OIL SPILL SCIENCE chapter 2 – spill occurrences a world overview

OIL SPILL SCIENCE chapter 2 – spill occurrences a world overview OIL SPILL SCIENCE chapter 2 – spill occurrences a world overview OIL SPILL SCIENCE chapter 2 – spill occurrences a world overview OIL SPILL SCIENCE chapter 2 – spill occurrences a world overview OIL SPILL SCIENCE chapter 2 – spill occurrences a world overview OIL SPILL SCIENCE chapter 2 – spill occurrences a world overview

Chapter Spill Occurrences: A World Overview Dagmar Schmidt-Etkin Chapter Outline 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Executive Summary 2.3 Overview of Spill Occurrences 2.1 INTRODUCTION Asked to picture an oil spill, most people envision a large tank ship (tanker) grounded on a large rock or reef after having gone off-course in a storm or due to navigational errors Depending on one’s frame of reference and nationality, this might be the Exxon Valdez incident, the Hebei Spirit spill, or perhaps the Prestige spill Oil-coated beaches, dead birds, angry fishermen, and massive cleanup efforts complete the picture Although these types of “catastrophic” spill incidents indeed occur occasionally and receive considerable media coverage, they are, fortunately, relatively rare events Much more commonly, oil spills are much smaller in scope On any given day, hundreds, if not thousands, of spills are likely to occur worldwide in many different types of environments, on land, at sea, and in inland freshwater systems The spills are coming from the various parts of the oil industrydfrom oil exploration and production activities, from transport of that oil by tank ships, pipelines, and railroad tankcars to the refineries, and from the refineries where the oil is refined to create the many types of fuels that are then transported by pipeline, rail, truck, or tank vessel to the consumers of that oil Consumption-related spillage comes from manufacturing facilities, nontank vessels that carry oil only as fuel and for machinery, tanker trucks bringing oils to service stations and heating oil tanks, and many miscellaneous sources The spills occur because of structural failures, operational errors, weather-related Oil Spill Science and Technology DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-85617-943-0.10002-4 Copyright Ó D.S Etkin 2011 PART | I Introduction and the Oil Spill Problem events, earthquakes, human errors and negligence, and even vandalism or terrorism The spills involve many different types of oil ranging from various types of crude oil to a large array of refined products, from heavy persistent fuels to lighter, less persistent, but very toxic lighter fuels Because each spill occurs in a different location under different circumstances of oil type and volume, proximity to sensitive resources, season, weather effects, and currents, each spill is a relatively unique event in terms of impacts, damages, and response challenges 2.2 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Worldwide oil spillage rates have decreased dramatically since the 1960s and 1970s, from about 635,000 tons annually to about 300,000 tons per year from all sources, not counting the anomalous intentional spillage associated with the 1991 Gulf War, which amounted to over 82 million tons on land and at sea The largest sources of oil spills in the last two decades have been related to oil transportation by tank ships (tankers) or through pipelines Oil inputs from spills and other chronic discharge sources, such as urban runoff, refinery effluents, and vessel operational discharges, currently total about 1.2 million tons worldwide annually While most spills are relatively small and cause localized impacts, occasionally very large spills occur that cause significant environmental and socioeconomic damages Despite significant progress in reducing spillage through a variety of technological and regulatory prevention measures along with better industry practices, the risk for significant oil spills remains A more detailed analysis of oil spillage in the United States, for which there are more accurate data than many other parts of the world, reveals that during the decade of 1998e2007, inland pipelines spilled an average of nearly 11,000 tons annually, with the next largest source being refineries, which spilled 1,700 tons Inland tanker truck spills amounted to 1,300 tons annually Tank ships only spilled an average of 500 tons annually during this decade Nevertheless, the risk for large spills from tank ships, facilities, and offshore oil exploration and production, all of which contain large volumes of oil, remains a concern for contingency planners and spill responders 2.3 OVERVIEW OF SPILL OCCURRENCES 2.3.1 Natural Oil Seepage Oil slicks on water and oiled shorelines are not new phenomena A considerable amount of crude oil is discharged each year from “natural seeps”dnatural springs from which liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons (hydrogen-carbon compounds) leak out of the ground Oil seeps are fed by natural underground Chapter | Spill Occurrences: A World Overview accumulations of oil and natural gas Oil from submarine (and inland subterranean) oil reservoirs comes to the surface each year, as it has for millions of years due to geological processes Natural discharges of petroleum from submarine seeps have been recorded throughout history going