Learner English SECOND EDITION A teacher's guide to interference and other problems Michael Swan and Bernard Smith published by the press syndicate of the university of cambridge The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom cambridge university press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011±4211, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia Ruiz de Alarco  n 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa http://www.cambridge.org # Cambridge University Press 2001 This book is in copyright, which normally means that no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. The copying of certain parts of it by individual teachers for use within their classrooms, however, is permitted without such formality. To aid identi®cation, pages which are copiable by the teacher without further permission are identi®ed by a separate copyright notice: # Cambridge University Press 2001. Firstpublished 1987 Second edition 2001 Fourth printing 2002 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge Typesetin Sabon 10.5/12pt [ CE] A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data Learner English: a teacher's guide to interference and other problems / [edited by] Michael Swan and Bernard Smith. ± 2nd ed. p. cm. ± (Cambridge handbooks for language teachers) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-521-77939-1 (pb) ± ISBN 0-521-00024-6 (audio cd) ± ISBN 0-521-77497-7 (cassette) 1. English language ± Study and teaching ± Foreign speakers. 2. Interference (Linguistics) I. Swan, Michael. II. Smith, Bernard, 1937± . III. Series. PE1128.A2 L36 2001 00-046785 428'.0071±dc21 ISBN: 0 521 77939 1 paperback ISBN: 0 521 77497 7 cassette ISBN: 0 521 00024 6 CD (audio) Contents Notes on contributors vii Introduction ix Note for teachers of American English xii Listof phonetic symbols xiv Acknowledgements xvi Dutch speakers 1 Speakers of Scandinavian languages 21 German speakers 37 French speakers 52 Italian speakers 73 Speakers of Spanish and Catalan 90 Portuguese speakers 113 Greek speakers 129 Russian speakers 145 Polish speakers 162 Farsi speakers 179 Arabic speakers 195 Turkish speakers 214 Speakers of South Asian languages 227 Speakers of Dravidian languages 244 Speakers of West African languages 251 Swahili speakers 260 Malay/Indonesian speakers 279 Japanese speakers 296 Chinese speakers 310 Korean speakers 325 Thai speakers 343 The cassette and CD 357 v Dutch speakers Distribution lingua franca Introduction Accept Adversity And It Becomes A Teacher Accept Adversity And It Becomes A Teacher By: Joe Tye At the offi ce Paul didn’t even pull the fi nancial reports and calculator out of his briefcase Joan was right: All the enthusiasm and emotional energy in the world would not turn red ink black Instead he drew a straight line down the center of a legal pad At the top of one column he wrote the word Problem At the top of the other he wrote Cause The fi rst problem was easy: “Insuffi cient money.” In the “Cause” column, Paul wrote that fewer people were contributing to the school because so many competing charities had sprung up, all clamoring for the shrinking donor pie No, that’s not true, Paul thought, scratching through the words and looking out the window at the children on the playground The real reason we don’t have enough money is that I don’t like to raise money I’d much rather be down at the courthouse befriending a kid in trouble or coming up with plans for a new program at the school It makes me feel mercenary to ask people for money, so I’ve relied for too long on the original backers While Phyllis Nesserbaum and her type were out courting the money, I’ve been doing more pleasant things And now I’m paying the price ADVERSITY IS A QUIET TEACHER YOU MUST PROBE IT FOR THE MEANING IT CONTAINS, AND INTERPRET THE SUBTLE ANSWERS WITH WHICH IT WILL RESPOND Paul turned back and wrote down the second problem: “Failed the bank audit.” Then he set down his pen and spoke out loud “We failed the audit because I’m so disorganized as an administrator, and because I delegated too much work to untrained volunteers without giving them adequate supervision.” Paul entered as problem number three “Not having allies in the community.” We don’t have allies because I’m basically a fi ghter, not a bridge builder Because I’m a pretty good fi ghter, there are a lot of bruised opponents out there who wouldn’t mind seeing me take a fall 1/2 Accept Adversity And It Becomes A Teacher Yesterday Rafe had said that adversity is a quiet teacher; you only learn when you ask it questions Paul was wondering what questions he should be asking this particular adversity when Ruthie stuck her head in the doorway “Sorry to bother you, but there’s a Phyllis Nesserbaum on the phone for you Should I tell her you’ll call her back?” “No, I’ll take it, Ruthie Thanks.” Paul looked back at his list before he picked up the phone Phyllis Nesserbaum didn’t have any of those problems because she didn’t have any of the underlying causes Paul pictured her behind