VNU Joum al of Science, S o đ al Sciences and H um anities 24, No.SE (2010) 18-23 East Asian regionalism from Neo-realist perspective Pham Van Min* Colỉege o f Socìal Sciences and Humanities, VNU 336 Nguy en Trai, Thanh Xuan, Hanoi, Vietnam R e c e iv e d 17 N o v e m b e r 0 A b s ỉ r a c ỉ T h is p a p c r is to te st so m e b a s ic N e o -re a lis t e x p la n a tio n s fo r rc g io n a lis m b y ta k in g a case study of East Asian r e g i o n a l i s m emerging a t the end o f lh Century and the b e g i n n i n g o f sl Century In detail, four basic Neo-realist standpoints vvith regard to rcgionalisni will be tested: a) re g io n a lis m is in ílu e n c e d b y in te m a tio n a l sy stem , b ) re g io n a l g ro u p in g is in rc sp o n se to ex te rn a l c h a l l c n g e s o r t h r e a t s , c ) s m a l ỉ e r s ta tc s s e e k r e g i o n a l c o o p c r a t i o n \v ith t h e s t r o n g i n t h e h o p e th a t regional inslitutions vvill help thenì constraint it from ĩreedom o f action , and d) the hegemon has a roỉe in promoting regionalism The paper íỉnds that even though Neo-realism is unable to provide a c o m p re h e n siv c in tc rp re ta tio n , it h a s p ro v id e d so m e im p o rta n t c x p la n a tio n s for E a st A sian re g io n a lism A p p ly in g N c o -re a lis m to e x p la in E ast A sia n re g io n a lis m as an In tern a tio n a l p h e n o m e n o n h a s n o t o n ly lc s te d its re ỉe v a n c e a n d h e lp c d lo b c tte r u n d e rs ta n d it b u t a ls o in v ite d e x p la n a tio n s fro m o th e r th e o rie s to re g io n a lism K eyw ords: N c o -re a lism , E a st A s ia n R eg io n a lism from theoretical perspectives In the sam e vein, this paper is an effort to look at East Asian rcgionalism from N co-rcalist pcrspectivc in order to test its basic explanations for regionalism In dctail, thc following Neorealist argum cnts are tested: a) thc influence ol intem ational system on regional cooperation b) regionalism as a response to extemal challenges or threats, c) sm all states seek coopcration w ith the strong in order to constrain it from íreedom o f aclion through regional institutions and d) the role o f the hegcm on in prom oting regionalism The papcr íĩnds that N co-realism has provided important explanations for rcgionalism in East Asia, though they are not absolutely comprehensive A pplying N eo-rcalism to East Asian regionalism has not only tested its relevance to The resurgencc o f regionalism (in this paper, regionalism is understood as regional cooperaỉion and thcy arc used interchar.geably) at the cnd o f the 20th C entury and in the beginning o f the 21sỉ C entury is one o f the most important changes in intemational system East Asian regionalism took root in the same context The position and role o f East Asian regionalism have brought up an idea o f the tripartitc world o f \Vestem Europe, North America and East Asia [1] East Asian regionalism has dravvn much attention from academic community and policy-m akers both inside and outsidc the region M any have been interested in explaining this trend in East Asia 'T e l.: 84-4-38583798 E-mail: m in@ ussh.edu.vn 18 p v M in / VNU ịournnì of Science, Social Sciences and Humanitừs 25, No 5E (2009) 18-23 19 regional cooperation as an I n te r n a t i o n a l phenom enon and hclpcd to bettcr undcrstand East Asian regionalism but also pointed out sonic aspccts o f regional cooperation that invitc explanations from other theories the Cold W ar madc thc U nited States become the superpovver in thc w orld and the bipolar world ordcr replaccd by thc unipolar order Thesc changcs havc “destroyed thc foundations o f thc prcexisting regional order Based on thc theory o f Rcalism, Neorcalisni cm phasizcs the structure of intem ational system Thcrclbre, Nco-rcalism is not considcred as a ncvv linc o f theory but it is thc systemization o f Rcalism [2J A ccording to Neo-rcalism, intem