Methods toward a science of behavior and experience 10th edition ray test bank

Chapter – Introduction to the Methods of Science Chapter Outline Naturalistic Observation The Correlational Approach The Experimental Method Definitions in the Experimental Method Causation Exploratory Research Logic and Inference: The Detective Work of Science Validity Propositional Logic Scientific Observation: The Raw Data of Science Evaluating Scientific Research Communication in Science Chapter Overview Science is an extension of how we go about exploring the world Naturalistic observation involves observing and describing what occurs In the correlational approach, the scientist examines the association between variables; this method does not imply causality However, the experimental method allows the testing of cause and effect relationships by manipulating the independent variable and measuring its effect on the dependent variable Hypotheses are tested using experimental and control groups; the variables that are manipulated and measured should be operationally defined Scientists may also engage in exploratory research In testing hypotheses, science must rely on logic and inference There is particular interest in ensuring the validity of research; internal and external validity must be present in the experiment Logic, through inductive and deductive reasoning, plays an important role in ruling out alternative explanations Popper’s and Kuhn’s views of science have shaped how scientists go about asking and answering questions It is important to communicate to the scientific community the results of research that are accurate, capable of being replicated, and relevant to others Chapter Objectives Integrate these three important aspects of science: (1) idea, (2) experience, and (3) reorganization What are the strengths and weaknesses of naturalistic observation? Give an example of this type of study When would you use the correlational approach? What conclusion is justified? What is a positive correlation? How does it differ from a negative correlation? INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE 19 Describe the experimental method Why is it the most powerful design? Discuss the importance of operational definitions of variables Differentiate between the independent and dependent variables What is a confounding variable and how does it affect interpretation of the findings? Explain causation in terms of necessary and sufficient conditions What is the balance between internal and external validity in research? A scientist relies on both deductive and inductive logic in science Distinguish between these reasoning methods and evaluate when they are used in the scientific process 10 How does modus tollens apply to testing scientific theories? 11 How are scientists influenced by paradigms? Give examples of paradigm shifts 12 According to the text, what are the four ways to ensure the high quality of research? 13 Aristotle emphasized scientific inquiry and argument How they relate to communication of science? Teaching Points The chapter describes other methods developed to answer specific questions (e.g., singlecase approaches, qualitative methods) In fact, there are several single-case studies that many students might be familiar with and are worth reminding them of For instance, most introductory psychology courses discuss Phineas Gage as an illustration of the case study (http://www.deakin.edu.au/hmnbs/psychology/gagepage/) In addition, you might suggest that focus groups, commonly used in marketing research, are a type of qualitative method Perhaps some of your students have participated in focus groups sponsored by your institution The premise of naturalistic observation is very familiar to students Many of them have engaged in watching others in parks, airports, and the student union One of the famous examples of naturalistic observation is Jane Goodall’s work with chimpanzees Check out her website for more information One of the challenges in naturalistic observation is being unobtrusive Researches often come up with ingenious ways to deal with this issue For instance Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt and Hans Hass studied facial expressions using a film camera that would actually record events that were occurring to the side of the camera, not in front were the “lens” appeared to be 20 CHAPTER A problem area for students is in the use of the words positive and negative It is important to remind them that positive and negative, as in correlations, describe the direction of the relationship, not any type of value statement as in a good or bad correlation Students often have great difficulty distinguishing between the independent and the dependent variables as well as formulating operational definitions One helpful trick is to use “ICED” where the Independent variable is Cause and the Effect is the Dependent variable Offer lots of practice identifying variables and creating operational definitions A good starting place is to give students hypotheses to test:  It is harder to concentrate when there is loud music playing  People feel sad in rooms painted blue  Depression impairs memory  People recall more pleasant than unpleasant experiences when happy It is useful to have students know the pros and cons of each research method that is described For example, the