back to the writings of Herodotus1 and Marco Polo.2 Archaeological studies have shown that products of oil seeps were used by Native American groups living in California, including the Yokuts, Chumash, Achomawi, and Maidu tribes, well before the arrival of European settlers.3 In recent times, the locations of natural seeps have been used for exploration purposes to determine feasible locations for oil extraction Regional assessments of natural seepage have been conducted in some locations, particularly nearshore in California,4-7 the Indian Ocean,8-10 and the Gulf of Mexico.11 The most comprehensive worldwide assessment of natural seepage is still the study conducted by Wilson et al.12 Even the two more recent international assessments of oil inputs into the sea13 relied heavily on the estimates of natural oil seepage conducted by Wilson et al.,12 having found no more recent comprehensive studies While industry studies have been conducted for the purpose of determining potential locations for oil exploration and production using various forms of increasingly sophisticated technology, no results have been openly published in the scientific or technical literature Natural seeps are of such great magnitude that, according to the prominent geologists Kvenvolden and Cooper,14 “natural oil seeps may be the single most important source of oil that enters the ocean, exceeding each of the various sources of crude oil that enters the ocean through its exploitation by humankind.” Assessments of natural oil seepage involve few actual measurements, though certain seep locations along the Southern California coast of the Pacific Ocean have been studied to some extent Natural seep studies have also included identification of hydrothermically sourced hydrocarbons (especially polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) in sediments The most well-known studies have relied on estimation methodologies based on field data, observations, and various basic assumptions Wilson et al estimated that total worldwide natural seepage ranged from 0.2 to 6.0  106 tonsy annually, with the best estimate being 0.6  106 tons, based largely on observations of seepage rates off California and western Canada.12 Estimates of the areas of ocean with natural seeps are shown in Table 2.1, and estimates of seepage rates by ocean are shown in Table 2.2 y Oil measurements are in metric tons (tons) Within the industry, oil is often measured in barrels (equivalent of 42 U.S gallons or 159 liters), roughly equal to one-seventh of a ton, depending on specific gravity Conversion between tons (weight) and barrels (volume) is per the formula: tons ¼ 0.173  barrels  specific gravity 10 PART | I Introduction and the Oil Spill Problem TABLE 2.1 Seepage-prone Areas of the World’s Oceans (based on Wilson et al.12) Number of 1,000 Square Kilometers Ocean High-potential Seepage Moderate-potential Seepage Low-potential Seepage Pacific 1,943 9,285 4,244 Atlantic 1,303 10,363 11,248 Indian 496 7,928 3,010 Arctic 5,636 2,456 Southern 486 458 3,741 33,697 21,416 Total Wilson et al based their estimates on five basic assumptions: More seeps exist in offshore basins than have been observed; factors that determine seepage rates in a particular area are related to general geological structural type and stage of sedimentary basin evolution; seepage is dependent on the area of exposed rock rather than on rock volume; most marine seeps are clustered at continental margins; and seepage rates are lognormally distributed.12 TABLE 2.2 Summary of World Seepage Rates (based on Wilson et al.12) Estimated Oil Seepage (106 tons per year) Ocean Case I, P16z Case II, P1.0x Case III, P0.3** Pacific 2.83  106 2.69  105 0.689  105 Atlantic 2.06  106 1.96  105 5.04  104 Indian 9.30  105 8.85  104 2.28  104 Arctic 2.14  105 2.30  103 5.20  103 Southern 1.88  104 1.74  103 4.51  102 Total 6.05 106 0.558 105 0.148 106 z Probability percentile 16 with a worldwide estimate of  106 tons annually, likely a high estimate Probability percentile 1.0 with a worldwide estimate of 0.6  106 tons annually **Probability percentile 0.3 with a worldwide estimate of 0.2  106 tons annually, likely a minimal estimate x Chapter | Spill Occurrences: A World Overview 11 Kvenvolden and Harbaugh15 concluded that the minimal worldwide estimate (0.2  106 tons annually) from the Wilson et al.12 study is most likely correct and that an error margin of an order of magnitude above and below this value should be applied (i.e., 0.02  106 to 2.0  106 tons annually) Their theory was based on a reduced value for the assumed and known oil resources that would be available for seepage There is some evidence that seepage rates are decreasing in some locations, such as those near Coal Point, off Santa Barbara, California.16 In a 2003 National Research Council (NRC) study, a worldwide estimate of natural seepage into the marine environment of between 0.02  106 to 2.0  106 tons annually was made, with a “best estimate” of 600,000 tons.17 These estimates were made based on the Kvenvolden and Harbaugh15 reassessment of the estimates made by Wilson et al.,12 as well as an acceptance of the original estimates of Wilson et al.,12 resulting from a “new appreciation” for the magnitude of natural seepage, particularly in the Gulf of Mexico Relying largely on the Wilson et al.12 and Kvenvolden and Harbaugh15 studies, the 2007 