DSpace at VNU: The impacts of globalisation on EFL teacher education through English as a medium of instruction: An example from Vietnam

DSpace at VNU: The impacts of globalisation on EFL teacher education through English as a medium of instruction: An exam...

This article was downloaded by: [Aston University] On: 19 January 2014, At: 11:23 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Current Issues in Language Planning Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rclp20 The impacts of globalisation on EFL teacher education through English as a medium of instruction: an example from Vietnam Thi Kim Anh Dang a b c , Hoa Thi Mai Nguyen & Truc Thi Thanh Le a a Melbourne Graduate School of Education , University of Melbourne , Carlton , VIC 3053 , Australia b Faculty of English Language Teacher Education , Vietnam National University , Hanoi , Vietnam c Faculty of Education and Social Work , University of Sydney , Darlington , NSW 2006 , Australia Published online: 02 May 2013 To cite this article: Thi Kim Anh Dang , Hoa Thi Mai Nguyen & Truc Thi Thanh Le (2013) The impacts of globalisation on EFL teacher education through English as a medium of instruction: an example from Vietnam, Current Issues in Language Planning, 14:1, 52-72, DOI: 10.1080/14664208.2013.780321 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14664208.2013.780321 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden Terms & Downloaded by [Aston University] at 11:23 19 January 2014 Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/termsand-conditions Current Issues in Language Planning, 2013 Vol 14, No 1, 52–72, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14664208.2013.780321 The impacts of globalisation on EFL teacher education through English as a medium of instruction: an example from Vietnam Dang Thi Kim Anha,b*, Hoa Thi Mai Nguyenc and Truc Thi Thanh Lea a Downloaded by [Aston University] at 11:23 19 January 2014 Melbourne Graduate School of Education, University of Melbourne, Carlton, VIC 3053, Australia; bFaculty of English Language Teacher Education, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, Vietnam; cFaculty of Education and Social Work, University of Sydney, Darlington, NSW 2006, Australia (Received November 2012; final version received 25 February 2013) Recent research on language planning and policy highlights the effects of globalisation in spreading the English language as a medium of instruction (EMI) in non-native English speaking (NNES) countries This trend has encouraged many universities in NNES countries to offer EMI education programmes with the objective of developing national human capital with proficiency in English One such country is Vietnam, where the Ministry of Education and Training prepared a 2008–2020 action plan to revitalise English language education, involving the improvement of the quality of language teacher education (TE) As part of the current reforms, the Ministry has urged teacher training colleges and universities to develop high quality English as a foreign language (EFL) TE programmes In response, a fast-track EFL TE programme with EMI has been introduced at a Vietnamese university Focusing on this TE programme, this paper illustrates how contemporary globalisation encourages using EMI in TE in NNES countries Vygotskian socio-cultural theory and Marginson and Rhoades’s [Beyond national states, markets, and systems of higher education: A glonacal agency heuristic Higher Education, 43(3), 281–309] glonacal heuristic are used to analyse the effects of globalisation in this EMI teaching context Based on individual interviews of a cohort of 20 Vietnamese pre-service teachers, classroom observations and artefacts, such as instructional materials and policy documents, the paper shows that global influences on teaching practices were mediated by a number of different elements, including social and community pressure, trends to the internationalisation of education, and the availability of teaching resources Keywords: English as a medium of instruction; globalisation; language policy; teacher education; Vietnam; Vygotskian socio-cultural theory Context of the study Beginning in 1986 with the Doi Moi (renovation) changes in state policy, Vietnam began to open up its economy to the world and develop relationships particularly with the West Since 1989, Vietnam has been one of the world’s fastest growing economies (Postiglione, 2011), with annual growth of 7–8% (OECD, 2010) By the 1990s, there was a growing realisation that competence in foreign languages was a key factor in facilitating the Doi Moi approach and in enhancing Vietnam’s competitive position in the international economic and political arena In particular, the teaching and learning of English, increasingly seen as a ‘world language’ (Brutt-Griffler, 2002), became more popular and widespread *Corresponding author Email: dangthikimanh@gmail.com © 2013 Taylor & Francis Downloaded by [Aston University] at 11:23 19 January 2014 Current Issues in Language Planning 53 in Vietnam Over time, English language teaching and learning has gained in status, has had much impact on language planning and policy, and has spread in terms of domains of use As English becomes increasingly prominent, the need for language proficiency continues to grow as the number of programmes with English as a medium of instruction (EMI) The need to enhance English language proficiency has been expressed in a succession of language policy and planning developments In 1996, English was introduced as an elective subject, starting from Grade (for children approximately eight years of age) with two 40-minute periods per week in provinces with adequate resources to so The policy received support throughout the country from primary schools and parents Consequently, in 2010–2011, a pilot primary school programme in English as a compulsory subject was implemented, with four 40-minute periods per week, starting from Grade (Nguyen, 2011) According to Nguyen (2005), 99.1% of all the junior secondary schools across the country offer English language studies Nguyen and Nguyen also observe, ‘English language centres have mushroomed all over the country …’ (2007, p 163) and a small number of private schools have started offering EMI-based courses In September 2008 the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) issued the ‘National Foreign Language 2020 Project’ which emphasised English language education as a key factor in national development As part of this initiative, MOET aimed to ensure that all young people leaving secondary school by 2020 have a good command of English This language planning goal has led to a number of changes in English language education, including the introduction of English at an earlier stage, increasing the teaching time devoted to English, changing current textbooks, offering EMI programmes, and training and retraining English language teachers throughout the country One component of this policy addresses the need to improve the quality of English language teacher education (TE) programmes The quality and quantity of qualified English teachers are widely seen as problematic in Vietnam as in other Asian countries (Kirkpatrick, 2011; Nguyen, 2011) Not many English teachers are confident in using EMI It had been hoped that dramatic changes in English language education would occur when textbooks were overhauled early in 2000 (Le, 2007), followed by upgrading workshops for secondary teachers However: classroom teaching remains grammar-focused, textbook-bound, and teacher-centred on account of teachers’ inadequacy of required proficiency in English and teaching skills as well as of the traditional image of the teacher as a type of omniscient authority figure and a holder of all knowledge (Le, 2007, p 174) The majority of teachers lack competence in using English in the classroom (Le & Do, 2012; Nguyen, 2011) Yet teachers are the key agents involved in the teaching and learning process Curricular changes need to be supported by appropriate socialisation and quality English teacher education