her big desk, and felt smaller than he ever had “Hey, Phyllis What’s new?” “Hello, Paul I know this is awfully short notice, but if you don’t have lunch plans today, I wonder if we can get together and talk about something?” Paul checked his watch—ten thirty “Can it wait until tomorrow? I’ve got a pretty important meeting this afternoon.” There was a long silence, followed by a voice that didn’t sound like it belonged to someone sitting behind a big desk “Look, Paul, I know we haven’t always seen eye to eye—you’re probably laughing at the understatement of the year But I think we also have a lot of respect for each other; I know I for you I’ll level with you I really have a problem I need your help I’ve got a board meeting tonight, and it would help me a lot if we could talk before then.” Paul could hardly believe his ears Phyllis Nesserbaum had a problem that required his help? This should be interesting, he thought “Where you want to meet?” “How about at Franco’s, downtown?” “Sounds good Noon?” “Super I’ll see you then And I owe you one, Paul” “We’ll see Take care.” Paul cradled the phone and looked back out the window at the now-vacant playground Then he turned back to his legal pad and drew another line downward along the right side At the top of this newly created third column he wrote the word “Solution.” He sat for a long time staring at the page At last he picked up his pen and in big letters fi lled in the new column from top to bottom with the words “GET HELP.” 2/2 236 Logan Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited. Chapter X Managing and Practicing OD in an IT Environment: A Structured Approach to Developing IT Project Teams Joseph Logan, AstraZeneca Pharmaceuticals, USA Abstract This chapter introduces a framework for improving success in information technology (IT) projects by leveraging the organization development (OD) practitioner’s expertise in fostering cooperation and learning in teams. It argues that IT project failure can be addressed and prevented by building teams that anticipate and recover from issues of communication, goal clarity, and internal support. The author intends this framework to provide a foundation for OD practitioners and IT project teams to engage the domain knowledge of each in order to successfully execute projects Managing and Practicing OD in an IT Environment 237 Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited. that are cooperative, focused on improvement through learning, and ultimately dedicated to more productive outcomes for the organizations they serve. Introduction Failure was not an option for the eRecords project. The health, safety, and lives of its constituents were at stake. The initiative sought to create a client-server application and database to replace the hundreds of thousands of paper files a government agency used to track those in its care. These files contained the most sensitive bits of information on each benefit recipient, and the decisions made from these files were literally a matter of life and death. The government had allocated millions of dollars in funding to eRecords (a pseudonym), and the project was publicly supported and promoted at the highest levels of govern- ment. Multiple agencies contributed financial and human resources. The best- known, most expensive contractors formed an integrated team to develop and implement the new system. The project personnel were virtually an all-star team of the best and brightest in their field. Every possible resource was devoted to the initiative’s success, and the lives and careers of thousands were riding on it. And yet, eRecords failed. In fact, it didn’t just fail — it failed spectacularly. eRecords failed in the most public possible ways, leading to internal investigations, government audits, and an ongoing presence on the front page of the newspaper. Its staff fled for safer positions, its management scrambled to shift blame, and its sponsors were publicly humiliated and demoted. The project exceeded its schedule more than threefold, consumed many times its projected budget, and delivered fewer than half of its promised benefits. The application continues in use to this day, and every day it is used it exacts an escalating cost in lost time, unnecessary work duplication, and user frustration. Far from being an isolated example of IT project failure, it illustrates the norm. Kurt Lewin on the last day of his life told Ronald Lippitt, “Interdependence is the greatest challenge” (Weisbord, 1987, p. 104). He was remarking on the hazards individualism presents to groups THE SOCIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY OF TERRORISM: WHO BECOMES A TERRORIST AND WHY? A Report Prepared under an Interagency Agreement by the Federal Research Division, Library of Congress September 1999 Author: Rex A. Hudson Editor: Marilyn Majeska Project Managers: Andrea M. Savada Helen C. Metz Federal Research Division Library of Congress Washington, D.C. 20540–4840 Tel: 202–707–3900 Fax: 202–707–3920 E-Mail: frds@loc.gov