Joint Group of Experts on Scientific Aspects of Marine Protection (known as GESAMP) study on oil inputs into the marine environment included an estimate of the range of natural seepage as 0.2À2.0  106 tons per year, with a best estimate of 600,000 tons per year.13 Natural seeps often release oil sporadically in relatively small amounts, but occasionally release larger amounts that can have the same environmental impacts as crude oil spills from tankers or other sources But while natural seeps have had impacts on the marine and terrestrial environment since prehistoric times, it was not until the occurrence of several larger anthropogenic oil spills in the late 1960s, which coincided with a greater public awareness of general environmental issues, that concern over oil pollution came to the forefront 2.3.2 Historical Concern Over Oil Pollution When the tanker Torrey Canyon spilled 130,000 tons of crude oil off the western coast of the UK in March 1967, killing 15,000 seabirds and oiling nearly 300 kilometers of English and French coastline, there was a large public outcry The environmental damage from this spill was multiplied by the use of highly toxic first-generation dispersant chemicals in the response The Torrey Canyon spill was not the first oil tanker spill by any means A large number of oil tankers were torpedoed and sunk during World War II According to Campbell et al., during the first six months of 1942 alone, a total of 484,200 tons of oil were released from torpedoed tankers within 90 kilometers of the eastern U.S coast.18 This came to about one tanker spill of about 20,000 tons per week over six months Cleanup efforts consisted of burning incidental to the torpedoing and minimal cosmetic actions on swimming beaches While the occurrence of these incidents during wartime may explain the 12 PART | I Introduction and the Oil Spill Problem relatively low concern about environmental damage from the spilled oil, there was, arguably, a general lesser awareness of environmental protection in these times as well The Torrey Canyon spill in 1967 was notable in that when it occurred, it is the largest spill to date The tanker’s capacity had recently been increased to hold 130,000 tons of oil cargo Subsequently, there were at least five significantly larger worst-case discharge (complete cargo loss) tanker spills, as well as several other large spills associated with oil wells and pipelines Following on the 1967 Torrey Canyon incident, the 1969 Union Alpha Well 21 blowout off Santa Barbara, California, which released 14,300 tons of crude oil, is often credited with being the impetus for the environmental movement in the United States, as well as for the establishment of the federal Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).19 In the 1970s, other significant oil spills around the world brought greater attention to the problem on an international scaledthe tanker Metula (Chile in 1974), the tanker Urquiola (Spain in 1977), the tanker Amoco Cadiz (France in 1978), the largest tanker spill of all time, Atlantic Empress (Trinidad and Tobago/Barbados in 1979), and the largest nonewar-related spill in historydthe Ixtoc I well blowout (Gulf of Mexico in 1979).20 The largest oil spills in history are listed in Table 2.3 The 1989 tanker Exxon Valdez spill in Alaska is perhaps the most notorious spill incident, though it is by no means the largest The spillage of over 37,000 tons of Alaskan crude oil into what was considered to be a “pristine” location, Prince William Sound, precipitated the most expensive and the lengthiest spill response and damage settlements in history Its repercussions were felt worldwide, resulting in the passage of significant spill prevention and liability legislation in the United Statesdthe Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90)das well as international conventions on spill prevention that included such measures as the requirement for double-hulls on tankers by 2015 and increased financial liability The significant financial consequences for tanker owners and operators as a result of the Exxon Valdez spill and the spiller liability inherent in subsequent regulations brought the consequences for spills to an unprecedented level The financial risk associated with large spills may have had as much impact on spill prevention as any actual preventive measures, such as double-hulls on tankers 2.3.3 Sources of Oil Spills and Patterns of Spillage Spills occur around the worlddanywhere that oil is produced, transported, stored, or consumed The vast majority of spills are relatively small As shown in Figure 2.1, 72% of spills are 0.003 to 0.03 ton or less The total of amount of these small spills comes to 0.4% of the total spillage The largest spills (over 30 tons) make up 0.1% of incidents but involve nearly 60% of the total amount spilled Naturally, the relatively rare large spill incidents get the most public attention owing to their greater impact and visibility, though spill size itself is Chapter | 13 Spill Occurrences: A World Overview TABLE 2.3 Largest Oil Spills in History Worldwide Environmental Research Consulting (ERC data)** Date Source Name* Location Tons 10-Mar-1991 y 700 oil wells Kuwait 71,428,571 20-Jan-1991 Min al Ahmadi Terminalyz Kuwait 857,143 3-Aug-2000 oil wells Russia 700,000 3-Jun-1979 Ixtoc I well Mexico 476,190 Iraq 377,537 Uzbekistan 299,320 