including, as part of a larger set of strategies and programmes, the building of EMI teaching proficiency The need for reform in English teaching in Vietnam foregrounds the role of pre-service English as a foreign language (EFL) TE and embodies both a higher standard of EFL, and a more practical orientation to classroom teaching grounded in students’ lived experiences Teacher training colleges and universities have been urged to ‘focus particularly on renovating TE programmes in an approach that is modern, closely related to the real life context at schools, less academic and more practical’ (MOET, 2006, p 16) Several EFL TE programmes have been specifically designed to encourage pre-service teachers (PSTs) to Downloaded by [Aston University] at 11:23 19 January 2014 54 Dang T.K.A et al study content courses in English In these programmes, PSTs can access globalised resources and are prepared for participation in global professional communities Traditionally, EFL TE courses in Vietnam aimed to improve PSTs’ English language competence, study general education subjects, and develop professional teaching skills (Le, 2002) However, because of PSTs’ generally low entry level of English proficiency, a typical TE programme mainly focused on improving their English (Le, 2002) Adopting EMI thus became challenging, especially when students and, in many cases, lecturers had limited English language skills (Le, 2012) In many TE institutions, Vietnamese continues to be MOI for the core courses, such as EFL teaching methodology, phonetics, semantics, and even English, using a grammar-translation approach The TE programme reported in this paper is special and innovative in that with its lecturers mainly trained overseas and high achieving English students, all the core courses are delivered in English Its focus goes beyond improving PSTs’ English knowledge and skills This fast-track EFL TE programme was developed at a leading university in Vietnam, henceforth the ‘Vietnamese University’ Established in 2001, it set out to improve the language proficiency and teaching methodology of prospective teachers using an EMI approach The TE programme at the Vietnamese University exemplifies the trend to the use of EMI in non-native English speaking (NNES) contexts (Evans & Morrison, 2011; Hayati & Mashhadi, 2010; Qi, 2009) An increasing number of English-medium courses are offered in higher education in Europe (Airey, 2011; Coleman, 2006), especially since the Bologna Declaration in 1999 The introduction or re-introduction of EMI is also reported in Asian countries including Korea (Byun et al., 2011), Bangladesh (Hamid, Jahan, & Islam, 2013), Taiwan (Hsieh, 2010), and China (Hu & Alsagoff, 2010) Yet the quantitative expansion of EMI is only part of the picture The role of globalisation in contemporary EMI, and the resulting changes in curriculum, pedagogy and teachers’ practices, have received less research attention This paper investigates those factors, through a case study of one cohort of 20 Vietnamese PSTs in the previously-mentioned fast-track TE programme Study data were collected during the teachers’ professional experience in their final year of study Specifically, the research aimed to examine how the teaching practices of the PSTs in this EMI TE context were shaped; and in particular, what socio-cultural–historical-economic factors influenced that process, with special attention focused on global factors Language policy and EMI Medium of instruction – EMI in particular – has become a central aspect of language planning in NNES contexts This phenomenon is not simply a function of macro-level planning decisions per se At the macro level, language planning is increasingly affected by globalisation (Baldauf, 2012), i.e tendencies to worldwide convergence and integration (Held, McLew, Goldblatt, & Perraton, 1999), including the spread of English as a global language At the local level, EMI practices are influenced by a number of factors other than official policy and planning, including the direct impact of global communications At the macro level languages of instruction are determined by national economic and political agendas Many NNES countries now mandate EMI programmes (Evans & Morrison, 2011; Hayati & Mashhadi, 2010; Qi, 2009) not only in higher education but also, increasingly, at pre-tertiary levels (Baldauf, 2012; Baldauf & Nguyen, 2012; Tsui & Tollefson, 2004) Spolsky (2004) observes that ‘English as a global language is now a factor that needs to be taken into account in its language policy by any nation state’ (p 9); though as Ferguson (2006) argues, nations may lack the capacity to deal with the spread of English But what is driving English as a global language in education? Many nations see capacity in English Downloaded by [Aston University] at 11:23 19 January 2014 Current Issues in Language Planning 55 as necessary for national development and economic competitiveness in an increasingly globalised world (Baldauf & Nguyen, 2012; Chua, 2010; Ferguson, 2006; Hamid, 2010; Hsieh, 2010) The internationalisation of higher education also promotes EMI (Healey, 2008) The internationalisation of education is associated with international standards systems (King, 2011) and widespread policy borrowing (Rizvi & Lingard, 2010) that regulate the activities of educational institutions Often programmes of study are offered in English to attract international students (Ali, in press; Baldauf, 2012); for example among leading East Asian universities (Byun, et al., 2011; The Observatory on Borderless Higher Education, 2007) Further, the availability of teaching and learning resources in English and lack of equivalent resources in vernacular languages encourages English use in several Asian and African countries (Gill, 2004; Gonzalez, 2003; Shamim, 2008) Global ranking in higher education again favours the use of English (Marginson & van der Wende, 2007) as the working language of universities worldwide, especially in science (Hazelkorn, 2009) At the micro level, EMI implementation is not an automatic translation of top-down language policy Factors such as personnel and resources influence EMI practices (Airey, 2011) Teachers play an important role in realising the goals set by language policy-makers (Kaplan & Baldauf, 2003; Menken & Garcia, 2010; Ramanathan & Morgan, 2007) Increasingly researchers recognise that the issue of agency (the active agendas of actors themselves) is centrally important to EMI implementation (Baldauf, 2012; Ramanathan & Morgan, 2007; Zhao & Baldauf, 2012) Ramanathan and Morgan (2007) call for more active involvement by practitioners, such as teachers, researchers and administrators, in policy making Liddicoat and Baldauf (2008) advocate some language planning activities at local level as governments may not always be suitable as ‘micro language planners’ Drawing on relevant studies, Baldauf (2012) further argues that individual agency, including those of teachers and learners, ‘may compromise the impact of a national language policy’ (p 240) Ramanathan and Morgan (2007) note that as well as being influenced by the discourses on language learning dominant in their teacher preparation programmes, teachers are affected by a range of life experiences and media exposure The issue of whether and how global forces affect EMI practices at the micro-level, including how these global forces interact with other factors including individual agency, is under-researched Ramanathan and Morgan (2007) argue that a deeper understanding of this conglomerate of elements, operating at the local level, may facilitate relevant and creative innovations in EMI policy and practices The study attempts to address this gap in the research, taking into consideration the socio-cultural nature of EMI policy and planning and its underlying macro-micro relationships It draws on Vygotsky’s (1978, 1981a, 1981b) socio-cultural theory as an analytical framework for understanding PSTs’ practices in context, and Marginson and Rhoades’s (2002) glonacal heuristic as an analytical tool for identifying elements of globalisation