Natural Wastewater Treatment Systems - Chapter 1 ppt

Boca Raton London New York Singapore A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc. Natural Wastewater Treatment Systems Ronald W. Crites Joe Middlebrooks Sherwood C. Reed © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Published in 2006 by CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10987654321 International Standard Book Number-10: 0-8493-3804-2 (Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8493-3804-5 (Hardcover) Library of Congress Card Number 2005041840 This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC) 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Reed, Sherwood C. Natural wastewater treatment systems / Sherwood C. Reed, Ronald W. Crites, E. Joe Middlebrooks. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8493-3804-2 (alk. paper) 1. Sewage Purification Biological treatment. 2. Sewage sludge Management. I. Crites, Ronald W. II. Middlebrooks, E. Joe. III. Title. TD755.R44 2005 628.3 dc22 2005041840 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Taylor & Francis Group is the Academic Division of T&F Informa plc. DK804X_Discl.fm Page 1 Thursday, July 21, 2005 2:27 PM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Dedication We dedicate this book to the memory of Sherwood C. “Woody” Reed. Woody was the inspiration for this book and spent his wastewater engineering career planning, designing, evaluating, reviewing, teaching, and advancing the technol- ogy and understanding of natural wastewater treatment systems. Woody was the senior author of Natural Systems for Waste Management and Treatment , published in 1988, which introduced a rational basis for design of free water surface and subsurface flow constructed wetlands, reed beds for sludge treatment, and freezing for sludge dewatering. Woody passed away in 2003. DK804X_6C000.fm Page v Thursday, July 21, 2005 8:02 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Preface Natural systems for the treatment and management of municipal and industrial wastewaters and residuals feature processes that use minimal energy and minimal or no chemicals, and they produce relatively lower amounts of residual solids. This book is intended for the practicing engineers and scientists who are involved in the planning, design, construction, evaluation, and operation of wastewater management facilities. The focus of the text is on wastewater management processes that provide passive treatment with a minimum of mechanical elements. Use of these natural systems often results in sustainable systems because of the low operating require- ments and a minimum of biosolids production. Natural systems such as wetlands, sprinkler or drip irrigation, and groundwater recharge also result in water recy- cling and reuse. The book is organized into ten chapters. The first three chapters introduce the planning procedures and treatment mechanisms responsible for treatment in ponds, wetlands, land applications, and soil absorption systems. Design criteria and methods of pond treatment and pond effluent upgrading are presented in Chapter 4 and Chapter 5. Constructed wetlands design procedures, process appli- cations, and treatment performance data are described in Chapter 6 and Chapter 7. Land treatment concepts and design equations are