Trinidad/Tobago 286,354 Russia 285,714 y 1-Feb-1991 Bahra oil fields 2-Mar-1990 oil well x 19-Jul-1979 T/V Atlantic Empress 25-Oct-1994 Kharyaga-Usinsk Pipeline y 4-Feb-1983 No Well (Nowruz) Iran 272,109 6-Aug-1983 T/V Castillo de Bellver South Africa 267,007 16-Mar-1978 T/V Amoco Cadiz France 233,565 10-Nov-1988 T/V Odyssey Canada 146,599 11-Apr-1991 T/V Haven Italy 144,000 1-Aug-1980 D-103 concession well Libya 142,857 6-Jan-2001 pipeline Nigeria 142,857 Kuwait 139,690 19-Jan-1991 yz T/V Al Qadasiyah y 19-Jan-1991 T/V Hileen Kuwait 139,690 18-Mar-1967 T/V Torrey Canyon United Kingdom 129,857 19-Dec-1972 T/V Sea Star Oman 128,891 23-Feb-1980 T/V Irenes Serenade Greece 124,490 yz 19-Jan-1991 T/V Al-Mulanabbi Kuwait 117,239 7-Dec-1971 T/V Texaco Denmark Belgium 107,143 19-Jan-1991 T/V Tariq Ibn Ziyadyz Kuwait 106,325 20-Aug-1981 storage tanks Kuwait 106,003 Kuwait 100,000 yz 26-Jan-1991 Min al Bakar Terminal 15-Nov-1979 T/V Independentza Turkey 98,255 11-Feb-1969 T/V Julius Schindler Portugal 96,429 (Continued ) 14 PART | I Introduction and the Oil Spill Problem TABLE 2.3 Largest Oil Spills in History Worldwide Environmental Research Consulting (ERC data)**dcont’d Date Source Name* Location 12-May-1976 T/V Urquiola Spain 95,714 25-May-1978 No 126 Well/pipeline Iran 95,238 28-Mar-1995 pipeline Nigeria 90,000 5-Jan-1993 T/V Braer United Kingdom 85,034 yz Tons 1-Mar-1991 pipeline Kuwait 83,897 29-Jan-1975 T/V Jakob Maersk Portugal 82,503 6-Jul-1979 storage tank (Tank #6) Nigeria 81,429 19-Nov-2002 T/V Prestige Spain 77,000 3-Dec-1992 T/V Aegean Sea Spain 74,490 6-Dec-1985 T/V Nova Iran 72,626 15-Feb-1996 T/V Sea Empress United Kingdom 72,361 19-Dec-1989 T/V Khark Morocco 70,068 27-Feb-1971 T/V Wafra South Africa 68,571 11-Dec-1978 fuel storage depot Zimbabwe 68,027 26-Apr-1992 T/V Katina P South Africa 66,700 12-Jun-1978 Sendai Oil Refinery Japan 60,204 6-Dec-1960 T/V Sinclair Petrolore Brazil 60,000 7-Jan-1983 T/V Assimi Oman 53,741 9-Nov-1974 T/V Yuyo Maru No 10 Japan 53,571 28-May-1991 T/V ABT Summer Angola 51,020 22-May-1965 T/V Heimvard Japan 50,000 31-Dec-1978 T/V Andros Patria Spain 49,660 30-Jan-1991 T/V Ain Zalahyz Kuwait 49,543 13-Jun-1968 T/V World Glory South Africa 48,214 13-Jan-1975 T/V British Ambassador Japan 48,214 9-Dec-1983 T/V Pericles GC Qatar 47,619 9-Aug-1974 T/V Metula Chile 47,143 Chapter | 15 Spill Occurrences: A World Overview TABLE 2.3 Largest Oil Spills in History Worldwide Environmental Research Consulting (ERC data)**dcont’d Date Source Name* Location Tons 1-Jun-1970 T/V Ennerdale Seychelles 46,939 7-Dec-1978 T/V Tadotsu Indonesia 44,878 29-Feb-1968 T/V Mandoil United States 42,857 10-Jun-1973 T/V Napier Chile 38,571 13-Mar-1994 T/V Nassia Turkey 38,500 26-Aug-1979 T/V Patianna United Arab Emirates 38,000 11-Jun-1972 T/V Trader Greece 37,500 24-Mar-1989 T/V Exxon Valdez United States 37,415 29-Dec-1980 T/V Juan Antonio Lavalleja Algeria 37,279 21-Oct-1994 T/V Thanassis A Hong Kong 37,075 22-Apr-1988 T/V Athenian Venture Canada 36,061 7-Feb-1977 T/V Borag Taiwan 35,357 Mar-1986 Pemex Abkatun 91 Mexico 35,286 6-Feb-1976 T/V St Peter Colombia 35,100 *“T/V” ¼ “tank vessel” and refers to tank ships or tankers **Ended in January 2010 y War-related intentional spillage z Several intentional spills occurred nearly simultaneously during the 1991 Gulf War They are often aggregated into one large “spill.” In this list, the individual spill sources are separated x T/V Atlantic Empress spilled 145,250 tons of oil off Trinidad and Tobago on 19 July 1979, then another 141,000 tons while under tow off Barbados not a direct measure of damage Location and oil type are extremely important in determining the degree of environmental and socioeconomic damage Oil spills and discharges* can occur at any point in the “life cycle” of petroleumdduring oil exploration and production; transport by vessel, pipeline, railroad, or tanker truck; refining; storage, consumption or usage as fuel or as raw material for manufacturing; or waste disposal The regional and national patterns of spillage depend on the oil-related activities in those * A “spill” is a discrete event in which oil is accidentally or, occasionally, intentionally released A “discharge” is a legal permitted release of oil (usually in a highly diluted state in water) as part of normal operations 16 PART | I Introduction and the Oil Spill Problem % Total Spills 80% 71.9% 70% # spills 60% amount 50% 39.5% 40% 30% 22.8% 22.2% 20.3% 20% 6.2% 10% 0% 11.7% 0.4% 0.003 1.6% 0.03 4.3% 0.3 1.6% 0.3% 3,000 0.1% 30 0.0% 300 Spill Size (tonnes) FIGURE 2.1 Size classes of U.S marine oil spills, 1990e1999 (ERC data) locations, the amount of oil handled, and the degree to which oil prevention measures have been implemented and enforced Overall, oil spillage has decreased significantly in the United States and internationally due to the implementation and enforcement of prevention measures as well as more responsible operations on the part of the shipping and oil industries.13,17,21,22 In the 1970s, an estimated 6.3 million tons of oil spilled into marine waters from all sources, excluding war-related incidents.22 By the 1980s, an estimated 3.8 million tons of oil spilled worldwide, a 40% reduction since the decade 1988e1997 Spillage reduced another 20% by the 1990s These reductions in spillage are all the more remarkable considering the increases in