in the data Socio-cultural theory of development At the core of Vygotskian theory is a dialectic relationship between the subject and society (Dang & Marginson, 2012) In conceptualising this dialectic, Vygotsky (1978, 1981a, 1981b) created two key concepts for investigating mental and cultural development: mediation by artefacts, and the genetic method Mediation by artefacts Socio-cultural theory recognises the central role of social relationships and culturally constructed artefacts in organising human forms of thinking According to Vygotsky (1978), Downloaded by [Aston University] at 11:23 19 January 2014 56 Dang T.K.A et al we not act directly on the environment Instead we use labour and tools to change the environment, including the conditions under which we live Through this process we change ourselves Mediation by artefacts ‘breaks down the Cartesian walls that isolate the individual mind from the culture and the society’ (Engeström, 1999, p 29) Physical and psychological tools are artefacts created by human culture(s) over time and made available to succeeding generations, who modify these artefacts and in turn pass them on A tool embodies a history of development within itself Language is considered a psychological tool (Vygotsky, 1981a) In the present study the English language is one of the mediating pedagogical tools used by PSTs (Grossman, Smagorinsky, & Valencia, 1999) in the classroom In the socio-cultural perspective, the process whereby ‘a person adopts the pedagogical tools available for use in particular social environments’, and ‘internalizes ways of thinking endemic to specific cultural practices’, is known as ‘appropriation’ (Grossman et al., 1999, p 15) Appropriation of pedagogical tools involves localisation, adaptations, and modifications (Newell & Connors, 2011) An investigation of EMI as a pedagogical tool in the TE programme, and of its appropriation by the PSTs later during their professional experience, illuminates factors shaping their teaching practices However, the use of EMI cannot be understood outside the broader socio-cultural–historical context in which English was used In this respect, Vygotsky’s (1981b) genetic method can provide the necessary contextual framework for understanding the development of EMI teaching practices Genetic method Given that cultural artefacts are passed down from generation to generation, Vygotsky reasoned that the only adequate approach to the study of higher mental abilities was historical (Lantolf, 2000) ‘Everyday human behaviour can be understood only by disclosing the presence of four general fundamental genetic stages through which behavioural development passes’ (Vygotsky, 1981b, p 156) Vygotsky’s ‘genetic method’ (1981b) incorporates four genetic domains for the study of higher mental functions: the phylogenetic domain (humans undergoing natural evolution), the cultural–historical domain (the social settings of human activity), the ontogenetic domain (the individual lifespan), and the microgenetic domain (immediate events) The genetic method is a means for genotypic, or explanatory, research (Lantolf & Appel, 1994) that introduces a ‘historical point of view into the investigation of behavior’ (Vygotsky, 1981a, p 141) In using Vygotsky’s genetic method, the present study of PSTs’ teaching practices in the EMI TE context understands their use of English in their professional experience, i.e their activity at the microgenetic level, on the basis of their historic antecedents These historic antecedents first include the participants’ ontogenesis, i.e their individual histories, backgrounds and experiences, in relation to English, including their prior use of English in the fast-track TE programme Second, the genetic method situates EMI practices in the social, cultural and historical context, i.e cultural-historic domain, from which the PSTs’ microgenetic activity (the current experience) emerged In contrast with the time when Vygotsky developed his theory, educational contexts worldwide and in Vietnam have been transformed by unprecedented global flows and relations in real time (Dang & Marginson, 2012) Globalisation scholarship is thus essential in conceptualising the broader context in which the PSTs’ teaching practices were situated Globalisation and the glonacal heuristic Globalisation, ‘the widening, deepening and speeding up of world wide interconnectedness in all aspects of contemporary social life’ (Held et al., 1999, p 2), is driven by increasing Downloaded by [Aston University] at 11:23 19 January 2014 Current Issues in Language Planning 57 cross-border flows of people (ethnoscapes), communications and knowledge (mediascapes), ideas (ideoscapes), technologies (technoscapes), government policies, money ( financescapes) (Appadurai, 1996), and policies (policyscapes) (Rizvi & Lingard, 2010) Global flows of knowledge, cross-border mobility of students and educators, the international standards systems (King, 2011), global comparisons, bench-marking and ranking, and the internationalisation of institutions (Marginson & van der Wende, 2009) all affect educational activities in particular national settings Globalisation has triggered new theoretical and methodological approaches to educational research Marginson and Rhoades (2002) argue that rather than being constrained to local or national boundaries, education is increasingly shaped simultaneously in global, national and local dimensions of action They propose a glonacal heuristic for comparative research in education that accounts for the multi-facetted impact of globalisation in all dimensions Rizvi and Lingard (2010) call for a ‘historical orientation to [educational] policy analysis’ (p 69, italics in original) in globalised contexts These theoretical developments suggest the potential of Vygotsky’s (1981a, 1981b) genetic method in globalisation research Dang (2012) argues that: The genetic method has explanatory power by focusing on the historical dimensions and creating links between different domains of development The glonacal agency heuristic provides an analytical tool to identify different layers, local, national and global, that intertwine the genetic domains (p 144) Further discussion of this integrated framework is elaborated in Dang and Marginson (2012) and Dang (2012), who also modify Vygotsky’s (1981a, 1981b) genetic method by including political and economic dimensions in the cultural–historical domain In the present study, integrating the glonacal heuristic with a modified Vygotskian genetic method enables research to trace global elements in the different genetic domains associated with EMI teaching practices in the case study TE programme The study This section outlines the participants and the setting of the research, and explains the processes of data collection and data analysis Participants and settings The present study constitutes part of a larger research project conducted by the first author, concerning the professional learning of the cohort of 20 PSTs in Vietnam (Dang, 2012, 2013; Dang & Marginson, 2012) The present study focuses specifically on the impact of globalisation on the PSTs’ appropriation of EMI The research took place during their 15-week professional experience from late August to early December 2009 The PSTs were all female and selected as high achieving English students in the previously mentioned BEd (TEFL) TE programme that used EMI Table provides their summary profiles Participation in the research was voluntary All names used are pseudonyms To qualify for this programme, the PSTs passed a placement test comprising reading, grammar and IQ, and underwent an interview in English Every year around 400 students enrolled in the BEd but only 20–25 students qualify for the fast-track TE programme, a four-year course designed and delivered in English by well-qualified lecturers In their final year, during professional experience, the PSTs were organised in pairs to teach English and academic skills in English to first- and second-year mainstream students, 58 Dang T.K.A et al Downloaded by [Aston University] at 11:23 