ational systcm is rcgardcd as anarchical and I n t e r n a t i o n a l cooperation is rejected The dcvelopm cnt o f rcgional coopcration seems to posc a challcnge to both Rcalism and N co-realism H owever, Nco- a n d t h c í o r e i g n p o l i c i e s o f e v c r y S ta te in E a s t rcalism can tcll us scvcral important things about regionalism or regional cooperation Firstly, N eo-realism holds that rcgionalism is very much iníluenccd by intcm ational structure In thc w ords o f Hurrell, regional cooperation is iníluenced by thc “extem al c o n fig u tio n s o f p o w e r, th e d y n a m ic s o f povvcr-political com petition, and the conslraining role o f thc International political system considercd as a vvhole” [3] Accordingly, regionalism can bc undcrstood b y c o n s id c r in g th e i n íl u c n c c o f International system on thc rcgion N co-rcalists adducc the increase o f intem ational coopcration in the world aftcr the Cold W ar to illustrate thcir point At the end o f thc Cold W ar, therc was a rise in regional coopcration in many places in the w orld such as the expansion o f the European Union, the dcvelopm ent o f rcgional cooperation in North A m erica and Africa So vvhat w a s th e c h a n g e ( s ) in In te rn atio n a l sy stc m at the end o f thc 20lh C entury and in the bcginning o f the 2151 C cntury that ìnílucnced on East A sian regionalism ? In term o f sccurity, the collapse o f the Soviet Union and the cnd o f the Cold W ar were m ajor íactors prom oting regional cooperation in East Asia The end o f A sia" [4| During the C old W ar, regional strategic com pctition was driven by the struggle betw een the U nited States and thc Soviet Union, rcgional division and security concem s were clcarly visible to every country in the region Econom ically, East Asia was greatly challcngcd by m ajor changes in intcm ational trade ordcr Thcre w as a change in global tradc principle o f non-discrimination Regional coopcration in many com ers o f the w orld has favored its rcgional m em bcrs in w orld m arket com petition East Asian countries had to com pete vvith their rivalries from W estem Europe and North America who have inany advantagcs from their regional cooperation A t the samc tim e, therc werc also transitions insidc East A sian countries that led to transitions in regional order at the end o f 20* Century In thc cnd o f the Cold W ar, Japan became an cconom ic pow er that surpassed m any W estem cou n tn cs and became a com petitor o f the U nited States in the world markct Sim ilarly, China recorded many great achievem ents in its opcn-door policy The economic grow th helpcd both Japan and China to increase thcir m ilitary expenses Russia, though not as strong as thc Sovict Union, vvas still able to iníluence on the rcgion and was the param ctcr in policies o f regional countries In addition, othcr regional countrics such as Korea, T hailand and Indonesia bccame more and m ore important voices in ihe region All o f these changes have iníluenced on East Asian regional ordcr and sccurity and on regional countries’ policies tow ards their ovvn national interests In fact, thcrc was a trcnd in regional countrics’ policics that cncouragcd regional 20 p.v M in / VN U Ịournaỉ o f Science, Soãal Sàences and Humanities 25, No 5F (2(H)9) 18-23 cooperation and security For cxample, V ietnam bccam c morc active in regional cooperation to becom c the 7lh membcr o f A ssociation o f Southeast Asian Nations (A SEA N ), a m cm bcr of Asia-Pacific Econom ic C oopcration (A PEC ) or promotcd its relationship with rcgional countries In a n u t s h e l l , the transitions in I n t e r n a t io n a l system w hich w ere exem pliíicd by thc collapse o f the Soviet U nion, thc cnd o f thc Cold W ar and o f the bipolar w orld ordcr strongly cncouraged East A sian rcgional coopcration In other w ords, I n t e r n a t i o n a l structure played an in im portant