described in Chapter 8. Residuals and biosolids management are presented in Chapter 9. A discussion of on-site wastewater management, including nitrogen removal pretreatment meth- ods, is presented in Chapter 10. In all chapters, U.S. customary and metric units are used. DK804X_6C000.fm Page vii Thursday, July 21, 2005 8:02 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC About the Authors Ronald W. Crites is an Associate with Brown and Caldwell in Davis, California. As the Natural Systems Service Leader, he consults on land treatment, water recycling and reuse, constructed wetlands, biosolids land application, decentral- ized wastewater treatment, and industrial wastewater land application systems. He received his B.S. degree in Civil Engineering from California State University in Chico and his M.S. and Engineer’s degree in Sanitary Engineering from Stanford University. He has 35 years of experience in wastewater treatment and reuse experience. He has authored or coauthored over 150 technical publications, including six textbooks. He is a registered civil engineer in California, Hawaii, and Oregon. E. Joe Middlebrooks is a consulting environmental engineer in Lafayette, Colorado. He has been a college professor, a college administrator, researcher, and consultant. He received his B.S. and M.S. degrees in Civil Engineering from the University of Florida and his Ph.D. in Civil Engineering from Mississippi State University. He has authored or coauthored 12 books and over 240 articles. He has received numerous awards and is an internationally known expert in treatment pond systems. Sherwood C. Reed (1932–2003) was an environmental engineer who was a leader in the planning and design of constructed wetlands and land treatment systems. He was the principal of Environmental Engineering Consultants (E.E.C.). He was a graduate of the University of Virginia (B.S.C.E., 1959) and the University of Alaska (M.S., 1968) and had a distinguished career with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, during which he spent most of his time at the Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (CRREL) in Hanover, New Hampshire, where he retired after an extended period of service from 1962 to 1989. His peers voted him into the CRREL Hall of Fame in 1991. After his retirement, he continued to teach, write, and accept both private and public sector consulting assignments. He was the author of four textbooks and over 100 tech- nical articles. DK804X_6C000.fm Page ix Thursday, July 21, 2005 8:02 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Table of Contents Chapter 1 Natural Waste Treatment Systems: An Overview 1 1.1 Natural Treatment Processes 1 1.1.1 Background 1 1.1.2 Wastewater Treatment Concepts and Performance Expectations 2 1.1.2.1 Aquatic Treatment Units 2 1.1.2.2 Wetland Treatment Units 5 1.1.2.3 Terrestrial Treatment Methods 5 1.1.2.4 Sludge Management Concepts 8 1.1.2.5 Costs and Energy 8 1.2 Project Development 9 References 10 Chapter 2 Planning, Feasibility Assessment, and Site Selection 11 2.1 Concept Evaluation 11 2.1.1 Information Needs and Sources 12 2.1.2 Land Area Required 14 2.1.2.1 Treatment Ponds 14 2.1.2.2 Free Water Surface Constructed Wetlands 15 2.1.2.3 Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetlands 16 2.1.2.4 Overland Flow Systems 