19 January 2014 Table Participants’ profiles Age Years of English language learning Lam 21 15 Chinh 21 13 Duong Phuc 21 20 13 Selective school (Ss) in Hanoi and foreign language centre School for gifted students in Hanoi Ss in Nam Dinh Ss in Nam Dinh Le Minh 21 21 10 10 Ss in Quang Ninh Ss in Hai Phong Tam Chau 21 21 13 13 Ss in Hai Phong Ss in Hai Duong 10 Quy Ha 21 21 15 15 11 Thanh 21 13 12 Hang 20 12 13 Hong 21 10 Ss in Thai Nguyen Living in Australia for five years School for gifted students in Hanoi School for gifted students in Hanoi and foreign language centre Language specialised school in Hanoi School for gifted students in Hanoi 14 Cham 21 10 Ss in Bac Giang 15 16 Lien Hien 21 21 11 13 17 Binh 21 13 Ss in Hai Phong School for gifted students in Hanoi Ss in Nam Dinh 18 19 20 Thu Van Hue 21 21 21 13 10 10 Ss in Hai Phong Ss in Hai Duong Ss in Hai Phong No Name Places of English learning (pre-tertiary) English-related work experience PET and class teacher PET and class teacher PET Assistant teacher in British Council Taught IELTS and English to Economics students PET and class teacher Translator for an online newspaper PET and class teacher PET Assistant teacher for ILA English language centre PET and class teacher Translator and PET English tutor for first year B.Ed students in English Teacher Development Club, and class teacher PET Volunteer in international events Assistant teacher in British Council PET Assistant teacher for ILA PET PET PET English tutor for first year B.Ed students in English Teacher Development Club, and PET PET PET PET and class teacher under the supervision of a university lecturer Each pair taught four lessons, followed by a debriefing session involving the cohort and the supervising teacher Data collection and analysis Data collection incorporated three of the four Vygotskian genetic domains: microgenetic, ontogenetic, and cultural–historical-economic-political Following Cross’s (2006, 2010) Downloaded by [Aston University] at 11:23 19 January 2014 Current Issues in Language Planning 59 design and consistent with the scope of this study, the phylogenetic domain – that of the natural-biological evolution of humans in ecological context – was not included The microgenetic data of the study are accounts of the PSTs’ teaching practices, derived from observation of their classrooms, and of the instructional artefacts they used, supplemented by insights derived from post-teaching-round interviews with the PSTs The ontogenetic data refer to biographical factors, to the personal backgrounds and experiences of each PST, including their experiences in the first three years of the TE programme These factors affected their microgenetic activity in observable instances (Cross, 2006) The ontogenetic data were generated during individual interviews in which the PSTs recalled their personal histories The microgenetic and ontogenetic data sources included: (1) 100 individual semi-structured interviews (20 PSTs each interviewed five times, once prior to their professional experience and once after each lesson taught); (2) observations of forty 60-minute lessons taught by the 10 pairs of PSTs; and, (3) other relevant artefacts such as instructional materials Interviews were conducted in Vietnamese, the PSTs’ mother tongue, recorded, and transcribed verbatim To help explain teacher practice at the microgenetic and ontogenetic levels, the first author collected cultural–historical data, including political and economic elements These data comprise: (a) policy documents relating to the special TE programme, and to the Vietnamese university in general; and (b) relevant data on telecommunications, internet usage, and political and economic aspects of Vietnam Data were categorised into the three domains of cultural–historical, ontogenetic, and microgenetic analysis Each data set was analysed according to emergent themes and patterns (Miles & Huberman, 1994) relating to globalisation Microgenetic data were coded and analysed on the thematic basis of aspects of the use of English in class Data in the ontogenetic and cultural–historical domains were analysed to identify global elements that appeared to connect to globally inflected data and themes emerging at the microgenetic level Findings This section discusses findings from the three genetic domains of cultural–historical, ontogenetic, and microgenetic, and the links between the domains, to help explain PSTs’ teaching practices at the microgenetic level Global elements were identified across the genetic domains Cultural–historical analysis The research uncovered traces of global elements in the local and national dimensions of activity (Marginson & Rhoades, 2002) with potential effects on the PSTs’ teaching practices Locally, there were global elements in both the special TE programme in which the PSTs were enrolled and in their university’s orientation The PSTs had regular access to computers and LCD projectors, not commonly found in Vietnamese classrooms This allowed the lecturers to use internet-generated materials from elsewhere, facilitating the global flow of knowledge, ideas and communications (Appadurai, 1996) The effect was enhanced by the autonomous agency of lecturers in the TE programme who were free to develop syllabi and update teaching materials by drawing from global sources Most 60 Dang T.K.A et al lecturers in the programme were Western trained, for example in Australia, New Zealand and the USA, and brought external ideas to the programme The TE programme promoted both EMI and the use of ICT resources, corresponding to trends in many universities around the world (Hazelkorn, 2009; Healey, 2008) A report on the TE programme highlights EMI as part of course design and implementation: Downloaded by [Aston University] at 11:23 19 January 2014 Language that is meaningful to students promotes learning Bearing that in mind, we designed our program in a way that the students could use the target language in real-life and meaningful communication In the research projects, they had the chance to interact with native speakers of English to collect data, read journal articles and books in English to write literature reviews, and practice academic writing skills to develop their research reports (Dang & Ho, 2007, p 5) Analysis of interview data and documents confirmed that the PSTs were required to complete assignments and give presentations in English using ICTs One assignment in the TE programme mentioned by many PSTs was ‘facilitation’ This required the PSTs to search for material, design a learning task, and present it in English to their peers Tam and Binh recalled their experiences with this assignment: So far in the TE program, we used only English for our ‘facilitation’ assignment in class, so we are just used to it [using EMI] (Tam) We always use internet materials for speaking and listening classes … When we did ‘facilitation’ we would choose material on the internet and then design tasks for it … The university IT course only taught us MS Word and Excel But since the first year, we had to look for materials In the beginning, it was unsystematic and chaotic, but after that, it became a kind of acquisition We found the task easier, probably because we got used to it With harder tasks, our techno-savvy classmates would help, such as cutting the audio files If they were too busy, they would give us the instructions and software so we could it ourselves (Binh) As Binh’s quote reveals, the course requirements enhanced their ICT proficiency, potentially adding to the global effects on their learning through technoscapes This EMI TE programme illustrated the Vietnamese university’s strategic response to globalisation The programme also had a national dimension It was expected to contribute to Vietnam’s development via its special framework for EFL TE It trained high quality human resources in line with international standards, specifically those of the AUN (ASEAN University Network), signifying Vietnam’s aspiration to integrate into the globalised world Binh’s excerpt shows that the PSTs attributed their ICT competence