanh Hotel 218 Doi Can Street, Ba Dinh, Ha Noi, Vietnam Tel: 84 43 8463 791/2 Fax: 84 43 8463 794 Email: rmcnally@snvworld.org www.snvworld.org/redd ... This first paper is examining REDD+ and Other Sectors: Climate Change Mitigation through Integration and Low-Emission Development Richard McNally SNV Global REDD+ Coordinator i SNV REDD + www.snvworld.org/redd... Industry 3.5 Mining 7 11 11 REDD+ and Adaptation 4.1 The impact of global climate change on forests 4.2 REDD+ and adaptation policies and measures 13 13 14 REDD+ and Low-Emission Development Plans 5.1... forests and other land types (grasslands, wetlands and settlements) LULUCF emissions can include CO2 emissions from: deforestation; forest and soil degradation; drainage and degradation of peat lands