Natural Wastewater Treatment Systems Ronald W Crites Joe Middlebrooks Sherwood C Reed Boca Raton London New York Singapore A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC DK804X_Discl.fm Page Thursday, July 21, 2005 2:27 PM Published in 2006 by CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group No claim to original U.S Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 International Standard Book Number-10: 0-8493-3804-2 (Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8493-3804-5 (Hardcover) Library of Congress Card Number 2005041840 This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated A wide variety of references are listed Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc (CCC) 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400 CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Reed, Sherwood C Natural wastewater treatment systems / Sherwood C Reed, Ronald W Crites, E Joe Middlebrooks p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-8493-3804-2 (alk paper) Sewage Purification Biological treatment Sewage sludge Management I Crites, Ronald W II Middlebrooks, E Joe III Title TD755.R44 2005 628.3 dc22 2005041840 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com Taylor & Francis Group is the Academic Division of T&F Informa plc © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com DK804X_6C000.fm Page v Thursday, July 21, 2005 8:02 AM Dedication We dedicate this book to the memory of Sherwood C “Woody” Reed Woody was the inspiration for this book and spent his wastewater engineering career planning, designing, evaluating, reviewing, teaching, and advancing the technology and understanding of natural wastewater treatment systems Woody was the senior author of Natural Systems for Waste Management and Treatment, published in 1988, which introduced a rational basis for design of free water surface and subsurface flow constructed wetlands, reed beds for sludge treatment, and freezing for sludge dewatering Woody passed away in 2003 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC DK804X_6C000.fm Page vii Thursday, July 21, 2005 8:02 AM Preface Natural systems for the treatment and management of municipal and industrial wastewaters and residuals feature processes that use minimal energy and minimal or no chemicals, and they produce relatively lower amounts of residual solids This book is intended for the practicing engineers and scientists who are involved in the planning, design, construction, evaluation, and operation of wastewater management facilities The focus of the text is on wastewater management processes that provide passive treatment with a minimum of mechanical elements Use of these natural systems often results in sustainable systems because of the low operating requirements and a minimum of biosolids production Natural systems such as wetlands, sprinkler or drip irrigation, and groundwater recharge also result in water recycling and reuse The book is organized into ten chapters The first three chapters introduce the planning procedures and treatment mechanisms responsible for treatment in ponds, wetlands, land applications, and soil absorption systems Design criteria and methods of pond treatment and pond effluent upgrading are presented in Chapter and Chapter Constructed wetlands design procedures, process applications, and treatment performance data are described in Chapter and Chapter Land treatment concepts and design equations are described in Chapter Residuals and biosolids management are presented in Chapter A discussion of on-site wastewater management, including nitrogen removal pretreatment methods, is presented in Chapter 10 In all chapters, U.S customary and metric units are used © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC DK804X_6C000.fm Page ix Thursday, July 21, 2005 8:02 AM About the Authors Ronald W Crites is an Associate with Brown and Caldwell in Davis, California As the Natural Systems Service Leader, he consults on land treatment, water recycling and reuse, constructed wetlands, biosolids land application, decentralized wastewater treatment, and industrial wastewater land application systems He received his B.S degree in Civil Engineering from California State University in Chico and his M.S and Engineer’s degree in Sanitary Engineering from Stanford University He has 35 years of experience in wastewater treatment and reuse experience He has authored or coauthored over 150 technical publications, including six textbooks He is a registered civil engineer in California, Hawaii, and Oregon E Joe Middlebrooks is a consulting environmental engineer