to their classmates and course assignments rather than the University’s limited formal ICT course Analysis of the national context further explains their ICT competence, their reliance on internet-generated materials, and the high demand for English In Appadurai’s (1996) terms, technoscapes and financescapes primarily account for this phenomenon As noted, with the Doi Moi policy Vietnam adopted a regulated market economy, opened itself to the world and actively integrated into the global and regional economies These developments have been associated with the surge in the popularity of English as a ‘world language’ (Nguyen, 2011), English related jobs, and rapid growth in the ICT sector in Vietnam These developments enabled the PSTs to work in part-time English-related jobs Vietnam has seen rapid developments in international communications Between 2002 and 2007 the proportion of the population with internet access increased from 1.8% to 20%, reaching 25.3% in 2009 (Vietnam Forum of Environmental Journalists, 2009), almost 7% higher than the average for developing countries (International Telecommunication Union, 2012) This explained why the PSTs in this study all Current Issues in Language Planning 61 Downloaded by [Aston University] at 11:23 19 January 2014 had access to the internet, either at home or in public places such as internet cafes rather than at the university Further, given that Vietnamese libraries have limited print materials, it is not surprising that the PSTs mainly used globally generated English materials in their ELT practices Ontogenetic analysis Through their ontogenesis, the PSTs mediated the relationship between the broader cultural–historical context and the microgenetic activities (Cross, 2010) Marginson and Rhoades (2002) argue that ‘we not see a linear flow from the global to the local; rather, we see simultaneity of [local, national and global] flows’ (p 289) The PSTs’ ontogenesis revealed a strong national cultural dimension The interviews revealed that most of them chose to become teachers because in Vietnam teaching was seen as a noble profession and the most suitable job for women Yet, global elements also showed in the PSTs’ ontogenesis and helped to explain their use of English in class All of the PSTs had experienced global flows in some way They had lived or travelled abroad, had overseas contact, or volunteered for international events in Vietnam Ha, who also had an English name, said: ‘I lived in Sydney for five years when I was a kid’ Lien, who used to have an American pen friend, recalled: Thanks to him, I spoke much better At the beginning, I would be awkward whenever he rang me Slowly I became more fluent Also in email, we could be very formal, but as I wrote email every day in English, it also helped with my speaking (Lien) All had experienced instruction by foreign teachers for some period of time Many had part-time jobs as teacher assistants in transnational education institutions, such as the British Council, or other English-related jobs (see Table 1) Some, for example, Hang and Ha, also taught English to foreigners EMI had also been used in their B.Ed programme To them, English was more than just a school subject It was an active means of communication and an ‘inevitable’ part of their environment Exposure to the global world had shaped their teaching principles and practices Phuc, who worked part-time as a teaching assistant at the British Council, recalled: They [the native speakers] work with children and so have a quite relaxed attitude to teaching At the beginning, I found it uncomfortable performing those funny acts Gradually, I find their teaching interesting For example, when the teacher entered the class, he would say ‘hello, hello’ [changing tones] That’s very funny … the class atmosphere is fun … Then they varied their voice, sometimes louder, sometimes quieter, creating a fun atmosphere I also want my class to be like that (Phuc) Having ICT competence, internet access and English proficiency meant the PSTs had a high exposure to global flows of communications, knowledge, ideas and technologies Globalisation had transformed the role of the English language in their life and work, as now will be further discussed in the microgenetic analysis Microgenetic analysis, and links across the genetic domains This section revisits the research question posed early in the paper It considers how the PSTs appropriated EMI, and what factors influenced the process, while keeping in mind the cultural–historical and ontogenetic domains 62 Dang T.K.A et al Downloaded by [Aston University] at 11:23 19 January 2014 PSTs’ teaching practices As part of their professional experience, the PSTs assessed their students’ needs, designed syllabi, and organised classes on English (reading, listening, speaking, and pronunciation) and academic skills (note taking, reading, and presentation skills) Triangulated with interview data, findings from observations of all 40 classes suggested that at the microgenetic level, global elements were prevalent in PST teaching practices In appropriating English as a pedagogical tool, the PSTs adapted and modified this tool to suit the specific context of their practicum Their appropriation process was simultaneously open to globalisation First, the PSTs predominantly used English in class Vietnamese was kept to a minimum, only a few instances per pair of PSTs In post-teaching interviews the PSTs were asked to explain their predominant use of English and the instances when they switched to Vietnamese All PSTs believed in the benefits of using English in their classes and used Vietnamese only (a) when explaining complicated concepts or instructions, to save time and to enhance students’ understanding, or (b) for fun, or (c) when it was difficult for even the PSTs themselves to use English Cham, one PST, stated: ‘I think I can explain it in English But I think they could understand it better if we used Vietnamese then’, referring to instances when she had to explain the articulatory mechanism of an English sound Another PST, Hong, simply explained: ‘At the time, I could not think of how to explain it in English, so I used Vietnamese’ Second, observation and interview analysis revealed that the PSTs mainly employed authentic, audio and video English materials from the internet, not print materials and textbooks They accessed websites such as www.bbclearningenglish.com for pronunciation lessons or e-books for English learning This approach opened PST teaching practices to global elements via technoscapes and mediascapes ‘I realize that there are plenty of materials on the internet … a good source’, commented Hong She advocated the use of authentic materials so as to better learn to communicate in English This seemed to surpass the role of English as a school subject Hong recalled: The ultimate purpose of learning English is to be able to use it What is more important than examinations is our learners’ ability to use it afterwards For example, you may be good at exams but later you’ll need to use English in a more authentic environment What will happen if you listen to others and cannot respond to them? In a worse scenario, you are familiar with listening tasks from the printed materials but people don’t speak like that in reality What will you then? That’s why I see authentic materials are very important, providing an authentic learning environment for learners (Hong) Her ontogenetic analysis revealed her experience of working with foreigners Exposure to globalisation taught her that: ‘Exam is just to assess your English first, then it is about whether you can use it in real life’ She emphasised that ‘We need to provide students with the real English that people use’ The internet helped her to realise her globally inflected teaching belief In Hong’s case the exam-oriented culture of Vietnam seemed to give way to global impacts Third, the analysis of the instructional artefacts showed that the PSTs tended to rely on materials from international testing systems used worldwide to assess non-native speakers’ English, such as