rolc in East A sian regionalism as N co-rcalists arguc A nother argum cnt o f Nco-realism is that regionalism is a response to cxtcm al challenges or thrcats which one smgle country can nol dcal w ith, and thcrc is no signilìcant diffcrcncc bctw ccn rcgional coopcration in econom ics or politics [4, p.340] In facc with extcm al challcnges or thrcats, states are inclined to cooperatc w ith othcrs even though it will producc intcrdcpcndencc am ong them N eo-realists add that the more extem al challcngcs or thrcats, the m orc states coopcrate [5, p.325) N co-rcalists can trace histor.cal evidcncc to support thcir argumcnts For ìnstancc, ihc ìnccption o f rcgional coopcration in VVcstcm r-urope in thc hcginning o f the C old W ar w as considcrcd as a response to the threat from thc Soviet U nion or the G u lf C oopcration C ouncil was cstablished in response to the thrcat from Iran In the case o f East Asia, rcgional coopcration emcrged in the context o f thc rcsurgcncc o f regionalism in many placcs in Ihc \vorld European Union was expanded by adm itting ncw m embcrs from Eastcm Europe and became the most integratcd rcgion in the world At the same tim e, thc U nited States promoted the establishm cnt o f thc North American Free Tradc A rca (N A IT A ) In Aírica, United A lrican O rg an i/atio n w as upgraded to become A írican U nion which took E uropean U nion as a m odel for its developm ent T he rcsurgcnce of rcgionalism m adc East A sian countries avvare o f challenges in com pctition vvith othcr regions in the w orld O thcr challcngcs w cre revcalcd in thc ncgotiatiơns o f W TO U ruguay and Doha rounds Im tially, M alaysia proposcd to sct up East A sian Econom ic G roup as a “pressurc group w ithin thc U ruguay R ound" and a voice o f its m em b crs’ intcrcsts (G ricco 1997: 168) East A sian countrics had to raise th cir one voice to protcct thcir national m terests with regard to agricultural subsidics in the Doha negotiations 'ITìc U ruguay and Doha negotiations pressed East A sian countries to set up a regional inslitulion that can raise a voice for thc vvholc rcgion in íuture negotiations Such an institution vvill be a com m on voicc for the w holc rcgion and increase its position in intem ational agenda [7, p.56) A nothcr cxam plc o f cxtcrnal challcnges w as A sian cconom ic crisis in 1997 The crisis has not only rcvealcd the Nvcakness o f AsiaPacific lỉconom ic C oopcration (A PE C ) and A SEA N but also shovved prcssurcs from In te rn a tio n a l monc»a»7 institutions s u c h a s the International M onetary I:und (1MF), the World B ank (W B ) and \V cstem govcm m ents Stubbs [8, p.48) providcs that “the International M onetary Fund (IM F), in conjunction with the U.S governm ent initially m isdiagnosed the problcm [o f A sian cconom ic crisis] and chose to im posc a sct o f solulions that only served to exacerbate thc situation" T his has brought East A sian countrics closcr togcther It is a m atter o f fact that rcgionalism in East Asia em erged in the contcxt o f thosc changes in the w orld; thcrclorc, it is considered as a “reactive regionalism " All o f aibrem cntioned changes in intem ational systcm at thc cnd o f 20lh C entury and the bcginning o f the 2151 Ccntury have served as convincing cvidence for Nco- p V M in / VNU Ịournaì o f Science, Socinl Sciences and Humanities 25, No 5E (2(X)9) ĩ 8-23 realist argument thai East A sian rcgionalism was a response to cxtcm al challenges and threats Thirdly, N eo-rcalism holds that sm aller states will seek a rcgional arrangem ent with the strong in thc hope that rcgional institutions svill cnable them to conslrain it from freedom DÍ' action [9, p.169) T he crcation o f European Community in thc cffort to restrict G crm any served as historical evidencc for this N eorealist vievvpoint As H w ec points out, “ the sm aller ASEAN states havc com c to rccognize the potcntial o f using rcgionalism as a m eans to constrain