naturalistic observation method is very good for studying natural behavior, but the researcher has no control over what happens Control is a strength of the experimental method, but control can make conditions artificial and hence unrealistic Teaching Activities Role of the Scientist The scientist plays a different role in each of the methods described in the chapter Use Handout 2-1 to help students identify those roles as well as to better understand the methods Doing Naturalistic Observation One effective way to illustrate the challenge inherent in naturalistic observation is to assign students the task of observing behavior in a public setting such as a cafeteria or park Inform them that they must simply describe what they observed Of course, they should operationally define the variables they are observing Many students will initially interpret and attribute the observed behavior to some cause Moreover, having students make these observations in pairs allows for a discussion of interrater reliability and may augment this activity Correlation in the Popular Media One of the most often-made mistakes regarding correlation is describing the relationship in terms of causality Scour the popular media for articles that use the term “correlation.” Have students examine these articles for direct or indirect references to causation INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE 21 Testing Old Wives’ Tales using the Experimental Method An effective way to help students better understand the experimental method is to test common sayings Ask students to select a saying and then to develop an experiment to test its validity Part of the task is to identify the independent and dependent variables, create operational definitions of variables, and to indicate the experimental and control groups Test a Memory Drug As a class, design a simple experiment to test a fictional memory drug Ask the students to identify the experimental group, control group, independent variable, dependent variable, placebo, and means of assigning subjects to groups Infomercials and the Scientific Method Record an infomercial and show it to your class Alternatively, visit a website that describes some of the products pitched on infomercials (see below) Have students evaluate the claims Discuss how they would go about testing the claims from a scientific approach Philosophy of Science: Sir Karl Popper (Falsification Approach) One helpful activity to teach falsification is to claim that photographs move when we don’t look at them The claim continues that people and objects return back to their original location as we observe the picture To emphasize the point, ask students to find a photograph in the textbook and then close the book Comment that the characters in the photograph are moving In unison, the students are to open up the book and look at the photograph and report what they see or don’t see Challenge students to develop a method to test this hypothesis, which appears to be untestable Philosophy of Science: Thomas Kuhn James Burke’s PBS series “Connections” can be helpful to illustrate how paradigm shifts and discoveries in one field “trigger” change in another field Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop http://www.wadsworth.com/ psychology_d/templates/student_resources/workshops/resch_wrk.html The Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop has a link entitled Experimental Methods that focuses on the types of variables that are present in experiments First, experimental methods are distinguished from non-experimental approaches Then, general types of variables are reviewed, including independent, dependent, and subject variables (as well as quantitative and categorical variables) The notion of confounds is introduced, and students are afforded practice with the provided research examples in recognizing and eliminating confounds Several examples also are provided to give students guidance on how to select levels of an independent variable 22 CHAPTER Internet Resources The Jane Goodall Institute (www.janegoodall.org) Jane Goodall represents an effective and worthwhile illustration of naturalistic observation The website describes her work and her current activism for chimpanzees and the environment Infomercials (www.infomercial.com) This site describes top selling infomercial products and is good fodder for practicing developing methods to test the product’s claims Especially intriguing are the exercise products that claim incredible health benefits The Karl Popper Web (http://www.tkpw.net/) Popper’s contributions to science are described on this website In addition, an email based open forum is offered to those who are interested in discussing Popper’s ideas Web Center for Social Research Methods (www.socialresearchmethods.net) Here there are some links to various useful resources pertaining to research methods The methods tutorials are especially beneficial for this chapter National Undergraduate Research Clearinghouse (http://www.webclearinghouse.net/) Undergraduate students often engage in research and produce scholarly works This site allows the user to search for research You may wish to use this site to search for examples of different types of methods The Fallacy Files (www.fallacyfiles.org) Given that the chapter speaks to the role of logic in science, it