TOEFL iBT and IELTS, to teach reading and listening skills – illustrating King’s (2011) observation that international standards systems help speed up the effects of globalisation In this study, the PSTs tended to subject themselves to the standards set by those tests One PST explained her use of test materials as follows: Current Issues in Language Planning 63 I always use TOEFL iBT and IELTS materials because I think many of our students want to sit for TOEFL iBT exams to apply for scholarships Thus, it is good to familiarize them with this type of exercise (Thanh) Finally, to teach speaking and pronunciation, all PSTs referred to the English spoken by native speakers, and used audio and video materials from the internet for instruction These practices indicated global influences on the PSTs chosen benchmarks, again surpassing the national curriculum requirements One remarked: Downloaded by [Aston University] at 11:23 19 January 2014 We are not native speakers When we teach pronunciation, we cannot teach it with the native speakers’ standard So, I thought of having my students watch videos spoken by native speakers, and see how they speak Then, I can guide them, illustrate, and elicit when they have difficulty (Hang) Another recalled, ‘I have watched a teacher teaching pronunciation on YouTube She used that map … so I adapted it to this lesson’ (Hong) Here globalisation by means of the internet impacted on the PSTs’ EFL teaching practices through ideoscapes Rationale for the PSTs’ teaching practices All PSTs defined ‘learning English’ as ‘being able to communicate in English’ Almost all justified their classroom use of English as a pedagogical tool as a way to create an English environment for the students For example Minh, explained: We can create an English speaking environment I want them to listen to and speak English as much as possible When necessary, I explain it in Vietnamese but most of the time I use English If they don’t understand something, I try to use simple English If they still can’t get it, I switch to Vietnamese (Minh) Most PSTs believed that their TE programme, delivered in English with some contact with native speakers, enabled them to use English in class effectively Several PSTs explained that as their university lecturers used English, they themselves should also teach their own students in English Their English proficiency enabled them to realise this belief most of the time They had developed confidence in using English throughout their EMI TE programme, prior to the professional experience under study Employing a historical analysis of the phenomenon, the section that follows discusses contextual factors affecting the PSTs’ teaching practices, especially their dominant use of English in their classes in the context of this study Factors influencing the PSTs’ teaching practices The interview data show that the PSTs’ prominent use of English in their classes was rooted in social and community pressure, the internationalisation of education, and the availability of teaching resources These factors were all globally inflected Social and community pressure Data analysis suggests that the PSTs’ use of English in class was affected by their lecturers, their part-time employers, their students, and broader social trends This finding is consonant with Kaplan, Baldauf, and Kamwangamalu’s (2011) recognition of the important role of communities in language plans Downloaded by [Aston University] at 11:23 19 January 2014 64 Dang T.K.A et al The PSTs had studied in the special EMI TE programme for more than three years prior to the study period Their observations of how their lecturers had used English seemed to guide their own teaching practice As discussed in the previous section, most of the PSTs attributed their preference for using English to the EMI framework of the TE programme As explained in the cultural–historical analysis, the TE programme lecturers had global mobility and were open to global influences Lortie’s (1975) concept of apprenticeship of observation, whereby teachers tend to teach the way they were taught during many years of observation as students themselves, explains the influence of this specific community on the teaching practices of the PSTs The PSTs also reported influence and pressure from their part-time employers, both foreign and Vietnamese Their part-time jobs were normally not associated with public secondary schools, but at language centres opened to meet the increasing demand for English These jobs reflected the needs of society rather than any government-imposed language policy Thanh, who had worked part-time for a language centre, recalled her story relating to EMI: I applied for a teaching job at a children’s language centre … The centre director was very strict She asked me to observe her class first and then I could try teaching one lesson for her to observe … On that evening when I taught, I just thought that if they [the students] didn’t understand anything, I could use Vietnamese right away to explain it During the lesson, I spoke both English and Vietnamese Afterwards, she commented: ‘I require you to speak English throughout the lesson, thus creating a learning environment and training our students’ skills to respond [in English].’ Later I realized that it was good not only for our students but also for me It meant that when I encounter a difficult word, I try to find a simple expression to explain it [in English] Gradually, it built up a skill That experience has been influential in my teaching practice (Thanh) Thanh was under pressure from her employer to use English Her experience at the private language centre shaped her view of EMI, rather than any language teaching theory she had learned EMI in an EFL environment like Vietnam required more than teachers’ English proficiency As Thanh’s case reveals, it required teacher belief in EMI and strong agency in its enactment The demand for English in Vietnam, as discussed in the cultural–historical domain, seems to explain this phenomenon The use of English by many of the PSTs had also been affected by the language preferences of the private students they encountered in their work as private English tutors (PETs) (see Table 1) Their students, mainly middle class urban children, preferred to be taught in English One teacher explained: I have been tutoring a lot For those students I teach, the more English I speak, the more motivated they are If I use any Vietnamese, they would seem resentful They would demand ‘You reteach that in English’ For example, one day I said ‘đây điền từ ngoặc’, I spoke in Vietnamese ‘điền từ ngoặc’, but they didn’t like it They preferred me saying ‘you fill a word into this blank’ They liked me to teach like that, no Vietnamese Thus, I think these kids still prefer English (Lien) The infiltration of globalisation in Vietnam by means of English media and entertainment via the internet and cable TV, technoscapes and mediascapes, helps to explain this pressure from the private students The PSTs also remarked on the influence of the general social trend to EMI Many were preparing for a future when EMI will be introduced at secondary school Duong justified her use of EMI as follows: Current Issues in Language Planning 65 When we graduate, English will probably be used as a medium of instruction at secondary school, so we should be prepared from now In our era, communication is important I mean if we have opportunities to meet and to communicate with foreigners, or if we can go abroad, we should take the chance to communicate (Duong) Downloaded by [Aston University] at 11:23 19 January 2014 The statement again suggests that global mobility and international communications as global flows (Appadurai, 1996) influenced EMI teaching practice in Vietnam The internationalisation of education The cross-border mobility of students and educators, international standards systems (King, 2011), global comparison, the internationalisation of institutions (Marginson & van der Wende, 2009), and policy borrowing (Rizvi & Lingard, 2010), have all contributed to the internationalisation