the potcntially disruptive cffccts o f unequal pov/er” [10, p.6) In com parison, each ASEAN State is sm allcr than any o f three Northeast Asian countries o f C hina, Japan and Korea Among thosc, China has thc m ost potential eỉĩects even though som c may arguc !hat it is Japan, not China [11] C hina was ihc dialogue partncr o f ASEAN in 1991 In the ĩarly 1990s, ASEỈAN prom otcd its rclationship iVith China by sctting up tìvc dialogues in Dolitics, Science, tcchnology, cconom ics and rade China parlicipatcd in A R F and A SE M in 1994 and 1996 respcctively, and it also )articipatcd in thc M ckong R iver Basin Developmcnt w ith ASBAN countries rogethcr with Japan and Korca, C h in a joined n ASEAN + in 1997 In som c certain extern, \S E A N succccdcd in cngaging C hina into egional c o o p c tio n and institutions For ĩxample, China signcđ thc Z one o f Peace, :reedom and N cutrality D cclaration ZO PFA N ) in 2001, thc Trcaty o f A m ity and Tooperation (T A C ) in 2003 A SE A N was ictive in vvorking w ith C hina to set up VSEAN-China Expcrl G roup on Econom ic "ooperation (A C EG E C ) in preparation for VSEAN-China Free Trade A rea These VSEAN efforts show that it is n o t a oincidence that A SEA N strcngthcned their elationship w ith C hina while C hina becom es 21 stronger In fact, ASEAN w as succcssful in constraining China One cxam ple vvas the incident o f M ischicf Rccf, in w hich the Philippines Foreign M inister, Romulo, expressed that “ ASEAN had spoken vvith voice and Chincsc sidc vvas undoubtedly taken aback by ASEANTs reactions” ([12, p 112] A SEA N succeeded in tum ing bilateral disputes into m ultilateral oncs and reducing the assertiveness o f China [13] In addition, A SE A N alw ays trics to m aintain its position as a d n v in g forcc in any regional institutions for its ow n intcrcsts And because o f this, many hold that East A sian rcgionalism is A SEA N ized [14] It is o f coursc that China has its ow n interests in rclationship w ith ASEAN but abovc analysis shows that A SEA N has prom otcd its cooperation vvith China in the effort to constrain it from ữ eed o m o f action Up to this point, Nco-rcalism is dcfinitely right to argue that sm aller states scck cooperation w ith the strong in order to constrain it from íreedom o f action by using rcgional institutions Last but not lcast, N co-rcalism sharcs the assum ption o f thc Theory o f H cgcm onic Stability w hich argucs that the hegem on takes an im portant rolc in regional cooperation To support their argum cnts, N co-rcalists adduce the role o f Britain in thc mid o f the 19^ C entury in prom oting intcm ational trade and that o f the U.S with its M arshall Plan in W estem Huropcan coopcration at the beginning o f the Cold W ar The cnd o f the C old W ar and thc collapsc o f thc Soviet U nion m ade the u s a supcrpow er in intem ational system Hovvcvcr, thc rolc and iníluence o f the u s in East A sian regionalism w as different from that o f the u.s in W cstem European regionalism afìcr the second W orld War A ccording to Becson [15], “ A m erican pow er has also becn im portant in East A sia, too, but East A sian regionalism has m ove ahead 22 p.v M in / VNU Ịoum al of Science Sociaì Sciences and Hunumities 25, No 5E (2009) 18-23 despite, rathcr than bccause of, American efforts” The u s launchcd thc M arshall Plan to support W estem Iỉuropcan regionalism but it disfavorcd all initialives and efforts to promotc Easl Asian regionalism Firstly, therc was no indication o f the U.S objection to the initiative o f thc íorm er M alaysian Primc Minister, Dr M ahathir M ohamad, to set up East Asian lìconom ic Group (EA EG ) but Japan rcíuscd participation out o f its loyalty to the U.S T his adđcd to make EA EG untruc For the U.S., if Ít could bc rcalizcd, EAEG would rcduce thc inílucnce o f the U.S in thc region [7, p.59) Although somc East A sian countnes proposed East Asian Economic C aucus ìnstead