production, shipping, and handling of oil during this time period (Table 2.4) In a series of studies that estimated total oil inputs into the marine environment from spills, as well as from operational discharges* from shipping and other sources, especially urban runoff,y a definitive trend of input reduction is apparent (Table 2.5) It is important to note that some of the variations between the studies are due to differences in methodology rather than to actual differences in inputs * A legal permitted release of oil (usually in a highly diluted state in water) as part of normal operations y “Urban runoff” is the accumulation of drops of oil that leak from automobiles, trucks, and other vehicles, as well as small chronic spillages that occur from other land-based sources The oil washes off into storm sewers, culverts, and other waterways into streams and rivers that enter marine waters Because the exact source of this spillage cannot be pinpointed, it is termed nonpoint source pollution 34 PART | I Introduction and the Oil Spill Problem TABLE 2.28 Estimated Oil Spillage from Smaller Vessels in U.S Waters (ERC data) Years Annual Tons Spilled 1973e1977 2,123 1978e1987 939 1988e1997 900 1998e2007 595 1973e2007 999 TABLE 2.29 Vessel Operational Lubricant Leakage in U.S and Worldwide Ports33 Lubricant Discharges (average annual tons) Stern Tube Other Operational Total Years U.S Worldwide U.S Worldwide U.S Worldwide 1980e1987 1,064 19,558 1,036 22,082 2,101 41,488 1988e1997 1,246 22,903 1,213 25,859 2,460 48,584 1998e2007 1,400 25,734 1,363 29,055 2,764 54,589 1980e2007 1,237 22,738 1,204 25,672 2,442 48,233 2.3.7.2 Spillage from Facilities Coastal facilities (other than refineries) spill an estimated 600 tons of oil in the United States annually, a 72% reduction from the decade 1988e1997 Average annual facility spillage in the United States and worldwide is presented in Table 2.31 It is important to note that spillage volumes from coastal facilities often include oil that spills into secondary containment A secondary containment system provides an essential line of defense in preventing oil from spreading and reaching waterways in the event of the failure of an oil container (e.g., a storage tank) or the primary containment The system provides temporary containment of the spilled oil until a response can be mounted In the last decade, gas stations and truck stops spilled an average of 100 tons of oil annually, a nearly 48% decrease since the decade 1988e1997 This Chapter | Spill Occurrences: A World Overview 35 TABLE 2.30 Estimates of Oil Inputs from Two-Stroke Recreational Vessels in the United States and Worldwide Estimated Average Annual Tons Input Region U.S Atlantic* 3,100 U.S Gulf of Mexico* 1,540 U.S Pacific and Alaska* 2,306 U.S Total* 6,946 Worldwide* 53,000 *Estimates based on analyses in the 2003 NRC study.17 TABLE 2.31 Estimated Oil Spillage from Coastal Marine Facilities in U.S and Worldwide Waters Years U.S Annual Tons Spilledy Worldwide Annual Tons Spilled 1973e1977 8,889 150,000z 1978e1987 6,112 50,000x 1988e1997 2,151 1998e2007 604 1973e2007 3,803 e 2,400*e12,000** e 13 *From 2007 GESAMP study based on methods in the 2003 NRC study.17 The 2007 GESAMP study13 had a second estimate of 3.9  106 tons annually y ERC data z [24] x [25, 26] **[23] includes all spillages that occur at gas station facilities and truck stops, including spills that occur during the transfer of fuels from tanker trucks Average annual spillage from these sources is shown in Table 2.32 Spills at gas stations and truck stops often go to pavements and other substrates, reducing the direct impacts to waterways There are no reliable estimates of worldwide spillage rates Inland facilities regulated under the United States’ Environmental Protection Agency’s Spill Prevention, Control, and Countermeasures (SPCC) program other than refineries and production wells, covered separately in these analyses, 36 PART | I Introduction and the Oil Spill Problem TABLE 2.32 Estimated U.S Oil Spillage from Gas Stations and Truck Stops (ERC data)* Year Annual Spillage (tons) 1980e1987 171 1988e1997 223 1998e2007 116 1980e2007 170 *Based on reported data reported to the relevant state and local authorities in the 50 U.S states, as well as data reported to federal authorities These data not include leaking underground storage tanks that leak over long periods of time These data are tracked separately and are not considered emergency spill incidents Since gas stations are regulated by the EPA, facilities spillage at these facilities of at least 50 gallons (0.17 tons) that occur during these facilities are included Smaller spills (less than 50 gallons) are not included TABLE 2.33 Estimated U.S Oil Spillage from Inland EPA-Regulated Facilities (ERC data) Years Annual Spillage (tons) 1980e1987 4,963 1988e1997 35,002 1998e2007 8,525 1980e2007 16,963 spill an average of 8,500 tons of oil annually, a 76% reduction since the decade 1988e1997 (Table 2.33) Spills at inland facilities often go to pavements and other substrates, including secondary containments, reducing direct impacts to waterways There are no reliable estimates of worldwide spillage rates Oil spillage from home-heating oil tanks, which are not regulated by the EPA unless the tanks are in sizes larger than 34 tons, amounts to 70 tons of oil annually, a slight decrease from the decade 1988e1997 (Table 2.34) Note that this does not include slow leakages from underground storage tanks There are no reliable estimates of worldwide spillage rates from residential tanks Motor vehicles that carry oil as fuel rather than cargo spill about 285 tons of oil annually in the United States, double that for the decade 1988e1997 (Table 2.35) The spillage is associated with greater motor vehicle traffic, as well as Chapter | Spill Occurrences: A World Overview 37 TABLE 2.34 Estimated Oil Spillage from U.S Residential Heating Oil Tanks (ERC data) Years Annual Tons Spilled 1980e1987 26 1988e1997 74 1998e2007 71 1980e2007 59 TABLE 2.35 Estimated U.S Oil Spillage from Motor Vehicles (excluding tanker trucks) (ERC data) Year Annual Tons Spilled Average 1980e1987 39 Average 1988e1997 170 Average 1998e2007 295 Average 1980e2007 168 better reporting by local authorities that are often the emergency responders Motor vehicle spills* often go to pavements and not directly impact waterways Since the data only include spills of less than ton, most passenger vehicles are excluded There are no reliable estimates of worldwide spillage from motor vehicles 2.3.7.3 Spillage from Aircraft and Other Sources Aircraft spill an estimated 50 tons of jet fuel annually to inland areas These spills generally occur at airports during fueling, or occasionally from an accident Aircraft spill an additional 530 tons annually to U.S marine waters, based on a 2003 NRC study.17 These spills occur from two sources: through the deliberate discharge or jettisoning of jet fuel due to emergency conditions aboard an aircraft, or through the release of partially burned fuel in inefficient engines or operating modes.17,34 This type of spillage also occurs over inland areas, but there are no * Note that tanker trucks carrying oil as cargo are considered separately 38 PART | I Introduction and the Oil Spill Problem TABLE 2.36 Estimated U.S Oil Spillage (bbl) from Other Inland Sources (ERC data) Years Inland Aircraft (annual tons) Inland Unknown (annual tons) 1980e1987 138 1988e1997 23 314 1998e2007 49 74 1980e2007 26 190 current estimates of these inputs Total aircraft input in the United States is estimated to be about 580 tons of oil annually The 2003 NRC study estimated worldwide marine inputs from jettisoned aircraft fuel to be about 7,500 tons annually.17 Average annual spillage from aircraft and miscellaneous unknown (unidentified) inland sources in the United States is shown in Table 2.36 2.3.7.4 Oil Inputs from Urban Runoff About 50,000 tons of oil enters U.S marine waters each year through urban runoff, based on a 2003 NRC study.17 Urban runoff is the accumulation of drops of oil that leak from automobiles, trucks, and other vehicles, as well as small chronic spillages that occur from other land-based sources Oil washes off into storm sewers, culverts, and other waterways into streams and rivers that enter marine waters Because the exact spillage source cannot be pinpointed, it is termed “nonpoint source” pollution The U.S inputs are broken down by region in Table 2.37 Studies that included worldwide estimates of oil in urban runoff are shown in Table 2.38 TABLE 2.37 Estimates of U.S Oil Inputs from Urban Runoff Region Estimated Average Annual Tons of Oil Input* Atlantic 31,500 Gulf of Mexico 12,600 Pacific 5,829 Alaska 80 Total 50,009 *Estimates based on analyses in the NRC 2003 study.17 Chapter | 39 Spill Occurrences: A World Overview TABLE 2.38 Estimates of Worldwide Marine Oil Inputs from Urban Runoff Estimate of Average Annual Oil Inputs from Urban Runoff (tons) Study 1970s 1980s 1990s NRC, 1975 2,500,000 e e Kornberg, 1981 2,100,000 e e Baker, 1983 e 1,430,000 e NRC, 1985 e 1,080,000 e NRC, 2003 e e 140,000 2.3.8 Oil Inputs from Potentially Polluting Sunken Shipwrecks Potential future and documented current oil leakage and discharges from sunken ships in marine waters is an issue of concern worldwide A study conducted in 1977 drew attention to the oil discharges from a large number of oil tankers sunk during military operations in World War II along the U.S western, eastern, and southern (Gulf of Mexico) coasts.18 While the tankers had been sunk over 30 years earlier, oil was still periodically leaking from the vessels, which were acting as “seeps.” Many of the tankers were still relatively intact, though their structural integrity was uncertain The issue of oil pollution from sunken World War II tankers and military vessels was further brought to public attention after several incidents of oil leaking from several vessels (notably the S.S Jacob Luckenbach off the Pacific coast of the United States, the USS Mississinewa in Micronesia, and the German warship Bluăcher off Oslo, Norway) in the late 1990s to 2004 These sunken vessels were identified as the sources of “mystery spills” and discharges that impacted shorelines and other resources.35 The South Pacific Environment Programme (SPREP) has conducted surveys of wrecks in the South Pacific region particularly impacted by World War II military vessel sinkings.36,37 In 2005, the American Petroleum Institute and the sponsors of the International Oil Spill Conference* commissioned a study, Potentially Polluting Wrecks in Marine Waters, which involved developing a databasey of recorded * International Maritime Organization, U.S Coast Guard, U.S Environmental Protection