Homepage: http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/ Dear Reader: This product was prepared by the staff of the Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress under an Interagency Agreement with the sponsoring United States Government agency. The Federal Research Division is the Library of Congress's primary fee-for-service research unit and has served United States Government agencies since 1948. At the request of Executive and Judicial branch agencies, and on a cost-recovery basis, the Division prepares customized studies and reports, chronologies, bibliographies, foreign-language abstracts, databases, and other directed-research products in hard- copy and electronic media. The research includes a broad spectrum of social sciences, physical sciences, and humanities topics using the collections of the Library of Congress and other information sources world-wide. For additional information on obtaining the research and analytical services of the Federal Research Division, please call 202–707–3909, fax 202–707–3920), via E-mail frds@loc.gov, or write to: Marketing Coordinator, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC 20540–4840. The Division's World Wide Web Homepage can be viewed at http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd. Robert L. Worden, Ph.D. Chief Federal Research Division Library of Congress 101 Independence Ave SE Washington, DC 20540–4840 E-mail: rwor@loc.gov i PREFACE The purpose of this study is to focus attention on the types of individuals and groups that are prone to terrorism (see Glossary) in an effort to help improve U.S. counterterrorist methods and policies. The emergence of amorphous and largely unknown terrorist individuals and groups operating independently (freelancers) and the new recruitment patterns of some groups, such as recruiting suicide commandos, female and child terrorists, and scientists capable of developing weapons of mass destruction, provide a measure of urgency to increasing our understanding of the psychological and sociological dynamics of terrorist groups and individuals. The approach used in this study is twofold. First, the study examines the relevant literature and assesses the current knowledge of the subject. Second, the study seeks to develop psychological and sociological profiles of foreign terrorist individuals and selected groups to use as case studies in assessing trends, motivations, likely behavior, and actions that might deter such behavior, as well as reveal vulnerabilities that would aid in combating terrorist groups and individuals. Because this survey is concerned not only with assessing the extensive literature on sociopsychological aspects of terrorism but also providing case studies of about a dozen terrorist groups, it is limited by time constraints and data availability in the amount of attention that it can give to the individual groups, let alone individual leaders or other members. Thus, analysis of the groups and leaders will necessarily be incomplete. Sustainability 2011, 3, 322-362; doi:10.3390/su3020322 sustainability ISSN 2071-1050 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Review The Carbon and Global Warming Potential Impacts of Organic Farming: Does It Have a Significant Role in an Energy Constrained World? Derek H. Lynch 1, *, Rod MacRae 2 and Ralph C. Martin 3 1 Department Plant and Animal Sciences, Nova Scotia Agricultural College, P.O. Box 550, Truro, NS B2N 5E3, Canada 2 Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, ON M3J 1P3, Canada; E-Mail: rmacrae@yorku.ca 3 Organic Agriculture Centre of Canada, Nova Scotia Agricultural College, P.O. Box 550, Truro, NS B2N 5E3, Canada; E-Mail: rmartin@nsac.ca * Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: dlynch@nsac.ca; Tel.: +1-902-893-7621; Fax: +1-902-896-7095. Received: 2 December 2010; in revised form: 19 January 2011 / Accepted: 24 January 2011 / Published: 28 January 2011 Abstract: About 130 studies were analyzed to compare farm-level energy use and global warming potential (GWP) of organic and conventional production sectors. Cross cutting issues such as tillage, compost, soil carbon sequestration and energy offsets were also reviewed. Finally, we contrasted E and GWP data from the wider food system. We concluded that the evidence strongly favours organic farming with respect to whole-farm energy use and energy efficiency both on a per hectare and per farm product basis, with the possible exception of poultry and fruit sectors. For GWP, evidence is insufficient except in a few sectors, with results per ha more consistently favouring organic farming than GWP per unit product. Tillage was consistently a negligible contributor to farm E use and additional tillage on organic farms does not appear to significantly deplete soil C. Energy offsets, biogas, energy crops and residues have a more limited role on organic farms compared to conventional ones, because of the nutrient and soil building uses of soil organic matter, and the high demand for