o f EAEG, onc institution for East Asian regional coopcration w as íìnally a stillbom ìdea Secondly, the U.S objected Jap an ’s proposal to establish Asian M onetary Fund (AM F - financcd and managed by East Asian countries indepcndently from thc 1MF) to help East Asian countrics in thc A sian cconomic crisis in 1997 T his vvas because the U.S foresaw thc potcntial ihat A M F \vould undermine othcr International financial ìnstitutions such as the IMF and the W orld Bank in w hich thc ư.s plays a dom inant role [16, p.108) Thirdly, thc U.S disfavorcd the inception o f ASIÌAN + w hich was designed to promote East A sian regionalism In thc eyes o f the U.S., ASEAN + will not only underminc or thrcat the system o f the u s bilatcral relations w ith rcgional allics but also may crcate an anti-A m erican bloc both econom ically and polilically M orcover, ASEAN + can vvork as a tool for C hina to place its inílucncc in Iỉast Asia The U.S had taken its bilateral rclations w ith rcgional allies to make thcni rcluctant to any proposal or initiative to prom ote East A sian regionalism For its own interests, the U.S m aintaincd its negative attitudcs tovvards and prevented East Asian regionalism In spite o f thc u s disfavors and objections, East Asiai regionalism still cvolvcd, m oved íorvvard an< rccordcd som c significant achievcm cnts Ironically, somc rcscarchcs have shovvn that i is thc u.s disíavors and objcctions, especialb in 1997 Asian econom ic crisis, that promotct East Asian regionalism [17] T he analysis o f thc U.S role and influenc< on East Asian rcgionalism show s that Nco rcalist argum cnt o f thc hcgem on is relevant t( rcgional coopcration T he u.s objection tc EAEG, to the Jap a n 's proposal o f Asiar M onctary Fund and its disfavor o f A SEAN + : havc greatly im pacted East A sian regionalism The U.S im pact w as in such a grcat extern tha somc say that East A sian rcgionalism can no bc undcrstood vvithout rcfcỉTÌng to the u s [18 p.257) H ow ever, it is critical to point out tha the U.S rolc and ìm pact led to thc devclopm ent o f regional coopcration in boứ Wcslcrn Europc and East Asia but it dic happcn in diffcrent w ay in East Asia, vvhich is a convcrse with N eo-reahst standpoint In a nutshell, N eo-rcalism has providcc important explanations for regional coopcration Some ot’ thcse cxplanations havc hccn tesỉed in thc casc study o f East Asiar regionalism The cnd o f thc C old War, thc brcak-up o f the Sovict Union, the replaccmcni of th c b ip o la r In te r n a tio n a l o rd c r by thc unipolar and m tcr-rcgional competition werc m ajor factors o f intem ational structurc contributed to prom oting East Asiar rcgionalism In addition, East A sian countries had to face vvith many cxternal challenges anc thrcals The expansion o f thc liuropcan Union thc birth o f African Union, the u s attempi tow ards Norlh A m erican Frce Trade Area anc thc pressurcs from W T O negotiations wer< m ajor challcnges that urged East Asian states to spcak onc voice for the whole region Apan from factors o f the intem ational structurc ASEAN sm allcr states wcre active in anc mamtained its driving force in cooperatior p.v M in / VN U Ịoumaỉ o f Science, Sociaỉ Sciences and Humanities 25, No 5E (2()í)9) 18-23 with bigger regional countries, cspccially China, in the hope that rcgional institutions vvill cnable them to constrain it from freedom o f action T hcse efforts o f A SEAN are definitcly in linc vvith N eo-realist argument Finally, thc u.s íactor in East Asian regionahsm vvas not com pletely relevant to their point o f vicvv but N eo-realists wcre right to em phasize the rolc and im pact o f the U.S in regional coopcration Applying one single theory to study regionalism alw ays leads to a one-sided ìntcrpretation As a m atter o f fact, East Asian rcgionalism has been affected in various dcgrees by m any extem al and intcrnal factors There have bccn stuđies that show the