of education The present study suggests that the internationalisation orientation of the Vietnamese university affected PST teaching practice at the microgenetic level As demonstrated in the cultural–historical analysis, the cross-border mobility of the lecturers of the special B.Ed programme, its facilitation resources and purposes, and the AUN standards systems, were all examples of global elements that indirectly affected the PSTs’ teaching practices, via their ontogenesis As noted, all of the PSTs reported the influence of the EMI TE programme on their language practice ‘I think as our lecturers taught us in English, we will also try to teach in English like them’, said Hang Kaplan and Baldauf (2005) hold that personnel policy, i.e where the teachers come from and how they are trained, has an impact on language practice In this case that influence came from the Western trained lecturers Other PSTs contrasted the focuses of their secondary and tertiary educations, noting the differing impact on their ELT practice Hien recalled: ‘At the university we learned four skills so we can communicate, but at the secondary level we focused on grammar only We learned everything for the exams’ For both levels of education students had to study to meet evaluation requirements but the TE programme also required the students to communicate This orientation suggested that English should be used for communication purposes in class, which inspired the PSTs to so in their teaching The availability of teaching resources Because the quality of print materials and textbooks for English teaching was generally a problem in Vietnam (Nguyen, 2011), the PSTs relied on the internet as their main source of teaching materials The availability of these English materials plus classroom facilities which supported the use of digital materials allowed the PSTs to create an English environment for their students As discussed earlier, given the TE programme with its curriculum based on EMI and ICT, the rapid ICT development in Vietnam was crucial in enabling the global flows of knowledge, ideas, and technologies into the PSTs’ language teaching practice, as Hong suggests The internet provides a rich source of materials … and it is just whether we can make use of it Also, with the materials from the internet, we can find authentic materials, not like those from printed books … (Hong) Hong later explained, ‘we cannot buy good books because they are expensive … [my classmates] introduced the website englishtips.com to me so I could go there to download books …’ Another teacher elaborated: I want to use resources from the internet because information keeps changing; we may have upto-date information from the internet (Binh) 66 Dang T.K.A et al One teacher emphasised the importance of exposure to internet media in English and contact with native speakers in shaping a learning environment: I think we need to create an English learning environment, for example, reading online materials, reading newspapers, watching English movies Then we can understand not only their language but also their lifestyles If we want to study better, we need to approach them We should read newspapers, watch television or listening to radio rather than just burying our head into TOEFL and IELTS materials, which are not practical (Lien) Downloaded by [Aston University] at 11:23 19 January 2014 The excerpt suggests that the social pressure, the need to communicate, surpassed the post-Confucian culture’s examination focus The abundance of English materials on the internet allowed the individual teacher to follow her preferences These global artefacts (Dang & Marginson, 2012) expanded her imagination and possibilities for language learning Discussion and conclusion EMI is a strengthening trend in language planning and policy across the world, especially in NNES countries (Hamid et al., 2013; Hayati & Mashhadi, 2010; Qi, 2009) Most of the literature focuses on the influence of globalisation at the macro level of EMI policy planning This study of the teaching practices of a group of Vietnamese PSTs in a special TE programme that used an EMI framework contributes to our understanding of the role globalisation plays both in such TE programmes and in the practices of PSTs It also illustrates the various factors that may contribute to and support teacher agency in the use of English, something that may be lacking in many English second/foreign language contexts The study provides new insights that can inform programmes for pre-service language TE In Vietnam, reforms in TE are needed, if the education system is to respond to the call for the development of qualified teachers who can act as active agents in implementing the national language education plan Within the current Vietnamese context, it is hoped that training EFL teachers using an EMI framework will augment future teachers’ practices, especially in creating an English speaking environment for their students The findings of the present study are consonant with Rotarwut’s (2006) advocacy of an EMI framework in EFL TE Although Rotarwut (2006) did not explicitly call the framework he used EMI, his study revealed the impact of a TE course offered in English on the ELT teaching practices of the PSTs When the PSTs were exposed to the English environment in their TE programme, they were more likely to use English effectively and consistently in their classrooms Similarly, Ramanathan and Morgan (2007) acknowledged the influence of language TE programmes on language teachers’ beliefs and medium-of-instruction practices Consistent with several studies on language planning and policy (Gill, 2004; Gonzalez, 2003; Hamid, 2010; Shamim, 2008), the present study suggests that the availability of English teaching resources resulting from globalisation contributed to the PSTs’ prominent use of English The overwhelming position of English on the internet strongly links to language practices in many countries (Liddicoat, 2009; Maurais, 2003) Notwithstanding a lack of print materials and textbooks, which would seem to be an obstruction to EMI implementation in Vietnam, internet-generated materials have accelerated both the process of globalisation and the facilitation of EMI These findings may prompt EMI policy makers and planners to provide teachers with more relevant resources and facilities for classroom use The findings also highlight the importance of the specially designed TE Downloaded by [Aston University] at 11:23 19 January 2014 Current Issues in Language Planning 67 programme in creating an EMI context, shaping the PSTs’ ways of thinking endemic to EMI practices, to use Grossman et al.’s (1999) terminology Furthermore, this study reveals how the Vietnamese university’s internationalisation orientation indirectly affected PST practice Global impacts seemed to infiltrate the university’s response to both globalisation and the national development requirement for high quality personnel The response was manifested in the establishment of the fast-track TE programme itself, the employment of the overseas-trained lecturers, the special EMI framework and facilities supporting the TE programme, and the university’s adherence to regional and global standards systems This finding is supported by research in the field that views internationalisation and globalisation as a driving force in many instances of medium of instruction (Baldauf, 2012; Hazelkorn, 2009; Healey, 2008) The present research also extends the findings of previous studies on the community’s influence on teachers’ medium of instruction practices Extant research (Baldauf, Kaplan, & Kamwangamalu, 2010; Hsieh, 2010) highlights the roles of parents and educators in schools’ adoption of English medium education in response to economic globalisation The findings of this study show that apart from the PSTs’ lecturers, their part-time employers and private students played roles in their decisions about classroom delivery of English This implies that the voices of these stakeholders should be considered in EMI planning and practices In Vietnam, although