organic foods in human markets. If farm E use represents 35% of total food chain E use, improvements shown of 20% or more in E efficiency through organic farm management would reduce food-chain E use by 7% or more. Among other food supply chain stages, wholesale/retail (including cooling and OPEN ACCESS Sustainability 2011, 3 323 packaging) and processing often each contribute 30% or more to total food system E. Thus, additional improvements can be obtained with reduced processing, whole foods and food waste minimization. Keywords: GHG; GWP; organic farming; conventional farming and food systems; energy efficiency; biofuels 1. Introduction Energy (E) is used throughout the food supply chain, including the growing of crops and livestock production, manufacture and application of agricultural inputs, processing, packaging, distribution and cold storage, preparing and serving, and disposing of waste. Recent studies of the US food system [1,2]. have shown that most (50–70%) of the average households‘ carbon footprint for food consumption comes from farm production and subsequent processing, with transport accounting for only an average of 11%, respectively, across all sectors or food products. Similar results, in which transport [...]... schools, authorities at the local, state, and even federal level have begun to take note and, in many cases, take action But those seeking equity for LGBT people in our schools confront a basic problem: because this work is of such recent vintage, no road map exists to show how to best achieve this goal In Sexual Orientation and School Policy: A Practical Guide for Teachers, Administrators, and Community Activists, ... There always have been, and always will be, individuals who do not tit traditionally and arbitrarily defined categories of male or female-genetically, anatomically, or in how they identify Understanding this fact helps us understand the full range of human sexes, sexual orientations, and gender identities; and it helps us understand that these differences are normal, natural, and nothing to be afraid... of Christian fundamentalist candidates to school boards, city councils, hospital boards, state legislatures, and the U.S House and Senate while at the same time blocking the passage of federal, state, and local ordinances that would grant GLBTIQ people equal rights James W Fraser, author of Between Church and State: Religion and Public Education in a Multicultural America (1999),explains that religious... not have done this without their love and support I would like to thank the rest of my family, who helped raise me and helped make me the person I am today Many thanks to my grandparents, Ian Callum and Marjorie Aitkens Macgillivray and Kenneth Henry and Dorothy Grefe Ruf Thanks also to my sister and brother-in-law, Magi and Aaron Ramirez, my nephew, Riley, and my niece, Phoebe, for their love and support... if I was born gay, but I do know that my sexual orientation was set in place from the time of my earliest recollections I was born to and raised by heterosexuals I grew up in a culture that valued heterosexuality above all other sexual and affectional expressions As a boy I was prodded to take on heterosexual and masculine roles by family members who bought me BB guns and toy trucks and inquired as to... Director Gay, Lesbian, Straight Education Network (GLSEN) This Page Intentionally Left Blank Acknowledgments w RITING THIS BOOK HAS TRANSFORMED ME, and I wish to thank many people for their love and support in this endeavor First and foremost I would like to thank my parents and best friends, Tom and Barbara Macgillivray, who have supported me in numerous ways and who always encouraged me to stand up for. .. include sexual orientation in nondiscrimination policies-along with gender, age, race, religion, and so on-it gives GLBTIQ students and staff “special rights” and will lead to the legitimization and promotion of homosexuality as normal and natural Moreover, asserts Hills (1997): Some conservatives sound alarms that antidiscrimination laws are barely concealed weapons aimed at their beliefs According... knowing what to do back then to stop the abuse Students are still the victims of antigay abuse in my old school and schools across the country Teachers and administrators are still unsure of how to address the situation Few schools have made real commitments to end antigay abuse, although some schools are trying and that gives .. .Accept Adversity And It Becomes A Teacher Yesterday Rafe had said that adversity is a quiet teacher; you only learn when you ask it questions Paul was wondering what questions he should be asking... you then And I owe you one, Paul” “We’ll see Take care.” Paul cradled the phone and looked back out the window at the now-vacant playground Then he turned back to his legal pad and drew another... like it belonged to someone sitting behind a big desk “Look, Paul, I know we haven’t always seen eye to eye—you’re probably laughing at the understatement of the year But I think we also have a