might be interesting to peruse this site for its collection of logical fallacies (e.g., the masked man fallacy, fourterm fallacy, and red herring) Suggested Readings Anderson, S.J., & Verplanck, W.S (1983) When walls speak What they say? Psychological Record, 3, 341-359 Arluke, A., Kutakoff, L., & Levin, J (1987) Are the times changing? An analysis of gender differences in sexual graffiti Sex Roles, 16, 1-7 Interesting research on the content of graffiti in public restrooms Cialdini, R B., & Kenrick, D.T (1976) Altruism as hedonism: A social development perspective on the relationship of negative mood and helping Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 907-914 INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE 23 Latane, B., & Darley, J.M (1968) Group inhibition of bystanders intervention in emergencies Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10, 215-221 Classic research on bystander behavior Levine, R V (1990, September-October) The pace of life American Scientist, pp 451-459 A summary of Levine's work on the pace of life across cities in the U.S and six other countries Explains the Pace of Life Index and how measurements were made by the researchers Research Activities for Students The goals of the research activities are to: (1) relate Chapter on an applied learning dimension, and (2) get students involved in research Altruism Research: Library Activity Go to the library and find two articles on altruism Answer the following questions separately for each: (a) How was altruism operationally defined? (b) Was the study conducted in the field or a laboratory? (c) Was the study correlational or experimental? (d) What were the author's conclusions? Comment on the generalizability of these findings See the Suggested Readings list for more on the subject of altruism and the generalizability of this issue (Cialdini & Kenrick, 1976) 2.Children and Shyness: Design your own research study Go to the library and find two research articles on shyness in children Through examination of the operational definitions and descriptions of shyness within the articles, identify five behaviors that you could observe in a naturalistic study of children on a school playground Finally, after researching this topic in the library, generate a hypothesis related to shyness Design a correlational or experimental study that tests this hypothesis Hypothesis checklist: Address the following issues a b c d e f 24 What is the independent variable? Is the independent variable manipulated by the investigator? What is the dependent variable? What outcome are you predicting? What relationship are you expecting between the variables? What types of conclusions will be appropriate? CHAPTER Pace of Life Research Naturalistic Observation Conduct a naturalistic observational study on the pace of life in your city Go to a shopping mall or the downtown center of business, and measure the following behaviors: (a) percentage of people wearing watches, (b) walking speed Begin by operationally defining how you will measure these variables Next, describe your procedure that is, how you will collect data Design a coding sheet for your observations that includes: (a) location, (b) date, (c) time of day you begin and end observation, (d) behaviors to be observed You may also be interested in demographic information like gender and age Be observant of patterns and trends Note any limitations Was it difficult to remain unobtrusive? Include graphs and tables to illustrate your findings Be prepared to discuss your findings in class See the Suggested Readings list for more on Levine's (l990) Pace of Life study Graffiti in Public Restrooms Design a Coding Sheet and Conduct a Naturalistic Study Design a coding sheet that will be used to conduct a naturalistic observation of graffiti content found in public restrooms The coding sheet should consist of simple categories (e.g., sexual versus non-sexual) and more complex categories (e.g., homosexual, heterosexual, and political) Identify the categories as column headings Observe several public restrooms for graffiti to collect data Mark the frequency of observations in each category Specify information about the setting (e.g., women's restroom on a university campus, etc.) Be prepared to discuss your observations in class Compare the findings of those who observed male versus female restrooms to determine if the graffiti content is similar in both settings Find two research articles that address this issue (See the suggested reading list) Media and Violence: Cause and Effect Research Activity Research online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed to find titles of scientific studies on media and violence What words other than cause and effect are used to imply a cause and effect? List three examples INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE 25 Handout 2-1 The Role of the Scientist Method Description Naturalistic Observation Correlational Approach Experimental method 26 CHAPTER The role of scientist TESTBANK MULTIPLE CHOICE A formally stated expectation concerning the outcome of an experiment is called: a a theory b induction c a hypothesis d empiricism ANS: C PTS: REF: Introduction If you learn about the world through observation and experimentation, you are relying upon: a a hypothesis b inference c deduction d empiricism