in Lafayette, Colorado He has been a college professor, a college administrator, researcher, and consultant He received his B.S and M.S degrees in Civil Engineering from the University of Florida and his Ph.D in Civil Engineering from Mississippi State University He has authored or coauthored 12 books and over 240 articles He has received numerous awards and is an internationally known expert in treatment pond systems Sherwood C Reed (1932–2003) was an environmental engineer who was a leader in the planning and design of constructed wetlands and land treatment systems He was the principal of Environmental Engineering Consultants (E.E.C.) He was a graduate of the University of Virginia (B.S.C.E., 1959) and the University of Alaska (M.S., 1968) and had a distinguished career with the U.S Army Corps of Engineers, during which he spent most of his time at the Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (CRREL) in Hanover, New Hampshire, where he retired after an extended period of service from 1962 to 1989 His peers voted him into the CRREL Hall of Fame in 1991 After his retirement, he continued to teach, write, and accept both private and public sector consulting assignments He was the author of four textbooks and over 100 technical articles © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC DK804X_6C000.fm Page xi Thursday, July 21, 2005 8:02 AM Table of Contents Chapter Natural Waste Treatment Systems: An Overview 1.1 Natural Treatment Processes .1 1.1.1 Background 1.1.2 Wastewater Treatment Concepts and Performance Expectations 1.1.2.1 Aquatic Treatment Units 1.1.2.2 Wetland Treatment Units .5 1.1.2.3 Terrestrial Treatment Methods .5 1.1.2.4 Sludge Management Concepts 1.1.2.5 Costs and Energy 1.2 Project Development References 10 Chapter 2.1 2.2 2.3 Planning, Feasibility Assessment, and Site Selection 11 Concept Evaluation 11 2.1.1 Information Needs and Sources 12 2.1.2 Land Area Required 14 2.1.2.1 Treatment Ponds 14 2.1.2.2 Free Water Surface Constructed Wetlands 15 2.1.2.3 Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetlands 16 2.1.2.4 Overland Flow Systems .16 2.1.2.5 Slow-Rate Systems 17 2.1.2.6 Soil Aquifer Treatment Systems 18 2.1.2.7 Land Area Comparison 18 2.1.2.8 Biosolids Systems 19 Site Identification 19 2.2.1 Site Screening Procedure 20 2.2.2 Climate 26 2.2.3 Flood Hazard .26 2.2.4 Water Rights 27 Site Evaluation 28 2.3.1 Soils Investigation .28 2.3.1.1 Soil Texture and Structure 30 2.3.1.2 Soil Chemistry .30 2.3.2 Infiltration and Permeability .33 2.3.2.1 Saturated Permeability 33 2.3.2.2 Infiltration Capacity .35 2.3.2.3 Porosity 35 2.3.2.4 Specific Yield and Specific Retention 35 2.3.2.5 Field Tests for Infiltration Rate 36 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC DK804X_6C000.fm Page xii Thursday, July 21, 2005 8:02 AM 2.3.3 Subsurface Permeability and Groundwater Flow .39 2.3.3.1 Buffer Zones 40 2.4 Site and Process Selection .41 References 41 Chapter 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 Basic Process Responses and Interactions 43 Water Management 43 3.1.1 Fundamental Relationships 43 3.1.1.1 Permeability 44 3.1.1.2 Groundwater Flow Velocity 45 3.1.1.3 Aquifer Transmissivity .45 3.1.1.4 Dispersion 45 3.1.1.5 Retardation 46 3.1.2 Movement of Pollutants 47 3.1.3 Groundwater Mounding 51 3.1.4 Underdrainage .58 Biodegradable Organics 60 3.2.1 Removal of BOD 60 3.2.2 Removal of Suspended Solids 61 Organic Priority Pollutants 62 3.3.1 Removal Methods .62 3.3.1.1 Volatilization 62 3.3.1.2 Adsorption 65 3.3.2 Removal Performance 69 3.3.3 Travel Time in Soils 70 Pathogens 71 3.4.1 Aquatic Systems 71 3.4.1.2 Bacteria and Virus Removal 71 3.4.2 Wetland Systems 73 3.4.3 Land Treatment Systems 75 3.4.3.1 Ground Surface Aspects 75 3.4.3.2 Groundwater Contamination 75 3.4.4 Sludge Systems 76 3.4.5 Aerosols .77 Metals .81 3.5.1 Aquatic Systems 82 3.5.2 Wetland Systems 84 3.5.3 Land Treatment Systems 84 Nutrients 86 3.6.1 Nitrogen .86 3.6.1.1 Pond Systems .87 3.6.1.2 Aquatic Systems 87 3.6.1.3 Wetland Systems 88 3.6.1.4 Land Treatment Systems 88 3.6.2 Phosphorus 88 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC DK804X_6C000.fm Page xiii Thursday, July 21, 2005 8:02 AM 3.6.3 Potassium and Other Micronutrients 90 3.6.3.1 Boron 91 3.6.3.2 Sulfur 91 3.6.3.3 Sodium 91 References 92 Chapter Design of Wastewater Pond Systems 95 4.1 Introduction 95 4.1.1 Trends 95 4.2 Facultative Ponds .96 4.2.1 Areal Loading Rate Method .97 4.2.2 Gloyna Method 99 4.2.3 Complete-Mix Model 101 4.2.4 Plug-Flow Model .102 4.2.5 Wehner–Wilhelm Equation .103 4.2.6 Comparison of Facultative Pond Design Models 107 4.3 