the role of English in the school curricula and policy implementation at primary and secondary levels has been increasingly documented (Do, 2006; Nguyen, 2011; Nguyen & Nguyen, 2007), the growing use of EMI in higher education is largely unexamined One such attempt to research EMI in higher education in Vietnam by Le (2012), using document analysis, concludes that although EMI proposed at higher education institutions in Vietnam is viewed as a wise response to globalisation and socio-economic and political requirements of the nation, its implementation overall is far from satisfactory The empirical study reported in this paper suggests that outcomes, as understood from teachers’ perspectives, could be different, probably because of the distinct features of the TE programme discussed here Further, the study highlights the role of teacher agency in shaping teaching practices in a higher education context in Vietnam The PSTs’ practices were mediated by direct global effects and also global/national/local effects, i.e global effects refracted through national development requirements and local responses The PSTs’ sense of agency played an important role in their appropriation of English into local practices As Vygotsky (1978) noted, the relation between humans and environment is a dialectical relationship Humans, through their interactions, both shape and are shaped by the environment In this case, although their teaching practices were largely driven by global elements in their teaching resources, the internationalisation of education, and social and community pressure, the PSTs themselves exercised choice and discretion in their everyday teaching practices For example, as illustrated in Thanh’s powerful story described earlier, she contemplated, ‘I realized that it was good not only for our students but also for me … Gradually, it built up a skill That experience has been influential in my teaching practice’ Another example is Minh’s story: ‘If they [the students] don’t understand something, I try to use simple English If they still can’t get it, I switch to Vietnamese’ While appropriating English use in class as a pedagogical tool, the PSTs were active agents with autonomy in adapting it appropriately in their local practices The study shows the strong presence of the PSTs’ agency at the microgenetic level of individual decisions, consistent with Baldauf’s (2012) observation that ‘the issue of agency … increasingly is seen to be centrally important’ (p 237) in language-in-education Downloaded by [Aston University] at 11:23 19 January 2014 68 Dang T.K.A et al planning As the finding suggests, the PSTs had the potential to take transformative roles in their teaching practices In the EMI TE programme the PSTs had autonomy to design a syllabus and learning materials that addressed their students’ needs Against this backdrop, the PSTs as active agents went directly to the globally generated artefacts, as illustrated in the findings The study has explained how globalisation entered the classroom in the microgenetic domain through the mediating roles of the PSTs, via both their ontogenesis and their practices in the microgenetic domain The finding reflects Vygotsky’s (1981b) notion of genetic development and Appadurai’s (1996) emphases on the subject’s agency and global imagination The finding implies the reconsideration of teachers’ roles in EMI enactment Teachers indeed have the power to influence language change (Zhao & Baldauf, 2012), so it is all the more reason to provide PSTs with adequate support and quality TE programmes The paper has argued that the PSTs’ practices were shaped by global forces manifest in social and community pressure, the internationalisation of education, and the availability of teaching resources The PSTs’ prominent use of English in their classes was subject to broader globally inflected socio-cultural contextual factors, infiltrating the TE programme and the PSTs’ ontogenesis, rather than primarily driven by official national language policy The finding supports Ferguson’s (2006) argument which ‘highlight[s] the limited ability of language planning at state or even supranational level to contain the spread of English when this runs counter to popular perceptions of what enhances individuals’ linguistic capital’ (p 123) Yet here state policy overall was not inconsistent with, and facilitated as an exception, the TE programme’s response to globalisation The incorporation of global English into this Vietnamese educational context was ‘not a “natural” effect of globalisation, but mediated by observable macro-meso-micro interactions in glonacal settings’ (Dang & Marginson, 2012, p 15) The adoption of English, as indicated by the PSTs, may serve the national economic interests, resulting from the Vietnamese university’s strategy of selective internationalisation, targeting the talented students At the same time it raised the question of whether EMI might displace national language and cultural identity (The Observatory on Borderless Higher Education, 2007) The findings of this study suggest the answer is unclear and the issue is complex As illustrated, the teachers embraced ‘globalized’ ideologies Phuc, for instance, revealed a new ideal self (‘I want my class to be like that’) referring to her exposure to classes by the English native speakers at the British Council Lien promoted an English cultural environment so ‘we can understand not only their language but also their lifestyles’ This phenomenon does not necessarily mean that national identity or Vietnamese language could be displaced by global effects As noted, the PSTs’ ontogenesis revealed a strong national cultural dimension, manifest in their choice of a teaching career As Marginson and Rhoades’ (2002) glonacal heuristic suggests, global, national and local flows coexist simultaneously in glonacal settings In the present study, the process of how globalisation affected the PSTs’ teaching practices was examined, using a combined theoretical framework of Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory and Marginson and Rhoades’ glonacal heuristic This framework enabled the study to explain, rather than simply describe, the PSTs’ practices at the microgenetic level The interactions of global, national, and local facets of globalisation were readily detected in the data The findings support the point that ‘locality is not just the end point of topdown directives, but also the genesis of bottom-up initiatives, which cumulatively and over time transform traditional flows and frameworks of decision making’ (Ramanathan & Morgan, 2007, p 459) With its utility in exploring the process of how globalisation affects the PSTs’ teaching practices in the Vietnamese context, the combined theoretical Current Issues in Language Planning 69 framework responds to Baldauf’s (2012) call for ‘adequate theorization for a framework for language policy and planning studies’ (p 236) This framework has the potential to open up new lines of inquiry for research into language planning and policy in an increasingly globalised world Notes on contributors Dang Thi Kim Anh is a lecturer at Vietnam National University, Hanoi, and a PhD candidate at the University of Melbourne She has extensive experience in TESOL teacher education, adult education, and educational leadership Her research interests include teacher education, language education, educational leadership, globalisation in education, and indigenous education Downloaded by [Aston University] at 11:23 19 January 2014 Hoa Thi Mai Nguyen (PhD, The University of Queensland), is a research fellow at the University of Sydney She has experience teaching TESOL and training pre-service and in-service teachers Her ongoing research interests have been in the areas of TESOL, language planning and policy, and teacher education Truc Thi Thanh Le is 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(2010) The impact of globalisation on foreign language education policy in Taiwan: Policy initiatives and industrial demand The International Journal of Educational and Psychological Assessment,