ANS: D PTS: REF: Introduction A scientist will evaluate a hypothesis by using: a empiricism b a theory c naturalistic observation d exploratory research ANS: A PTS: REF: Introduction MSC: WWW If little is known about a psychological phenomenon, then is the most appropriate method to use to study it a the correlational approach b the experimental approach c the post hoc approach d naturalistic observation ANS: D PTS: REF: Introduction Professor Campbell is studying memory by using mathematical operations She is using: a a correlational approach b modeling c a post hoc approach d a retrospective approach ANS: B PTS: REF: Introduction A scientific approach that attempts to establish an artificial system which can produce behaviors similar to those observed in humans or other animals is called: a exploratory research b the correlational approach c the experimental method d modeling ANS: D PTS: REF: Introduction INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE 27 If we were interested in knowing whether early childhood experiences contributed to the later development of personality disorders, we would likely use: a the experimental method b exploratory research c naturalistic observation d the retrospective method ANS: D PTS: REF: Introduction Behavior is to experience as is to a correlational; experimental b experimental; qualitative c quantitative; qualitative d naturalistic; experimental ANS: C PTS: REF: Introduction MSC: WWW An approach that emphasizes the subjective aspects of experience uses: a qualitative methods b quantitative methods c the retrospective method d modeling ANS: A PTS: REF: Introduction 10 To engage in a scientific approach to the study of human behavior, we would use: a the experimental method b the correlational approach c naturalistic observation d any of these ANS: D PTS: REF: Introduction 11 In the approach, individuals are videotaped discussing a particular topic They then watch the video separately and comment on how they thought or felt during specific segments a naturalistic b quantitative c action-project d film interview ANS: C PTS: REF: Introduction 12 Dr Nathan wants to study how pythons behave in their native habitat He sets up hidden cameras in the rain forest to observe the snakes while he remains undetected Dr Nathan is using the method of conducting research a experimental b inferential c correlational d naturalistic observation ANS: D 28 PTS: REF: Naturalistic Observation CHAPTER 13 Which of the following best describes naturalistic observation? a You calculate internal and external validity b You look for an association between two variables c You just watch d You determine if there is a cause-and-effect relationship ANS: C MSC: WWW PTS: REF: Naturalistic Observation 14 If you wanted to study play behavior in preschool children, the ideal approach would most likely be: a modeling b naturalistic observation c the retrospective method d the experimental method ANS: B PTS: REF: Naturalistic Observation 15 In naturalistic observation, the experimenter , whereas in the experimental method, the experimenter a is passive; is active b is active; is passive c observes; does not observe d influences the participant's behavior; does not influence the participant's behavior ANS: A PTS: REF: Naturalistic Observation 16 Naturalistic observation tends to be: a theoretical rather than empirical b concerned with determining causes of behavior c descriptive rather than explanatory d deductive rather than inductive ANS: C PTS: REF: Naturalistic Observation 17 In naturalistic observation, the participant , whereas in the experimental method, the participant a is passive; is active b is restricted; is not restricted c is not restricted; is restricted d interacts with the experimenter; does not interact with the experimenter ANS: C PTS: REF: Naturalistic Observation 18 Tim is conducting naturalistic observation He finds that the behavior of his subjects changes when they notice his presence Which statement best describes this situation? a The situation is good since the manipulation of the independent variable was successful b The situation is good since that was the focus of the study c The situation is not good since Tim did not record his subjects' behavior d The situation is not good since Tim's behavior interfered with his subjects ANS: D MSC: WWW PTS: REF: Naturalistic Observation INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE 29 19 If we were interested in understanding the association between two variables, we would use: a the experimental method b naturalistic observation c the correlational approach d modeling ANS: C PTS: REF: The Correlational Approach 20 If we were interested in the relationship between caffeine and heart disease, our most likely approach would be: a naturalistic observation b the correlational approach c the experimental method d modeling ANS: B PTS: REF: The Correlational Approach 21 Which of the following questions would be most appropriately answered by the correlational method? a What is the most effective treatment for depression? b Why people tend to help in emergency situations if there are few eyewitnesses? c What can be done to help learning disabled students learn? d Does high school GPA predict college GPA? ANS: D PTS: REF: The Correlational Approach 22 Correlational research is: a concerned with