Agency, International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association, Minerals Management Service, and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration y The proprietary database was developed by ERC 40 PART | I Introduction and the Oil Spill Problem FIGURE 2.7 Approximate location of potentially polluting shipwrecks* (ERC data) vessel sinkings for tankships of at least 150 gross registered tons (GRTs) carrying oil and nontank vessels of at least 400 GRTs that carried oil as fuel/ bunkers (and for operations); an analysis of the distribution of and likely amount of oil contained in these vessels; and an examination of the environmental, regulatory, political, technical, and financial issues associated with these sources of petroleum.38 The data analysis revealed that there were at least 8,569 recorded vessel sinkings worldwide, of which 1,583 were tankships and 6,986 were nontank vessels An estimated 2.5 to 20.4 million tons of oil is thought to be present in these shipwrecks The shipwrecks are distributed throughout the world, as shown in Figure 2.7 The data in the 2005 Michel et al study were analyzed regionally, as summarized in Table 2.39.38 This oil will not necessarily discharge, but there is the potential that it will, with the actual probability of discharge depending on vessel integrity and condition, age, depth at which the wrecks rest, temperature of the waters, and type of oil Heavier fuels at greater depths may be nearly solid, and many of the vessels may be largely intact On the other hand, the greatest potential for spillage is with the older vessels, particularly those from World War II, which were often built according to lower standards than more modern vessels The potential for impacts depends largely on the location of the wrecks Those in nearshore waters tend to present the greatest potential for impacting * Dots indicate approximate locations based on Marsden square (10-degree latitude/longitude) Because many of the vessels are “war-graves” and there are also safety concerns, authorities aim to prevent plundering or diving exploration The exact locations of many vessels are uncertain or are classified or confidential Chapter | Spill Occurrences: A World Overview 41 TABLE 2.39 Worldwide Potential Pollution from Sunken Tankers and Nontank Vessels (ERC data) Estimated Oil Content of Shipwrecks (tons) Region Minimum Maximum North Atlantic Ocean 951,000 7.5 million South Atlantic Ocean 165,000 0.5 million North Pacific Ocean 221,000 1.7 million South Pacific Ocean 521,000 4.2 million Indian Ocean 264,000 2.2 million shorelines The impacts of discharges from these vessels in the open ocean are likely to be less severe than those closer to shore because of the natural dispersion that would break the oil into smaller concentrations Much of the oil involved is likely to be heavier and would most likely form tar balls rather than larger slicks unless released in a large mass The experts who conducted the 2005 Michel et al study concluded that most of the vessels were likely to release oil in small quantities over a longer period of time or had already started to so, acting almost as a “natural seep.” Nevertheless, there is the potential for a vessel to suddenly release a much larger quantity of oil if a radical change takes place in the vessel’s structural integrity.38 The political, regulatory, and financial issues associated with these shipwrecks are extremely complex due to jurisdictional concerns Removing the oil and other hazardous materials, as well as munitions, from these vessels involves complex, dangerous, and expensive salvage operations It is unclear who would finance or regulate these operations, especially for the large number of World War II vessels involved Because of the complex issues presented by these wrecks and the overwhelming number of potentially polluting wrecks, an approach involving scientifically based risk assessments and cost-benefit analyses has been promoted by several organizations, government agencies, and researchers to prioritize those wrecks that poset the highest environmental risk for oil and hazardous material removal operations.38-44 2.3.9 Summary of Oil Spillage Estimates of average annual U.S oil spillage by decade from all source categories are summarized in Table 2.40 Over the last decade, the largest source category of spillage is inland pipelines, followed by EPA-regulated facilities The oil spillage reported here does not reflect the amounts of oil 42 PART | I Introduction and the Oil Spill Problem TABLE 2.40 Estimated Total Average Annual U.S Oil Spillage (tons) 1969e 1977 1978e 1987 1988e 1997 1998e 2007 Production 4,491 1,243 2,169 1,420 5.07% Offshore Platform Spills 3,694 192 259 182 0.65% 640 495 1,161 373 1.33% Offshore Supply Vessels 14 35 0.00% Inland Production Wells 143 521 742 863 3.08% Refining 429 502 2,145 1,734 6.19% Refinery Spills 429 502 2,145 1,734 6.19% Transport 69,809 43,092 27,250 13,770 49.16% Inland Pipelines 37,049 25,885 16,900 10,965 39.15% Tanker Trucks 429 698 745 1,312 4.68% Railroads 286 332 309 204 0.73% Tank Ships 27,499 8,607 6,028 514 1.83% Tank Barges 4,547 7,570 3,269 776 2.77% 16,932 13,887 39,789 11,088 39.58% 714 969 402 229 0.82% 2,123 939 900 595 2.12% 171 171 223 116 0.41% 21 26 74 71 0.25% 4,286 4,963 35,002 8,525 30.43% 529 531 552 578 2.06% Coastal Facilities 8,889 6,112 2,151 604 2.16% Inland