16 2.1.2.5 Slow-Rate Systems 17 2.1.2.6 Soil Aquifer Treatment Systems 18 2.1.2.7 Land Area Comparison 18 2.1.2.8 Biosolids Systems 19 2.2 Site Identification 19 2.2.1 Site Screening Procedure 20 2.2.2 Climate 26 2.2.3 Flood Hazard 26 2.2.4 Water Rights 27 2.3 Site Evaluation 28 2.3.1 Soils Investigation 28 2.3.1.1 Soil Texture and Structure 30 2.3.1.2 Soil Chemistry 30 2.3.2 Infiltration and Permeability 33 2.3.2.1 Saturated Permeability 33 2.3.2.2 Infiltration Capacity 35 2.3.2.3 Porosity 35 2.3.2.4 Specific Yield and Specific Retention 35 2.3.2.5 Field Tests for Infiltration Rate 36 DK804X_6C000.fm Page xi Thursday, July 21, 2005 8:02 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 2.3.3 Subsurface Permeability and Groundwater Flow 39 2.3.3.1 Buffer Zones 40 2.4 Site and Process Selection 41 References 41 Chapter 3 Basic Process Responses and Interactions 43 3.1 Water Management 43 3.1.1 Fundamental Relationships 43 3.1.1.1 Permeability 44 3.1.1.2 Groundwater Flow Velocity 45 3.1.1.3 Aquifer Transmissivity 45 3.1.1.4 Dispersion 45 3.1.1.5 Retardation 46 3.1.2 Movement of Pollutants 47 3.1.3 Groundwater Mounding 51 3.1.4 Underdrainage 58 3.2 Biodegradable Organics 60 3.2.1 Removal of BOD 60 3.2.2 Removal of Suspended Solids 61 3.3 Organic Priority Pollutants 62 3.3.1 Removal Methods 62 3.3.1.1 Volatilization 62 3.3.1.2 Adsorption 65 3.3.2 Removal Performance 69 3.3.3 Travel Time in Soils 70 3.4 Pathogens 71 3.4.1 Aquatic Systems 71 3.4.1.2 Bacteria and Virus Removal 71 3.4.2 Wetland Systems 73 3.4.3 Land Treatment Systems 75 3.4.3.1 Ground Surface Aspects 75 3.4.3.2 Groundwater Contamination 75 3.4.4 Sludge Systems 76 3.4.5 Aerosols 77 3.5 Metals 81 3.5.1 Aquatic Systems 82 3.5.2 Wetland Systems 84 3.5.3 Land Treatment Systems 84 3.6 Nutrients 86 3.6.1 Nitrogen 86 3.6.1.1 Pond Systems 87 3.6.1.2 Aquatic Systems 87 3.6.1.3 Wetland Systems 88 3.6.1.4 Land Treatment Systems 88 3.6.2 Phosphorus 88 DK804X_6C000.fm Page xii Thursday, July 21, 2005 8:02 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 3.6.3 Potassium and Other Micronutrients 90 3.6.3.1 Boron 91 3.6.3.2 Sulfur 91 3.6.3.3 Sodium 91 References 92 Chapter 4 Design of Wastewater Pond Systems 95 4.1 Introduction 95 4.1.1 Trends 95 4.2 Facultative Ponds 96 4.2.1 Areal Loading Rate Method 97 4.2.2 Gloyna Method 99 4.2.3 Complete-Mix Model 101 4.2.4 Plug-Flow Model 102 4.2.5 Wehner–Wilhelm Equation 103 4.2.6 Comparison of Facultative Pond Design Models 107 4.3 Partial-Mix Aerated Ponds 109 4.3.1 Partial-Mix Design Model 110 4.3.1.1 Selection of Reaction Rate Constants 111 4.3.1.2 Influence of Number of Cells 111 4.3.1.3 Temperature Effects 112 4.3.2 Pond Configuration 112 4.3.3 Mixing and Aeration 113 4.4 Complete-Mix Aerated Pond Systems 123 4.4.1 Design Equations 124 4.4.1.1 Selection of Reaction Rate Constants 125 4.4.1.2 Influence of Number of Cells 125 4.4.1.3 Temperature Effects 126 4.4.2 Pond Configuration 126 4.4.3 Mixing and Aeration 127 4.5 Anaerobic Ponds 133 4.5.1 Introduction 133 4.5.2 Design 136 4.6 Controlled Discharge Pond System 140 4.7 Complete Retention Pond System 140 4.8 Hydrograph Controlled Release 140 4.9 High-Performance Aerated Pond Systems (Rich Design) 141 4.9.1 Performance Data 142 4.10 Proprietary Systems 144 4.10.1 Advanced Integrated Wastewater Pond Systems® 144 4.10.1.1 