how one variable influences another variable b concerned with whether one variable influences another variable c concerned with the degree to which one variable influences another variable d concerned with whether there is an association between two variables ANS: D MSC: WWW PTS: REF: The Correlational Approach 23 Eye color and intelligence are correlated a not b positively c negatively d sometimes ANS: D PTS: REF: The Correlational Approach 24 If we were to find that the correlation between eating high-fat food and heart attack was positive, we would conclude that: a eating high fat foods causes heart attack b eating lots of high fat food is associated with high incidence of heart attack c eating lots of high fat food is associated with low incidence of heart attack d people who have heart attacks not eat many foods with high fat content ANS: B 30 PTS: REF: The Correlational Approach CHAPTER 25 Consider this: As the price of gasoline drops, people drive more miles What type of correlation does this describe? a a positive correlation b a negative correlation c a perfect correlation d a confounding correlation ANS: B PTS: REF: The Correlational Approach 26 If we were to find that the correlation between height and anxiety was negative, we would predict that: a taller people would tend to be more anxious b shorter people would tend to be more anxious c shorter people would tend to be less anxious d height and anxiety are unrelated ANS: B PTS: REF: The Correlational Approach 27 An unspecified variable that may have influenced the two variables in a correlational study is called a: a positive correlation b predictor variable c third variable d negative correlation ANS: C PTS: REF: The Correlational Approach 28 If there is a low correlation between two variables, we can say that they are: a not causally related b probably confounded variables c causally related d both independent variables ANS: A PTS: REF: The Correlational Approach 29 When trying to determine the causal factors underlying behavior, we select an approach called: a the experimental method b the post hoc method c the correlational approach d naturalistic observation ANS: A PTS: REF: The Experimental Method 30 The group in an experiment that is getting the special treatment is called the: a correlational group b experimental group c control group d naturalistic group ANS: B MSC: WWW PTS: REF: The Experimental Method INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE 31 31 A psychologist wants to know if classical music enhances memory Subjects are assigned to two groups and instructed to study a list of 20 words One group listens to a Bach sonata and the other group hears popular music In this simple experiment the independent variable is: a the word list b subsequent recall on a memory test c music type d the amount of time each group studied ANS: C PTS: REF: The Experimental Method 32 The control group should be treated exactly like the experimental group, except for the: a dependent variable b confounding variables c factor being studied d level of measurement ANS: C PTS: REF: The Experimental Method 33 Operational definitions are used to specify: a dependent variables b independent variables c confounding variables d both independent and dependent variables ANS: D PTS: REF: The Experimental Method 34 The two types of operational definitions are: a inductive and deductive b measured and experimental c independent and dependent d structured and unstructured ANS: B PTS: REF: The Experimental Method 35 In an experimental design, the manipulated variable that is the presumed cause is called the and the behavior that is the presumed effect is called the a treatment; control b independent variable; dependent variable c independent variable; dependent variable d experimental variable; confound variable ANS: C PTS: REF: The Experimental Method 36 In the experimental method, the experimenter the independent variable, the dependent variable, and the confounding variables a manipulates; measures; eliminates b observes; manipulates; measures c measures; manipulates; eliminates d manipulates; measures; observes ANS: A 32 PTS: REF: The Experimental Method CHAPTER 37 Professor Zeeman has conducted experiments that suggest a new study technique can enhance memory However, the new technique does not work for students taking real classes The experimental finding: a lacks internal validity b lacks external validity c is not reliable d is probably due to chance ANS: B PTS: REF: The Experimental Method 38 The independent variable is: a affected by the dependent variable b not operationally defined c manipulated by the experimenter d measured ANS: C PTS: REF: The Experimental Method 39 The dependent variable is: a the treatment b manipulated by the experimenter c the cause of the behavior d affected by the treatment ANS: D PTS: REF: The Experimental Method 40 The treatment effect is measured as: a the difference between the experimental and control groups on the independent variable b the difference between the independent variable and the dependent variable c the difference between the scores of the experimental and control groups on the dependent variable d the difference between the independent variable and the confounding variables ANS: C MSC: WWW PTS: REF: The Experimental Method 41 The difference in magnitude between