role o f othcr íactors on East Asian rcgionalism such as regional history, culture, society, oversea Chinese busincss nct\vork or Japancsc private coopcratcs [14] Howcver, applying Neorealism to East A sian regionalism , on the one hand, has helped to test its relevancc to onc phenom cnon in In te rn a tio n a l p o litic s a n d to understand it bcttcr On the other hand, this also invites explanations from other theorics for East A sian regionalism 23 C o o p cratio n International Studies Quarterỉy, V oỉ.41, N o (1 9 ) 321-340 S e c u n ty [6] G n e c o , M J., S y stem ic Sources o f V ariation in R cg io nal In stitutio nali/atio n in W estcm E uropc, East A sia and thc A m encas, in The Poỉỉticaỉ Econom y o f Regìonalism (M ansíicld E and M iln e r H c d s ) C o lu m b ia U n iv c rsity Press, N cw Y o rk , 1997 [7] N am , H K., A SEA N + M ultilatcral Co op cratio n: Issuos and Prospccts V ictnam N ational U n iv c rs ity -H o C h i M inh C it y Press (H ợ p tác đ a p h n g A S E A N + 3: v ấ n đc vả triển vọng N X B Đ H Q G TPHCiM ), 2008 [8] S tubbs, R., A SE A N Pỉus T hrcc: E m crging East Asian R cgionalism ? Asian Survey , V ol.42, N o (2 0 ) 440-455 [9] R avcnhill, J., A T hrcc B loc W orld? T h e Ncw East A sian R cgionalism International Relaíions o f the Asia-Pacựĩc , V oỉ.2(2002)167195 [10] Hvvcc, Y L., R calism and R eactive R e g io n alism : VVhcrc is E ast A sin Reg ionaỉism H cading? S ingapore U N ỈSC I Institulc Discussion Papers , o f International A ffairs, 0 , 1-14 [11] R oy, D.t H egem on o n thc h o ri/o n ? C hina's th rcat to E ast A sian sccurily, International Security, V ol.19, N o l(1 9 ) 149-168 [12] Storey, I J., C rccp in g A ssertivcncss: C hina, thc P h ilip p in cs and thc South C h in a S ca Disputc Journal o f International & Sírategic Affairs, V o l.2 , N o (1 9 ) 95-118 [13] S in g h , u B., M ajor Pow crs and thc S ccurity o f Southcast Asia, Strategic Anysis, Vol.xxiv, Rcícrcnccs N o , (2 0 ) [14] Liu, F K a n d R égnicr, p , Regionalism in Easí Asia: Paradigm shự iing? R outlcdgc C u r/o n , [1 ] B c rg stc n , F , T o w a rd s a T rip a rtite VVorld, The Ecotiomist 15 ,h J u ly 0 , W ashington 2000 [2 ] N y e , J s , N c o lib c h s m , R e vicvv: N co realism and Worl(i Politics , V o l.4 l, N o (1 8 )2 - [3 ] H u rre ll, A , E x p la in in g R c g io n a lism in VVorỉd thc R csu rg cn ce o f P o litic s , Review o f International Síudies f V o l.2 1(1 9 (3 -3 [4 ] R o ss , R , l£ast A s ia in T n sitio n : T o w a rd N c w R c g io n a l O rd cr M E S h a rp c, In c Ncvv Y o r k , 1995 [5 ] W c b c r, K f H ic rc h y T n sa c tio n am idst A n a rc h y : A C o sts A p p roach to International N cw Y o rk , 2003 [15] B ecson, M , R cth in k in g R cgionalism : Europc and East A s ia in C o m p arativc H istoncal Perspectivc, J o u m a ỉ o f European P olicy , V o l.1 , N o (2 0 ) 969-985 Public [16] Y ip, w K , P ro sp ccts for C lo scr E conom ic Integration in East A sia, Stanford Journaỉ o f East Asian A ffairs%1 (S p rin g ) (2 0 ) 106-111 [17] H iggott, R., 'rh e A sian E conom ic C risis: A S tudy in thc P olitics o f R cscntm ent, N e u Poỉitical Econom y , V o l.3 , N o 3(1998) 333-356 [ 18) B ecson, M , A S E A N Plus T hrcc and thc Risc o f R eactionary R cgionalism Contemporary Southeast A siay V ol.25, N o.2(2003) 251-268 ... cooperation as an I n te r n a t i o n a l phenom enon and hclpcd to bettcr undcrstand East Asian regionalism but also pointed out sonic aspccts o f regional cooperation that invitc explanations from. .. shovvn that i is thc u.s disíavors and objcctions, especialb in 1997 Asian econom ic crisis, that promotct East Asian regionalism [17] T he analysis o f thc U.S role and influenc< on East Asian. .. s attempi tow ards Norlh A m erican Frce Trade Area anc thc pressurcs from W T O negotiations wer< m ajor challcnges that urged East Asian states to spcak onc voice for the whole region Apan from