OIL SPILL SCIENCE chapter 1 – introduction OIL SPILL SCIENCE chapter 1 – introduction OIL SPILL SCIENCE chapter 1 – introduction OIL SPILL SCIENCE chapter 1 – introduction OIL SPILL SCIENCE chapter 1 – introduction OIL SPILL SCIENCE chapter 1 – introduction OIL SPILL SCIENCE chapter 1 – introduction
Chapter Introduction Merv Fingas Chapter Outline 1.1 Introduction 1.2 A Word on the Frequency of Spills 1.1 INTRODUCTION Major oil spills attract the attention of both the public and the media In past years, this attention created a global awareness of the risks of oil spills and the damage they to the environment In recent years, there have been fewer major spill incidents, as noted by Dagmar Etkin in Chapter The public usually becomes aware of major spills, but generally does not recognize that spills are a daily fact of life Oil is a necessity in our industrial society and a major element of our lifestyle Most of the energy used in much of the developed world is for transportation that runs on oil and petroleum products As current energy usage trends show, this situation is not likely to change much in the future Industry uses oil and petroleum derivatives to manufacture such vital products as plastics, fertilizers, and chemical feedstocks, all of which will continue to be required in the future In fact, production and consumption of oil and petroleum products are increasing worldwide, and the risk of oil pollution is increasing accordingly The movement of petroleum from the oil fields to the consumer involves as many as 10 to 15 transfers between many different modes of transportation, including tankers, pipelines, railcars, and tank trucks Oil is stored at transfer points and at terminals and refineries along the route Accidents can occur during any of these transportation steps or storage times Fortunately, in the past few years the actual number of spills has decreased Obviously, an important part of protecting the environment is ensuring that there are as few spills as possible Both government and industry are working to reduce the risk of oil spills by introducing strict new legislation and stringent operating codes Industry has invoked new operating and maintenance Oil Spill Science and Technology DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-85617-943-0.10001-2 Copyright Ó 2011 Elsevier Inc All rights reserved PART | I Introduction and the Oil Spill Problem procedures to reduce accidents that lead to spills Intensive training programs have been developed to reduce the potential for human error Despite these measures, spill experts estimate that 30 to 50% of oil spills are either directly or indirectly caused by human error, with 20 to 40% of these incidents caused by equipment failure or malfunction There are also many deterrents to oil spills, including government fines, loss of reputation, and high cleanup costs In Canada, it costs an average of $20 to clean up each liter (about 1/4 gallon) of oil spilled In the United States, these costs average about $100 per liter spilled, whereas the average cost of cleanup worldwide ranges from $20 to $200 per liter, depending on the type of oil and where it is spilled Cleaning up oil on shorelines is usually the most expensive cleanup process 1.2 A WORD ON THE FREQUENCY OF SPILLS Smaller oil spills are a frequent occurrence in the world, particularly because of the heavy use of oil and petroleum products in our daily lives Canada uses about 260,000 tons of these products every day; the United States uses about 10 times this amount, and, worldwide, about 10 million tons are used per day Most domestic oil production in Canada comes from approximately 350,000 oil wells in Alberta and Saskatchewan There are 22 oil refineries in Canada, of which are classified as large Canada imports about 100,000 tons of crude oil or other products per day but exports about 600,000 tons per day, mostly to the United States In the United States, more than half of the approximately million tons of oil and petroleum products used daily is imported, primarily from Canada, Africa, Saudi Arabia, and other Arabic countries About 40% of the daily demand in the United States is for automotive gasoline, and about 15% is for diesel fuel used in transportation About 40% of the energy used in the United States comes from petroleum, 35% from natural gas, and 24% from coal Spill statistics are collected by a number of agencies around the world In Canada, provincial offices collect data, and Environment Canada maintains a database of spills In the United States, the Coast Guard handles a database of spills into navigable waters, while state agencies keep statistics on spills on land which are sometimes gathered into national statistics The Minerals Management Service (MMS) in the United States maintains records of spills from offshore exploration and production activities It can sometimes be misleading to compare oil spill statistics, however, because different countries use different methods to collect the data In general, statistics on oil spills are not easily obtainable, and any data set should be viewed with caution Determining or estimating the spill volume or amount is the most difficult aspect of data collection For example, in the case of a vessel accident, the exact volume in a given compartment may be known before the accident, but the remaining oil may have been transferred to other ships Chapter | Introduction immediately after the accident Some spill accident data banks not include the amounts burned, if and when that occurs, whereas others include all the oil lost by whatever means Sometimes the exact character or physical properties of the oil lost are not known, thereby leading to different estimates of the amount lost Spill data are often collected for purposes other than future improvement of the spill response Reporting procedures vary in different jurisdictions and organizations, such as government or private companies Minimum spill amounts that must be reported according to federal regulations in Canada and the United States vary from 400 to 8,000 liters (100 to 2000 gals), depending on the product spilled Spill statistics compiled in the past are less reliable than those based on more recent data because few agencies or individuals collected spill statistics before about 1975 Today, although techniques for collecting statistics are continually being improved, the resources allocated for this purpose have been reduced The number of spills reported also depends on the minimum size or volume of the spill In both Canada and the United States, most oil spills reported total more than 4000 L (about 1000 gals) In Canada, about 12 such oil spills take place every day, of which only about one of these spills is into navigable waters These 12 spills amount to about 40 tons of oil or petroleum product In the United States, there are about 25 spills per day into navigable waters and an estimated 75 spills on land Despite the apparently large number of spills, only a small percentage of oil used in the world is actually spilled There are proportionately more spills into navigable waters in the United States than in Canada because more oil is imported by sea and more fuel is transported by barge In fact, the largest volume of oil spilled in U.S waters comes from barges, while the largest number of spills is from vessels other than tankers, bulk carriers, or freighters In Canada, most spills take place on land, and this accounts for a high volume of oil spilled Pipeline spills account for the highest volume of oil spilled In terms of the actual number of spills, most oil spills happen at petroleum production facilities, wells, production collection facilities, and battery sites On water, the greatest volume of oil spilled comes from marine or refinery terminals, although the largest number of spills is from the same source as in the United Statesdvessels other than tankers, bulk carriers, or freighters The public has the wide misconception that oil spills from tankers are the primary source of oil pollution in the marine environment Although some of the large spills are indeed from tankers, these spills still make up less than about 5% of all oil pollution on the seas The sheer volume of oil spilled from tankers and the high profile given these incidents in the media have contributed to this misconception In fact, as stated earlier, half of the oil spilled in the seas is the runoff of oil and fuel from land-based sources rather than from accidental spills In conclusion, it is important to study spill incidents from the past to learn how the oil has affected the environment, what cleanup techniques work, and what improvements can be made, as well as to identify the gaps in technology ... gals) In Canada, about 12 such oil spills take place every day, of which only about one of these spills is into navigable waters These 12 spills amount to about 40 tons of oil or petroleum product... average about $10 0 per liter spilled, whereas the average cost of cleanup worldwide ranges from $20 to $200 per liter, depending on the type of oil and where it is spilled Cleaning up oil on shorelines... expensive cleanup process 1. 2 A WORD ON THE FREQUENCY OF SPILLS Smaller oil spills are a frequent occurrence in the world, particularly because of the heavy use of oil and petroleum products