the control and the experimental groups on the dependent variable is called the: a treatment effect b independent effect c confound effect d dependent effect ANS: A PTS: REF: The Experimental Method 42 An experiment was conducted to test a new drug for anxiety What would be a good dependent variable for this experiment? a heart rate b the amount of drug given to each subject c score on a standardized anxiety test d heart rate and/or score on a standardized anxiety test ANS: D PTS: REF: The Experimental Method INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE 33 43 A recent experiment found that 7th graders who were taught math using a computer scored 25% higher on an exam than those 7th graders taught with the traditional lecture format What is the treatment effect? a how the students were taught math b those students who were taught with the computer c the 25% higher scores among those taught with the computer d those students who were taught with the traditional format ANS: C PTS: REF: The Experimental Method 44 Confounding variables are: a unintended dependent variables b unintended independent variables c unintended control variables d correctional rather than casual ANS: B PTS: REF: The Experimental Method 45 In an experiment to study the effects of caffeine on performance, an experimenter asked the male students in an introductory psychology class to drink two regular Pepsis before a test and the female students to drink two caffeine-free Pepsis She then compared performance of the two groups on the test A confounding variable in this study is: a whether participants had studied for the test b the type of drink c the gender of the participants d the amount of caffeine in the Pepsi ANS: C PTS: REF: The Experimental Method 46 A difference between the performance of an experimental and a control group may be caused by: a the independent variable b the dependent variable c a confounding variable d either the independent or a confounding variable ANS: D PTS: REF: The Experimental Method 47 To investigate the effects of alcohol on driving, an experimenter gave people different amounts of alcohol and then placed them in a driving simulator with instructions to press the brake whenever they saw a red light In this study, the independent variable was and the dependent variable was a whether they saw the red light; time taken to press brake b amount of alcohol; whether they saw the red light c whether they saw the red light; amount of alcohol d amount of alcohol; time taken to press brake ANS: D MSC: WWW 34 PTS: REF: The Experimental Method CHAPTER 48 To test the hypothesis, "Anxiety hurts performance," anxiety would be the variable and performance would be the variable a dependent; independent b independent; dependent c confounding; depending d independent; confounding ANS: B PTS: REF: The Experimental Method 49 In the hypothesis, "People feel more depressed in the winter," is the independent variable and is the dependent variable a season of the year; depression b depression; season of the year c depression; winter d people; depression ANS: A PTS: REF: The Experimental Method 50 In the hypothesis, "psychology majors with high grade point averages are excited during final exam week," is the independent variable a major b grade point average c time of the semester d excitement ANS: C PTS: REF: The Experimental Method 51 Giving one group of subjects an experimental treatment and then informally observing the effects without a control group is best described as: a correlational b exploratory c factorial d single-subject ANS: B PTS: REF: The Experimental Method 52 is the process by which we examine evidence and then use reason to reach a conclusion a Exploration b Inference c Empiricism d Validation ANS: B PTS: REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective 53 An experiment is internally valid if: a the outcome can be attributed to the independent variable only b the results generalize to other settings c the results may be attributed to either the independent variable or a confounding variable d the internal variables are operationally defined ANS: A PTS: REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE 35 54 An experiment is externally valid if: a the outcome can be attributed to the independent variable only b the results generalize to other settings c the results are attributed only to external variables d there are no alternative explanations of the findings ANS: B PTS: REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective 55 In conducting research, one should try to: a maximize internal validity and minimize external validity b minimize internal validity and maximize external validity c minimize both internal and external validity d maximize internal validity, external validity, or both, depending on the research questions ANS: D MSC: WWW PTS: REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective 56 Induction involves reasoning from: a data to theory b theory to data c premise to conclusion d hypotheses to outcomes ANS: A PTS: REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective 57 Deduction involves reasoning from: a data to theory b theory to concept c premise to conclusion d theory to data ANS: D PTS: REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective 58 If you reason that a false premise leads to a false