Hotchkiss, Colorado 146 4.10.1.2 Dove Creek, Colorado 147 4.10.2 BIOLAC ® Process (Activated Sludge in Earthen Ponds) 149 4.10.2.1 BIOLAC ® Processes 154 4.10.2.1.1 BIOLAC-R System 155 4.10.2.1.2 BIOLAC-L System 156 DK804X_6C000.fm Page xiii Thursday, July 21, 2005 8:02 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 4.10.2.1.3 Wave-Oxidation © Modification 157 4.10.2.1.4 Other Applications 157 4.10.2.2 Unit Operations 159 4.10.2.2.1 Aeration Chains and Diffuser Assemblies 159 4.10.2.2.2 Blowers and Air Manifold 159 4.10.2.2.3 Clarification and Solids Handling 159 4.10.2.2.4 BIOLAC-L Settling Basin 160 4.10.2.3 Performance Data 160 4.10.2.4 Operational Problems 164 4.10.3 LEMNA Systems 164 4.10.3.1 Lemna Duckweed System 164 4.10.3.2 Performance Data 165 4.10.3.3 LemTec™ Biological Treatment Process 165 4.10.4 Las International, Ltd 171 4.10.5 Praxair, Inc. 172 4.10.6 Ultrafiltration Membrane Filtration 172 4.11 Nitrogen Removal in Lagoons 172 4.11.1 Introduction 172 4.11.2 Facultative Systems 173 4.11.2.1 Theoretical Considerations 176 4.11.2.2 Design Models 178 4.11.2.3 Applications 181 4.11.2.4 Summary 181 4.11.3 Aerated Lagoons 182 4.11.3.1 Comparison of Equations 182 4.11.3.2 Summary 187 4.11.4 Pump Systems, Inc., Batch Study 188 4.11.5 Commercial Products 189 4.11.5.1 Add Solids Recycle 189 4.11.5.2 Convert to Sequencing Batch Reactor Operation 192 4.11.5.3 Install Biomass Carrier Elements 192 4.11.5.4 Commercial Lagoon Nitrification Systems 193 4.11.5.4.1 ATLAS-IS™ 193 4.11.5.4.2 CLEAR™ Process 193 4.11.5.4.3 Ashbrook SBR 194 4.11.5.4.4 AquaMat ® Process 194 4.11.5.4.5 MBBR™ Process 196 4.11.5.5 Other Process Notes 196 4.11.5.6 Ultrafiltration Membrane Filtration 198 4.11.5.7 BIOLAC® Process (Parkson Corporation) 198 4.12 Modified High-Performance Aerated Pond Systems for Nitrification and Denitrification 199 4.13 Nitrogen Removal in Ponds Coupled with Wetlands and Gravel Bed Nitrification Filters 199 4.14 Control of Algae and Design of Settling Basins 200 4.15 Hydraulic Control of Ponds 200 4.16 Removal of Phosphorus 201 DK804X_6C000.fm Page xiv Thursday, July 21, 2005 8:02 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 4.16.1 Batch Chemical Treatment 202 4.16.2 Continuous-Overflow Chemical Treatment 202 References 203 Chapter 5 Pond Modifications for Polishing Effluents 211 5.1 Solids Removal Methods 211 5.1.1 Introduction 211 5.1.2 Intermittent Sand Filtration 211 5.1.2.1 Summary of Performance 214 5.1.2.2 Operating Periods 215 5.1.2.3 Maintenance Requirements 215 5.1.2.4 Hydraulic Loading Rates 215 5.1.3.5 Design of Intermittent Sand Filters 215 5.1.3 Rock Filters 227 5.1.3.1 Performance of Rock Filters 228 5.1.3.2 Design of Rock Filters 230 5.1.4 Normal Granular Media Filtration 230 5.1.5 Coagulation–Flocculation 238 5.1.6 Dissolved-Air Flotation 239 5.2 Modifications and Additions to Typical Designs 243 5.2.1 Controlled Discharge 243 5.2.2 Hydrograph Controlled Release 245 5.2.3 Complete Retention Ponds 246 5.2.4 Autoflocculation and Phase Isolation 247 5.2.5 Baffles and Attached Growth 247 5.2.6 Land Application 248 5.2.7 Macrophyte and Animal Systems 248 5.2.7.1 Floating Plants 248 5.2.7.2 Submerged Plants 248 5.2.7.3 Daphnia and Brine Shrimp 248 5.2.7.4 Fish 249 5.2.8 Control of Algae Growth by Shading and Barley Straw 249 5.2.8.1 Dyes 249 5.2.8.2 Fabric Structures 249 5.2.8.3 Barley Straw 249 5.2.8.4 Lemna Systems 250 5.3 Performance Comparisons with Other Removal Methods 250 References 252 Chapter 6 Free Water Surface Constructed Wetlands 259 6.1 Process Description 259 6.2 Wetland Components 261 6.2.1 Types of Plants 261 6.2.2 Emergent Species 262 6.2.2.1 Cattail 262 DK804X_6C000.fm Page xv Thursday, July 21, 2005 8:02 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC [...]