Unknown 129 138 314 74 0.26% 71 39 170 295 1.05% 91,660 58,723 71,354 28,011 100.00% Source Type Offshore Pipelines Storage and Consumption Nontank Vessels Other Vessels Gas Stations and Truck Stops Residential Inland EPA-Reg Facilities* Aircrafty Motor Vehicles Total % Total 1998e2007 *Excludes refineries, gas stations, and production wells y Includes aircraft in inland areas plus estimates of marine inputs (based on NRC, 2003) Chapter | 43 Spill Occurrences: A World Overview that were contained or recovered It also does not reflect the differences between oil that is spilled directly into marine or freshwater systems and oil that is spilled onto other surfaces, including containment areas around storage tanks in tank farms The properties of the oil spilled (crude vs refined, heavy vs light) and the locations in which the oil spills (marine waters, inland waters, dry surfaces, wetlands, industrial zones) will largely determine the impacts of these spills and should be considered in addition to the actual amounts of oil spilled Total U.S oil inputs to marine and inland waters, including spills, runoff, and all operational discharges are shown in Table 2.41 TABLE 2.41 Estimated Total Average Annual U.S Oil Inputs (tons) Source Type 1969e 1977 1978e 1987 1988e 1997 1998e 2007 % Total 1998e2007 Production 5,876 2,431 3,438 2,930 2.15% Offshore Platform Spills 3,694 192 259 182 0.13% Offshore Pipeline Spills 640 495 1,161 373 0.27% Offshore Supply Vessel Spills 14 39 0.00% Inland Production Well Spills 521 742 863 705 0.52% 1,007 963 1,148 1,669 1.23% 35,963 52,758 68,910 55,915 41.09% 429 502 2,145 1,734 1.27% Refinery Effluents 35,534 52,256 66,765 54,181 39.82% Transport 69,882 43,084 27,163 13,864 10.19% Inland Pipelines 37,049 25,885 16,900 10,965 8.06% Tanker Trucks 429 698 745 1,312 0.96% Railroads 332 309 204 278 0.20% Tank Ships 27,513 8,607 6,028 514 0.38% Tank Barges 4,547 7,570 3,269 776 0.57% 12 15 17 19 0.01% 67,841 65,497 91,595 63,357 46.56% Produced Water Refining Refinery Spills Tank Vessel Operational Discharge Storage and Consumption (Continued ) 44 PART | I Introduction and the Oil Spill Problem TABLE 2.41 Estimated Total Average Annual U.S Oil Inputs (tons)dcont’d Source Type Nontank Vessels 1969e 1977 1978e 1987 1988e 1997 1998e 2007 % Total 1998e2007 149 969 402 229 0.17% Other Vessels 2,123 939 900 595 0.44% Vessel Operational Discharge 2,000 2,086 2,443 2,745 2.02% 171 223 116 170 0.12% 21 26 74 71 0.05% 4,286 4,963 35,002 8,525 6.27% 2 23 49 0.04% Coastal Facilities (Nonrefining) 8,889 6,112 2,151 604 0.44% Inland Unknown 129 138 314 74 0.05% 71 39 170 295 0.22% 50,000 50,000 50,000 50,000 36.75% 179,562 163,770 191,106 136,066 100.00% Gas Stations and Truck Stops Residential Inland EPA-Regulated Facilities** Aircrafty Motor Vehicles Urban Runoff Total **Excludes refineries, gas stations, and production wells y Includes aircraft in inland areas, plus estimates of marine inputs based on the 2003 NRC study [17] Although annual spill amounts vary from year to year, often due to one or two particularly large incidents, there has been a general downward trend in U.S spills in the past decade, and an even greater downward trend since 1989, the year of the Exxon Valdez spill (Figure 2.8) Worldwide trends are shown in Figure 2.9 The large spill in 1979 from the Ixtoc I well blowout dominates the spillage War-related intentional spillage, such as that in the 1991 Gulf War, has not been included Despite general downward trends in spills in the United States and worldwide, it is important that spill response preparedness be maintained due to the continuing risk of spills, including worst-case discharge scenarios Most spills will continue to be “routine” in that they are relatively small and easily responded to with local resources At the same time, occasional large spills, along with increasing public expectations for effective spill response and increased spiller liability, have necessitated complex contingency planning for Chapter | 45 Spill Occurrences: A World Overview Tonnes 140,000 120,000 100,000 80,000 60,000 40,000 20,000 1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 FIGURE 2.8 Annual oil spillage into U.S waters with reduction trends (ERC data) Tonnes 2,000,000 1,800,000 1,600,000 1,400,000 1,200,000 1,000,000 800,000 600,000 400,000 200,000 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 FIGURE 2.9 Worldwide oil spillage with reduction trends (ERC data) increasingly rare high-impact events.22 For example, the United States with its experience in the 1989 tanker Exxon Valdez, which involved the spillage of over 37,000 tons of oil, has not experienced a worst-case discharge scenario, defined as the complete release of the contents of 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California and western Canada. 12 Estimates of the areas of ocean with natural seeps are shown in Table 2. 1, and estimates of seepage rates by ocean are shown in Table 2. 2 y Oil measurements are... decade 1988e1997 A breakdown of annual spillage from oil tankers is shown in Figure 2. 4 Average annual spillage by decade is shown in Table 2. 14 Tank barges carrying oil as cargo spilled an average... 1962e2007 (ERC data) TABLE 2. 14 Average Annual Oil Spillage from Tank Ships in U.S Waters (ERC data) Years Average Number of Spills One Ton or More Average Annual Tons Spilled 1962e1967 e 7,162