consequent, you will have engaged in a(n) argument that is called a invalid; affirming the consequent b invalid; denying the antecedent c valid; denying the antecedent d valid; modus tollens ANS: B PTS: REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective 59 Confirmatory reasoning is to disconfirmatory reasoning as is to a modus ponens; modus tollens b antecedent; consequent c independent variable; dependent variable d consequent; antecedent ANS: A 36 PTS: REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective CHAPTER 60 Karl Popper's theory of science is consistent with: a modus tollens b disconfirmatory reasoning c both modus tollens and disconfirmatory reasoning d paradigm shift ANS: C PTS: REF: Box 2.2 61 According to Karl Popper, science should attempt to theories a prove b support c falsify d discard ANS: C PTS: REF: Box 2.2 62 The assertion that scientists should attempt to falsify theories is most closely associated with: a Karl Popper b Aristotle c Isaac Newton d Thomas Kuhn ANS: A PTS: REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective 63 A particular way of seeing the world is called a: a logical inference b construct c prediction d paradigm ANS: D MSC: WWW PTS: REF: Scientific Observation: The Raw 64 The notion that science advances through paradigm shifts is attributed to: a Karl Popper b Galileo c Thomas Kuhn d Isaac Newton ANS: C PTS: REF: Box 2.3 65 Conclusions in science should be viewed from the perspective of: a the scientist b the research participant c the witness d all of these ANS: D PTS: REF: Evaluating Scientific Research INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE 37 66 The example presented in the chapter regarding negative reinforcement reveals the importance of: a common words may have special meanings in science b negative correlations in research c falsification d paradigm shifts ANS: A PTS: REF: Communication in Science SHORT ANSWER What role does empiricism play in the methods of science? ANS: Answer not provided PTS: REF: Introduction In what way is a scientist like a child? ANS: Answer not provided PTS: REF: Introduction Contrast qualitative methods and quantitative methods ANS: Answer not provided PTS: REF: Introduction Contrast the naturalistic observation approach to science with the experimental method In what ways the two approaches differ? ANS: Answer not provided PTS: REF: Naturalistic Observation & The Experimental Method Describe the types of questions that would be appropriate for the correlational approach and experimental method ANS: Answer not provided PTS: 38 REF: Correlational Approach & The Experimental Method CHAPTER What are the limitations of the naturalistic observation and correlational approaches? ANS: Answer not provided PTS: REF: Naturalistic Observation & The Correlational Approach In the experimental method, what is the principal reason for using a control group? How does the control group differ from the experimental group? ANS: Answer not provided PTS: REF: The Experimental Method For each of the following hypotheses, identify the independent and dependent variables: a) b) c) d) e) People who are nervous perform poorly Reading speed decreases as word length increases Highly imaginable words are more memorable People sleep better if they read before going to bed Alcohol impairs judgment ANS: Answer not provided PTS: REF: The Experimental Method Describe an operational definition for the following variables: a) b) c) d) e) aggression love learning anxiety depression ANS: Answer not provided PTS: REF: The Experimental Method 10 Define internal and external validity In which situations does internal validity tend to be highest? In which situation does external validity tend to be highest? ANS: Answer not provided PTS: REF: Work of Science INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE 39 11 Why is treatment effect such an important consideration? What does it mean if treatment effect is small even if the independent variable is thought to have an effect? ANS: Answer not provided PTS: REF: Experimental Method 12 Distinguish between confirmatory reasoning and disconfirmatory reasoning According to Karl Popper, which is the more useful in science? ANS: Answer not provided PTS: REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective 13 What is modus tollens? How is it involved in science and why is it important? Which philosopher of science is most closely associated with the role of modus tollens in science? ANS: Answer not provided PTS: REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective 14 What is a paradigm and how is it important in the advancement of science, according to Thomas Kuhn? ANS: Answer not provided PTS: 40 REF: Scientific Observation: The Raw CHAPTER ... What would be a good dependent variable for this experiment? a heart rate b the amount of drug given to each subject c score on a standardized anxiety test d heart rate and/ or score on a standardized... Correlational Approach 27 An unspecified variable that may have influenced the two variables in a correlational study is called a: a positive correlation b predictor variable c third variable... eating high-fat food and heart attack was positive, we would conclude that: a eating high fat foods causes heart attack b eating lots of high fat food is associated with high incidence of heart