... 511 10 .7 Design Criteria for On-Site Disposal Alternatives 512 10 .7 .1 Gravity Leachfields 512 10 .7.2 Shallow Gravity Distribution 513 10 .7.3 Pressure-Dosed Distribution . 515 10 .7.4 Imported Fill Systems . 516 10 .7.5 At-Grade Systems . 516 10 .7.6 Mound Systems . 516 10 .7.7 Artificially Drained Systems 517 10 .7.8 Constructed Wetlands 517 10 .7.9... Evapotranspiration Systems 518 10 .8 Design Criteria for On-Site Reuse Alternatives 519 10 .8 .1 Drip Irrigation 519 10 .8.2 Spray Irrigation 5 21 10.8.3 Graywater Systems 5 21 10.9 Correction of Failed Systems 5 21 10.9 .1 Use of Effluent Screens 5 21 10.9.2 Use of Hydrogen Peroxide .522 10 .9.3 Use of Upgraded Pretreatment 522 10 .9.4 Retrofitting Failed Systems. .. 374 Chapter 8 8 .1 8.2 Land Treatment Systems 379 Types of Land Treatment Systems 379 8 .1. 1 Slow-Rate Systems 379 8 .1. 2 Overland Flow Systems 379 8 .1. 3 Soil Aquifer Treatment Systems .382 Slow Rate Land Treatment 384 8.2 .1 Design Objectives .384 8.2 .1. 1 Management Alternatives 384 8.2.2 Preapplication Treatment 384 8.2.2 .1 Distribution... Removal Processes .5 01 10.5 .1 Nitrogen Removal .5 01 10.5 .1. 1 Intermittent Sand Filters 5 01 10.5 .1. 2 Recirculating Gravel Filters .502 10 .5 .1. 3 Septic Tank with Attached Growth Reactor 505 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 10 .5 .1. 4 RSF2 Systems 507 10 .5 .1. 5 Other Nitrogen Removal Methods 509 10 .5.2 Phosphorus Removal . 511 10 .6 Disposal of Variously... 7 .10 Design of On-Site Systems 364 7 .11 Vertical-Flow Wetland Beds 366 7 .11 .1 Municipal Systems 368 7 .11 .2 Tidal Vertical-Flow Wetlands 369 7 .11 .3 Winery Wastewater 369 7 .12 Construction Considerations 370 7 .12 .1 Vegetation Establishment 372 7 .13 Operation and Maintenance 373 7 .14 Costs .373 7 .15 Troubleshooting ... (lb/ac-d; kg/ha-d) Polishing, AWT with secondary input Warm 10 0.6–3; 0.2 1 90; 10 0 BOD, 5 10 TSS, 5 15 TN, 5 10 Free water surface Secondary to AWT None 7 15 0.33–2; 0 .1 0.6 18 0; 200 Subsurface flow Secondary to AWT None 3 14 1 2; 0.3–0.6 535; 600 BOD, 5 10 TSS, 5 15 TN, 5 10 BOD, 5–40 TSS, 5–20 TN, 5 10 Concepts Natural marshes Treatment Goals Constructed wetlands: Note: AWT, advanced water treatment; ... 23–280 1. 6–20; 0.5–6 BOD, . 17 2 4 .11 .2 Facultative Systems 17 3 4 .11 .2 .1 Theoretical Considerations 17 6 4 .11 .2.2 Design Models 17 8 4 .11 .2.3 Applications 18 1 4 .11 .2.4 Summary 18 1 4 .11 .3 Aerated Lagoons 18 2 4 .11 .3 .1 Comparison. 1 1 .1 Natural Treatment Processes 1 1 .1. 1 Background 1 1 .1. 2 Wastewater Treatment Concepts and Performance Expectations 2 1. 1.2 .1 Aquatic Treatment Units 2 1. 1.2.2 Wetland Treatment Units 5 1. 1.2.3. 19 2 4 .11 .5.3 Install Biomass Carrier Elements 19 2 4 .11 .5.4 Commercial Lagoon Nitrification Systems 19 3 4 .11 .5.4 .1 ATLAS-IS™ 19 3 4 .11 .5.4.2 CLEAR™ Process 19 3 4 .11 .5.4.3 Ashbrook SBR 19 4 4 .11 .5.4.4