Partial-Mix Aerated Ponds 109 4.3.1 Partial-Mix Design Model 110 4.3.1.1 Selection of Reaction Rate Constants .111 4.3.1.2 Influence of Number of Cells 111 4.3.1.3 Temperature Effects 112 4.3.2 Pond Configuration 112 4.3.3 Mixing and Aeration 113 4.4 Complete-Mix Aerated Pond Systems 123 4.4.1 Design Equations 124 4.4.1.1 Selection of Reaction Rate Constants .125 4.4.1.2 Influence of Number of Cells 125 4.4.1.3 Temperature Effects 126 4.4.2 Pond Configuration 126 4.4.3 Mixing and Aeration 127 4.5 Anaerobic Ponds 133 4.5.1 Introduction .133 4.5.2 Design 136 4.6 Controlled Discharge Pond System .140 4.7 Complete Retention Pond System .140 4.8 Hydrograph Controlled Release 140 4.9 High-Performance Aerated Pond Systems (Rich Design) 141 4.9.1 Performance Data 142 4.10 Proprietary Systems .144 4.10.1 Advanced Integrated Wastewater Pond Systems® 144 4.10.1.1 Hotchkiss, Colorado 146 4.10.1.2 Dove Creek, Colorado .147 4.10.2 BIOLAC® Process (Activated Sludge in Earthen Ponds) 149 4.10.2.1 BIOLAC® Processes 154 4.10.2.1.1 BIOLAC-R System 155 4.10.2.1.2 BIOLAC-L System 156 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC DK804X_6C000.fm Page xiv Thursday, July 21, 2005 8:02 AM 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.10.2.1.3 Wave-Oxidation© Modification 157 4.10.2.1.4 Other Applications 157 4.10.2.2 Unit Operations 159 4.10.2.2.1 Aeration Chains and Diffuser Assemblies 159 4.10.2.2.2 Blowers and Air Manifold 159 4.10.2.2.3 Clarification and Solids Handling 159 4.10.2.2.4 BIOLAC-L Settling Basin .160 4.10.2.3 Performance Data .160 4.10.2.4 Operational Problems .164 4.10.3 LEMNA Systems 164 4.10.3.1 Lemna Duckweed System 164 4.10.3.2 Performance Data .165 4.10.3.3 LemTec™ Biological Treatment Process 165 4.10.4 Las International, Ltd 171 4.10.5 Praxair, Inc 172 4.10.6 Ultrafiltration Membrane Filtration 172 Nitrogen Removal in Lagoons 172 4.11.1 Introduction .172 4.11.2 Facultative Systems 173 4.11.2.1 Theoretical Considerations 176 4.11.2.2 Design Models 178 4.11.2.3 Applications .181 4.11.2.4 Summary 181 4.11.3 Aerated Lagoons .182 4.11.3.1 Comparison of Equations 182 4.11.3.2 Summary 187 4.11.4 Pump Systems, Inc., Batch Study 188 4.11.5 Commercial Products .189 4.11.5.1 Add Solids Recycle 189 4.11.5.2 Convert to Sequencing Batch Reactor Operation .192 4.11.5.3 Install Biomass Carrier Elements 192 4.11.5.4 Commercial Lagoon Nitrification Systems .193 4.11.5.4.1 ATLAS-IS™ 193 4.11.5.4.2 CLEAR™ Process 193 4.11.5.4.3 Ashbrook SBR .194 4.11.5.4.4 AquaMat® Process 194 4.11.5.4.5 MBBR™ Process 196 4.11.5.5 Other Process Notes 196 4.11.5.6 Ultrafiltration Membrane Filtration 198 4.11.5.7 BIOLAC® Process (Parkson Corporation) .198 Modified High-Performance Aerated Pond Systems for Nitrification and Denitrification .199 Nitrogen Removal in Ponds Coupled with Wetlands and Gravel Bed Nitrification Filters 199 Control of Algae and Design of Settling Basins 200 Hydraulic Control of Ponds 200 Removal of Phosphorus .201 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC DK804X_6C000.fm Page xv Thursday, July 21, 2005 8:02 AM 4.16.1 Batch Chemical Treatment 202 4.16.2 Continuous-Overflow Chemical Treatment 202 References 203 Chapter Pond Modifications for Polishing Effluents .211 5.1 Solids Removal Methods .211 5.1.1 Introduction .211 5.1.2 Intermittent Sand Filtration .211 5.1.2.1 Summary of Performance 214 5.1.2.2 Operating Periods .215 5.1.2.3 Maintenance Requirements 215 5.1.2.4 Hydraulic Loading Rates 215 5.1.3.5 Design of Intermittent Sand Filters 215 5.1.3 Rock Filters .227 5.1.3.1 Performance of Rock Filters 228 5.1.3.2 Design of Rock Filters .230 5.1.4 Normal Granular Media Filtration 230 5.1.5 Coagulation–Flocculation 238 5.1.6 Dissolved-Air Flotation 239 5.2 Modifications and Additions to Typical Designs 243 5.2.1 Controlled Discharge 243 5.2.2 Hydrograph Controlled Release 245 5.2.3 Complete Retention Ponds 246 5.2.4 Autoflocculation and Phase Isolation .247 5.2.5 Baffles and Attached Growth 247 5.2.6 Land Application .248 5.2.7 Macrophyte and Animal Systems .248 5.2.7.1 Floating Plants 248 5.2.7.2 Submerged Plants .248 5.2.7.3 Daphnia and Brine Shrimp 248 5.2.7.4 Fish .249 5.2.8 Control of Algae Growth by Shading and Barley Straw 249 5.2.8.1 Dyes 249 5.2.8.2 Fabric Structures 249 5.2.8.3 Barley Straw .249 5.2.8.4 Lemna Systems 250 5.3 Performance Comparisons with Other Removal Methods 250 References 252 Chapter 6.1 6.2 Free Water Surface Constructed Wetlands .259 Process Description 259 Wetland Components .261 6.2.1 Types of Plants 261 6.2.2 Emergent Species 262 6.2.2.1 Cattail 262 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC